Portland Cement/Portland Cement

Concrete
Introduction
ACI 211.1 states:
“Concrete is composed principally of
aggregates, Portland cement, and water,
and many contain other cementitious
materials and/or chemical admixtures. It
will contain some amount of entrapped air
and may also contain purposely entrained
air obtained by use of admixture or air-
entraining cement. Chemical admixtures
are frequently used to accelerate, retard,
improve workability, reduce mixing water
requirements, increase strength, or alter
other properties of the concrete. The
selection of concrete proportions involves
a balance between economy and
requirements of placeability, strength,
durability, density and appearance.”
Basic Relationship
ACI 21’1.1 states:
“Concrete proportions must be selected to provide workability, consistency,
density, strength and durability for the particular application.
Basic Relationship
• Workability: The property of the concrete that determines its capacity to be
placed and consolidated properly and be finished without harmful segregation.
• Consistency: It is the relative mobility of the concrete mixture, and measured in
terms of the slump; the greater the slump value the more mobile the mixture.
• Strength: The capacity of the concrete to resist compression at the age of 28
days.
• Water-cement (w/c) or water-cementitious (w/(c+p)) ratio: Defined as the ratio
of weight of water to the weight of cement, or the ratio of weight of water to
the weight of cement plus added pozzolan. Either of these ratios is used in mix
design and considerably controls concrete strength.
Basic Relationship
• Durability: Concrete must be able to endure severe weather conditions such as
freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, heating and cooling, chemicals,
deicing agents and the like. An increase of concrete durability will enhance
concrete resistance to severe weather conditions.
• Density: For certain applications concrete may be used primarily for its weight
characteristics. Examples are counterweights, weights for sinking pipelines
under water, shielding from radiation and insulation from sound.
• Generation of heat: If the temperature rise of the concrete mass is not held to a
minimum and the heat is allowed to dissipate at a reasonable rate, or if the
concrete is subjected to severe differential or thermal gradient, cracking is likely
to occur.”
Effects of Chemical Admixtures on
Concrete Proportions
ACI 211.1 states:
“Chemical admixtures, pozzolanic and
other materials can be added to
concrete mix to alter some properties
or to produce desired characteristics.
Additives are used to affect the
workability, consistency, density,
strength and durability of the
concrete.”
Background Data
ACI 211.1 states:
“To the extent possible, selection of concrete proportions should be based
on test data or experience with the materials actually to be used:
The following information for available materials will be useful:
• Sieve analyses of fine and coarse aggregates.
• Unit weight of coarse aggregates.
• Bulk specific gravities and absorption of aggregates.
• Mixing-water requirements of concrete developed from experience with
available aggregates.
Background Data
• Relationship between strength and water-cement ratio or ratio of water-to-
cement plus other cementitious materials, if used.
• Optimum combination of coarse aggregates to meet the maximum density
grading for mass concrete.
• Estimate of proportions of mix for preliminary design.”
Concrete Ingredients
Portland cement – the fundamental ingredient in
concrete.
 Types of Portland Cement: (ASTM Specification C-150)
• Type I – is a normal, general-purpose cement suitable for all uses.
• Type IA – is similar to Type I with the addition of air-entraining properties.
• Type II – generates less heat at a slower rate and has a moderate resistance to sulfate attack.
• Type IIA – is similar to Type II and produces air-entrained concrete.
• Type III – is a high-early strength cement and causes concrete to set and gain strength
rapidly.
• Type IIIA – is an air-entraining, high-early strength cement.
• Type IV – has a low heat of hydration and develops strength at a slower rate than other
cement types.
• Type V – is used only in concrete structures that will be exposed to severe sulfate action
principally where concrete is exposed to soil and groundwater with a high sulfate content.
 Aggregates
Properties considered in selecting
aggregates for concrete:
• Grading
• Durability
• Particle shape and surface
texture
• Abrasion and skid resistance
• Unit weights and voids
• Absorption and surface moisture
 Water
Generally, quality of water for construction
works are same as drinking water. This is to
ensure that the water is reasonably free
from such impurities as suspended solids,
organic matter and dissolved salts, which
may adversely affect the properties of the
concrete, especially the setting, hardening,
strength, durability, etc.
 Chemical Admixtures
Chemical admixtures – are the
ingredients in concrete other than
Portland cement, water, and
aggregate that are added to the mix
immediately before or during mixing
used primarily to reduce the cost of
concrete construction; to modify the
properties of hardened concrete; to
ensure the quality of concrete during
mixing, transporting, placing and
curing; and to overcome certain
emergencies during concrete
operations.
Classes of Chemical Admixtures

