Chapter One

Introduction
1.1 Preface:
Gold is so widely distributed in nature and is so much desired on account of
its value that the metallurgy of gold is not only One of the most fascinating
but also the most important industries. Gold occurs in several forms in nature:
as free gold; in combination with sulphur, or in the metallic state associated
with iron copper and lead pyrites and as telluride of gold silver, arsenic
antimony and zinc are often associated with the various pyrites, while gold
seldom occurs except in the presence of silver. [1]
1.2 Uses of Gold:
Man valued gold for its lustrous color and its resistance to tarnishing and so it
was used for special decorative ornaments and jewellery. The veneration
reserved for gold by the ancients has led to its use for many centuries for
religious artefacts. [2]
1) Financial Services and Monetary Exchange:
The use of gold for monetary exchange was replaced by a system of
convertible currency after World War II following the Bretton Woods system.
The direct convertibility of currencies to gold has been abandoned by world
governments. For investment purposes however, gold is stored in the form of
bullion coins or bars, as a hedge against inflation or various economic
disruptions. [3]
2) Jewelry:
As per statistics, about 80% of gold is converted into jewelry. It is the most
standard use if gold and is common amongst all cultures. Because of its shine,
luster and durable chattels, it is believed to bring prosperity and wealth in most
of the cultures especially Asians who convert gold jewelry into Bangles, Gold
rings, and necklace for women. [4]

1
3) Industry and Electronic:
Gold is used in industry for a number of different purposes, such as gold
solder, for jewellery, gold thread for embroidery, gold leaf for a wide variety
of uses, gold toners in photography. [5]
Gold is used in electronics since its properties make it highly conductive to
electricity and generally resistant to oxidation and corrosion. For these
reasons, it is used in electrical wiring, for coating electrical connectors,
electrical contacts, or to connect semi conductor devices to their packages in
wire bonding. [5]
4) Dentistry:
Gold is used for dentistry because of its malleability and resistance to
corrosion. It is alloyed to reduce the softness. [6]
The trend is towards cheaper allows with as little as 30% gold today however.
Gold alloys have also suffered competition from new techniques such as
ceramic dental crowns. In addition, social security payments for gold dental
work have come under tighter scrutiny. These factors initially contributed to
a sharp fall in gold use by the dental sector. [6]
5) Uses of Gold in Awards & Status Symbols:
Gold is also used as the first place winner's medal or trophy in almost any type
of contest. First-place winners at the Olympic Games are given gold medals.
The Academy Awards Oscars are gold awards. [7]
Music's Grammy Awards are made of gold. All of these important
achievements are honoured with awards made of gold. [7]
6) Uses of Gold in Glassmaking:
Gold is also used when making specialty glass for climate-controlled
buildings and cases. A small amount of gold dispersed within the glass or
coated onto the glass surface will reflect solar radiation outward, helping the
buildings stay cool in the summer, and reflect internal heat inward, helping
them stay warm in winter. [8]

2
1.3 Chemical Properties of Gold:
Gold is the most inert, or the noblest, of the metallic elements. It exhibits great
stability and resistance to corrosion. Simple mineral acids, with the exception
of selenic acid, do not dissolve gold. Hydrochloric acid in the presence of
oxidants (such as nitric acid, oxygen, cupric or ferric ions, and manganese
dioxide) dissolves gold. The combination of hydrochloric and nitric acids,
aqua regia, vigorously attacks gold. [9]
Table (1-1) Chemical Properties of Gold.
Property Gold

Atomic number 79
Mass numbers 197
Atomic weight 197.2
Density of solid at 20oc 19.3
grams/cc
Atomic volume of solid, cc 10.22

Melting point, oc 1063

Boiling point, oc 1063

Ionization potential 9.223
Tensile strength (annealed 123.6 –137.3
at 573 K) (MPa)
Elongation (annealed at 573 39–45
K) (%)
Compressibility at 300 K 6.01 × 10–12
(Pa–1)
Heat of evaporation at 298 3.653 × 105
K (J/mol)