• Air-entraining – are used to purposely place microscopic bubbles into the

concrete.
• Water-reducing – reduce the required water content for a concrete mixture by
about 5-10 percent.
• Retarding – slow the setting rate of concrete.
• Accelerating – increase the rate of early strength development, reduce the
time required for proper curing and protection and speed up the start of
finishing operations.
• Plasticizers (superplasticizers) – or high-range water reducers, reduce water
content by 12 to 30 percent and can be added to concrete with low-to-normal
slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete.
Physical Properties of Portland Cement
• Fineness – of cement is a measure of cement particle size and is denoted in
terms of the specific surface area of cement.
• Soundness - of cement is the ability of a hardened paste to retain its
volume after setting.
Water-Cement Reaction
• Hydration – is the chemical reaction that takes place when Portland cement
and water are mixed together.
• Setting – the hardening of a fluid paste (cement mixed with water).
• False Set – is a stiffening of a concrete mixture with little evidence of
significant heat generation.
• Heat of Hydration – is the heat generated when water and cement
chemically react.
Maximum Size of Aggregates based
from ACI Recommendations:
• One-fifth the minimum dimension of non-reinforced members.
• Three-fourths the clear spacing between reinforcing bars or
between reinforcing bars and forms.
• One-third the depth of non-reinforced slabs on grade.
Aggregate Moisture Conditions
Example Problem:
Calculate the percentage of free moisture on a fine aggregate
based on the given data.
• Percent absorption = 1.7
• Wet weight = 503.7 g
• Oven – dry weight = 480.2 g
Concrete Estimating
Determining concrete quantities for a construction project
requires volumetric calculations, because concrete is estimated
an purchased by the cubic yard or cubic meter.
Waste Factors: Typical waste factors for concrete construction
range from 3 to 8 percent, with lower values used for formed
placements and higher values used for slab on grade projects.
Example Problem:
• Calculate the concrete required to cast a 40 ft x 60 ft by 5 in.
thick slab on a prepared sub-grade (1 cu yd = 27 cu ft). If the
subgrade for this slab has not been fine graded accurately, a
waste factor of 7 percent might be appropriate.

Example Problem:
• Calculate the concrete required to cast a wall 3 meters high, 20
meters long and 250 millimeters thick.
Mix Proportions
Mix proportions may be specified either by weight or by volume in terms of the
ratios of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate to cement.
Example:
1:3:5 by volumetric ratio.
1:3:5 by weight ratio.
Water-cement ratio = weight of water/weight of cement or gallons of water per sack
of cement.
• One sack of cement = 1 cu. ft. = 94 lbs.
• One gallon of water = 8.34 lbs.
• One cu. ft. of water = 7.48 gallons.
The free moisture (m) content of the aggregate is expressed as a
percentage of the SSD weight.
𝛾 − 𝛾𝑠
𝑚= 𝑥100
𝛾𝑠
Where: γ = wet bulk density.
= total weight of the constituent, including contained water,
divided by the bulk volume.
γs = saturated surface-dry bulk density.
= total weight of the saturated surface-dry constituent
divided by the bulk volume.
If, G = specific gravity of the solid particles of the constituent.
γw = unit weight, or density of water.
Then,γwG = solid density.
= weight of the solid constituent divided by the solid, or
absolute volume.
Typical Properties of Concrete Constituents

Material Specific Bulk Solid

gravity density density
Cement 3.1 94 193
Sand 2.6 100 162
Stone 2.6 95 162
Water 1.0 62.4 62.4
Yield of a mix = is the volume of concrete produced from one sack
of cement.
The ratio of entrained air to the total volume of air plus solids is:

𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉𝑠
𝑒=
𝑉𝑒
Where: Vs = volume of all solids.
Ve = total volume of solids plus entrained air.
The yield of a mix without voids (i.e., the solid volume) is given by the
absolute, or solid, volume method as:
𝛾𝑠 𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = ෍
𝐺𝛾𝑤
Where: V = bulk volume of the saturated surface-dry constituent.
γsV = total weight of the saturated surface-dry constituent.
G = specific gravity, or relative density of the constituent.
γwG = solid density.
The yield of a mix with entrained air is given by:

𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑒 =
1−𝑒
Where: e = ratio of entrained air to the total yield of the mix.