Specific heat at 298 K 1.288 × 10–1

(J/(g·K))
(source: The extractive metallurgy of gold)

3
1.4 Physical Properties of Gold:
Gold is a soft yellow metal, with the highest ductility and malleability of any
metal. Gold crystallizes in the cubic system, although crystals of gold are very
rare (it is usually found as irregular plates or grains). Gold has high thermal
and electrical conductivities. Pure gold and many gold alloys are
nonmagnetic. An alloy of gold and manganese is somewhat magnetic, and
alloys of gold with iron, nickel, or cobalt are ferromagnetic. [10]
1.5 Gold Statistics:
1.5.1 Sudan gold Production:

Figure (1-1): Production of gold in Sudan.

(Source: www.tradingeconomics.com| World Bank)

4
1.5.2 Sudan amount of gold production in (kg):

Figure (1-2): Extraction of gold in Sudan.(Source:www.cec data.com| )

1.5.3 Global gold statistic:
Table (1-2) List of countries of gold production
2018 Country Gold production Reserves (ton)per
Rank (ton)per year year
1 China 404 2000
2 Australia 319 9800
3 Russia 297 5300
4 United 222 3000
states
5 Canada 189 2200
6 Peru 158 2600
7 Indonesia 137 2500
8 Ghana 130 1000
9 South 130 6000
Africa
(source:https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_gold_production)

5
 Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1 Historical Developments:
Many of the methods now used for gold extraction are based on techniques
that have been known or established for centuries. Gravity concentration,
amalgamation, cyanide leaching, chlorination, zinc precipitation, and
carbon(charcoal) adsorption are all processes that have been used for at least
a hundred years. The ingenuity of the early pioneers in developing technology
with such longevity is admirable. On numerous occasions over the years,
rediscovery or re-evaluation of this technology has led to its commercial
redevelopment, while incorporating the advantages of contemporary
improvements. Consequently, it is important to know the historical
background of gold extraction processes and technology, as it may well help
to shape the future. The predominance of cyanidation as the principal gold
extraction technique since the late 19th century and the commercial
acceptance of other important hydrometallurgical processes, such as heap
leaching and carbon adsorption in the 1970s and 1980s, naturally divides the
history of gold extraction into four main eras: [11]
1) Pre-cyanidation: pre-1888
2) Cyanidation: 1889–1971
3) Era of major technological development: 1972–2000
4) Gold Extraction in the Modern Century
The key dates in this categorization are the initial application of cyanidation
and zinc precipitation in 1889 and the boom in new technology, which started
in 1972, when the price of gold was disengaged from its official selling price
and allowed to move with market forces. [11]
2.1.1 Cyanidation 1889–1971:
2.1.1.1 Invention of Cyanidation:
The solubility of gold in cyanide solutions was recognized as early as 1783
by Scheele(Sweden) and was studied in the 1840s and 1850s by Elkington and
Bagration (Russia),Elsner (Germany), and Faraday (England). Elkington also
held a patent for the use of potassium cyanide solutions for electroplating of
gold and silver. The dissolution of gold in aerated cyanide solutions and the

6
role of oxygen in the mechanism were investigated by Elsner in 1846 and the
reaction reported as follows: [12]
4Au+8NaCN+2H2O+O2 4Na[Au(CN)2] +4NaOH (2.1)
Elsner’s equation, which is now thought to apply directly to only a minor
portion of gold during dissolution, is still quoted in present day publications
on gold leaching, in 1867, Rae (United States) patented a process for cyanide
leaching of gold and silver ores, the cyanidation process, as it is now known,
was patented between 1887 and 1888 by MacArthur and the Forrest brothers
and was rapidly developed into a commercial process, first at Crown Mine
(New Zealand) in 1889. [12]
The technology spread rapidly and was used at Robinson Deep (South Africa)
in 1890; Mercury (Utah) and Calumet (California) in 1891; El Oro (Mexico)
in1900; and La Bellaire (France) in 1904.The development of cyanidation was
timely to the exploitation of the deep Witwatersrand ores, which had lower
grades than those previously worked, and much of the gold occurred as fine
grains in hard rock. The cyanidation process, incorporating cementation with
zinc, replaced gravity concentration techniques and generally increased gold
recoveries from about 70% to 95%, rescuing a declining This is indicated by
the increase in South African gold production. in 1898.The early
Witwatersrand mines were a hotbed for technical developments and
revolutionized the gold mining industry. The widespread use of cyanidation
led to a decline in the use of gravity concentration and the establishment of
hydrometallurgy as a distinct subject within mineral and metal processing.
Several excellent texts on South African gold metallurgical practice are
available, published in 1949 - 1972, and 1987. [12]
2.1.2 Carbon in Pulp(CIP) Revolution:
Although initial work on the development of the CIP process took place in the
1970s, this technology didn’t come of age until the 1980s. The precursor to
the CIP revolution in the1980s was the successful operation of Homestake’s
Lead gold mine, which replaced its conventional cyanidation slime treatment
plant with CIP in 1973. In the mid 1970s, Mintek and the Anglo American
Research Laboratories (AARL) in South Africa performed significant
research and development to improve the CIP process and to adaptitto South
African ores. As part of this work, Davidson patented the AARL carbon

7
elution process in 1973, which has become a popular elution method, and in
1980 three larger plants were installed at President Brand (to treat calcine),
Randfontein Estates, and Western Areas (all in South Africa). Between 1981
and 1984, CIP and CIL (carbon in leach) plants were commissioned in South
Africa alone, with many others in the United States and Australia establishing
activated carbon gold recovery systems as the first choice process route. The
first CIP plant in Australia was commissioned at Kambalda in 1981. Other
early Australian uses of CIP were at Norseman and Haveluck. [13]
As the application of the CIP process gained momentum, a number of
associated technological developments took place. For example, carbon
manufacturers developed improved carbons with suitable activity and
abrasion resistance for use in gold ore slurries, Methods and equipment for on
site reactivation of carbon were improved throughout the 1980s, with
continued controversy over the choice of reactivation kilns and stripping
methods. [13]
2.1.3 Heap Leaching:
Heap leaching was developed by Heinen, Lindstrom during the late 1960s and
early 1970s as a low cost treatment method for low-grade ores in Nevada. The
first large scale heap leach operation was installed at the Carlin mine in 1970
and treated ores with grades below the conventional mill cut-off. Heap
leaching was subsequently installed at Cortez and Smoky Valley (both in
Nevada) in the late 1970s, and thereafter heap leaching boomed in Nevada
and the western United States. [14]
At this time an agglomeration process was developed, Agglomeration was
achieved by mixing the ore with lime or cement and water in an agglomeration
drum or by conveyor handling in the heap stacking system. Heap leaching
took advantage of the concurrent development of carbon adsorption processes
by using carbon in columns(CIC) for gold recovery from solution, followed
by electro-winning. Some plants still prefer to use zinc precipitation in the
case of high silver concentrations or when the cost of a carbon stripping and
reactivation circuit cannot be justified. The success of heap leaching was
related to the suitability of the Nevada climate, the hydrothermal breccia type
ores (with gold mineralization along cracks and fissures, accessible to
solution), the development of agglomeration, and innovative operators. [14]