The cement factor is defined as the number of sacks of cement

required to produce one cubic yard of concrete.
Example Problem: (Yield of a mix proportioned by weight)
The required proportions of a concrete mix are 1:2.5:3.5 by weight
with 5.5 gallons of water per sack and 5 percent air entrainment.
The sand contains 4 percent excess moisture and the stone 2
percent deficiency. Using the specific gravities given in the table,
determine the yield of the mix, the cement factor, and the
quantities of water and aggregate required to provide one cubic
yard of concrete.
Example Problem: (Yield of a mix proportioned by volume)

The required proportions of a concrete mix are 1:2:3 by volume

with 5 gallons of water per sack. Using the specific gravities given
in the table, determine the yield of the mix, the cement factor,
and the quantities of water and aggregate required to provide one
cubic yard of concrete.
Control of Concrete Quality
A works strength test, in accordance with ACI Section 5.6.1.4,
consists of the average of the strengths of two cylinders made
from the sample of concrete and tested at 28 days.
ACI Section 5.6.1.1 requires the minimum sampling frequency for
each class of concrete to be not less than:
• Once each day.
• Once for each 150 cubic yards of concrete placed each day.
• Once for each 5000 square feet of slab or wall surface area
placed each day.
A minimum of five samples from five randomly selected batches
is desirable, or samples should be taken from each batch if fewer
than five batches are made.
The concrete strength is considered satisfactory provided that:
• Theaverage of any three consecutive strength tests is not less
than the specified design strength.
• No individual strength test falls below the specified design
strength by more than 500 pounds per square inch.
Mix Design Based on Statistical Data
Standard deviation, S

σ 𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋ത 2 0.5
𝑆=
𝑛−1

Where:
Xi = an individual test result (the average of two cylinder tests)
n = the number of consecutive tests (minimum of 30 cylinder tests)
ത the mean of n results
𝑋=
• 𝑓′𝑐𝑟 = 𝑓′𝑐 + 1.34𝑆
• 𝑓′𝑐𝑟 = 𝑓′𝑐 + 2.33𝑆 − 500

Where:
fcr’ = required target mean strength.
fc’ = specified compressive strength.
S = standard deviation of the strength tests.
1.34S or 2.33S = required margin.
Modification Factor for Standard Deviation

Number of tests Modification factor

15 1.16
20 1.08
25 1.03
30 or more 1.00
Example Problem: (Standard deviation and target mean strength)

A concrete plant is to provide a concrete mix with a specified

design strength of 3000 pounds per square inch. The records of 15
consecutive tests are: 3050, 3100, 3250, 3150, 3300, 3350, 3480,
3500, 3520, 3650, 3700, 3750, 3850, 3900, 3950. What is the
required target strength of the mix?
Mix Design Based on a Prescribed Margin:

ACI Section 5.3.2.2: When a suitable record of test results

is not available, the margin used to determine the target
mean strength depends on the required design strength
and may be obtained from the table below.
Modification Factor for Prescribed Margin

Number of tests Modification factor

15 1.16
20 1.08
25 1.03
30 or more 1.00
Example Problem: (Prescribed margin and target mean strength)

A concrete mix is required with a specified design strength of

3000 psi. No records of strength tests are available. What is the
required strength of the mix?
Concrete Mix Design – ACI Method
Example Problem:

Required average strength will be 24 MPa with slump of 75 to 100 mm. The
coarse aggregate has a nominal maximum size of 37.5 mm and dry-rodded
mass of 1600 kg/m3. As stated in Section 6.1, other properties of the
ingredients are: cement -- Type I with specific gravity of 3.15; coarse
aggregate -- bulk specific gravity 2.68 and absorption 0.5 percent; fine
aggregate -- bulk specific gravity 2.64, absorption 0.7 percent, and fineness
modulus 2.8.