8
 Gold recoveries of 50% to 80% were achieved at much lower capital and
operating costs than those of milling in CIP plants. In addition, plant start-up
times were extremely short, which led to the application of heap leaching to
generate revenue early in new projects to help fund construction of the main
processing or mining operations. In 1986, 30% of U.S. gold production
resulted from heap leaching, with operations ranging in size from 500 to
10,000 tpd. The use of very large scale heap leaching is maturing with
improvements in earth-moving equipment. [14]
2.1.4 Gold Extraction in the Modern Century:
Metallurgical research and development work was prolific in the 1980s and
1990s, with many process alternatives and improvements either proposed or
implemented. The main driving forces for this to continue in the future are the
need to treat lower grade ores with more complex mineralogy, coupled with
the increasing environmental requirements placed on mining operations. [15]
Some specific areas likely to receive widespread attention are the following:
1) Development of alternative gold leaching reagents, particularly
thiosulfate-based systems
2) Improved hydrometallurgical treatment of sulfidic ores
3) Gold recovery from secondary sources, particularly electronic scrap
4) Improved ore characterization and mineralogical diagnostics for gold
5) Improved control of effluents
6) Reagent recovery and recycling from effluent streams (particularly
cyanide and thiosulfate)
7) Metals recovery and removal from effluent streams
8) Direct, selective electro winning from dilute solutions [15]
2.2 Gold Extraction in Sudan:
2.2.1 Historical Context of Gold Mining in Sudan:
Sudan has been known as a source of gold since the time of Egyptian Pharaohs
in the third century BC and the ancient Nubian kingdom in the Nubian Desert
and Red Sea hills. Thereafter, mining continued by some of the Sudanese
tribes like Beja, Arabs and Nubians. Between 1900 and 1954, several British
enterprises worked gold mines in the Red Sea Hills area, and extracted a
considerable quantity of the metal--one mine alone reportedly produced three
tons of gold between 1924 and 1936. Southern Blue Nile region is famous for
9
artisanal gold mining with gold mining activities at the areas of Bani Shangol
which extended in the area of Southern Blue Nile close to the Sudanese-
Ethiopian borders. Recently gold was extracted from Qeissan and Kurmuk,
150 and 170 km south of El Damazin, respectively, which are traditional areas
of alluvial gold production. Gold also has been mined along the borders
between Sudan and Uganda and Zaire, but not in commercially profitable
amounts. During the 1970s, the government's Geological Survey
Administration located more than fifty potential gold-producing sites in
different parts of the country. A joint venture between the Sudanese Mining
Corporation, a government enterprise, and foreign companies were launched
in the 1980s.These undertakings produced gold at Gebeit and several other
mines near the Red Sea Hills beginning in 1987. In 1988, about 78,000
metric kilograms of gold ore were mined in Sudan. The Hassai mine
in the Red Sea hills has been in operation since 1991 as a joint
venture between the government and La Mancha Resources. [16]
2.2.2 Preface:
Artisanal and small scale gold mining (ASM) is a poverty driven
activity that provides an important source of livelihood for perhaps
10–15 million people, but is also one of the major global sources of
mercury contamination. It is estimated that artisanal gold miners
produce up to 800 tonnes of gold annually, but releasing as much as
800-1000 tonnes of mercury to the environment in the process.
These activities are frequently accompanied by extensive
environmental degradation and deplorable socio-economic
conditions. [17]
The use of mercury to recover gold, a process known as
amalgamation, is a common and simple gold extraction process that
has been used for centuries. However, it is only relatively recently
that the hazards of mercury have been understood and how ASM
activities can contaminate air, soil, rivers, lakes and their fish
communities with mercury, both locally, and ultimately, on a global
scale. [17]

10
The health of the miners and other people living within the area is
adversely affected primarily through inhalation of mercury vapour,
and the consumption of mercury contaminated fish. Environmental
and health impacts of amalgamation by the artisanal gold miners and
their effects on international water bodies are similar in nature in
most developing countries and solutions to these problems require
concerted and coordinated global responses. The Global Mercury
Project (GMP) was initiated to begin this global response to address
environmental impacts resulting from mercury released by the
artisanal mining sector. This report addresses the GMP’s efforts to
introduce technology, educate miners and reduce mercury use and
loss to the environment in The Sudan. [17]
2.2.3 Objectives of the Global Mercury Project (GMP):
The ultimate goals of the Global Mercury Project (GMP) are:
1) to reduce mercury pollution caused by artisanal miners, thereby protecting
human health and local water bodies
2) to introduce cleaner technologies for gold [18]
2.2.4 Gold mining location in Sudan:
The Red Sea Hills potential includes: with Gold, Silver, Copper, Zinc,
Manganese, Iron, Black Sands, Garnet, Talc, Salt, Gypsum and Fee. And then
in marawi (North Central Sudan), potential includes: Gold, Iron, Semi
Precious Metals, Kyanite, Marble, Mica Silicate, Feldspar, and Manganese.
[19]
southern Darfur potential includes: Base Metals, Garnet, Kyanite, Sulphur and
Salt. Kordofan Areas potential includes: Chromite, PGM, Gold, Bauxite and
Phosphate. The White Nile potential includes: Gold, Chromite, PGM,
Asbestos, Magnesite, Talc, and Blue Nile river areas (South central Sudan),
potential includes: Gold, Copper, Zinc, Nickel, Iron, Manganese, Graphite,
Chromite, Uranium, Talc, Marble and Phosphate. [19]

11
Figure (2-1): Gold mining areas in Sudan.
(Source: https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/blood-and-gold-now-sudans-land-wars-
have-spread-mining)

12
2.3 Process Selection:
2.3.1 Factors Affecting Process Selection:
1) Geological
2) Mineralogical
3) Environmental
4) Metallurgical
5) Geographical
6) Economic and political
some factors like (metallurgical, geographical and economic and political)
doesn’t have direct effect, which depends on specific project conditions and
requirements, and on the overall project feasibility. [20]
2.3.1.1 Geological:
The grade and tonnage reserves of economic minerals in an orebody
determine the type and scale of process technology that can be applied. Low-
grade ores and tailings materials (typically <0.5 to 1.5 g/t Au) usually require
low-cost treatment, such as heap and dump leaching. Higher-grade ores,
typically >1.5 g/t Au, may be treated by higher cost processes, such as
grinding, leaching, and carbon-in-pulp (CIP), for which the additional costs
are more than offset by higher gold sales revenue. Complex sulfidic and
carbonaceous refractory ores require yet higher grades to justify the additional
expense of oxidative pre-treatment. Economies of scale may permit lower-
grade ores to be treated at high throughput rates. For example, low-grade
tailings materials (<1 g/t Au) may be retreated economically in large-scale
agitated leaching circuits, as has been the case at Ergo, Simmergo, and Crown
Sands (all in South Africa), among others [1]. Similarly, low-grade ores
maybe processed on a large scale by grinding, leaching, and CIP, for example
at Ridgeway (United States), where 1 g/t Au ore has been successfully treated
at a throughput rate of approximately 14,000 tpd. The cut-off grades applied
to different extraction processes depend on the metallurgical response of each
individual ore, as indicated by gold recovery, processing costs, and through-
put rates. The grades and reserves of other minerals of potential economic
interest (e.g. Silver, uranium, and copper) may also affect this economic
evaluation and process selection. [21]

13
The geometry of an orebody not only affects the mining method but may also
dictate the sequence of mining different regions, and possibly different ore
types, within the ore-body, which can have important processing
consequences. Variations in ore properties, such as ore hardness (i.e., work
index or grind ability), mineral composition (e.g., sulfide content, nature of
gold occurrence, and mineral texture), alteration, degree of fracturing (particle
size), and clay content, invariably reduce process efficiency and can
significantly affect process selection. For example, orebodies containing
pockets of mercury or copper may need special processing techniques, and
ores containing highly altered or fractured regions may have particular
requirements for materials handling. Such variations can be smoothed out to
a large extent by blending, where the variability of the ore deter-mines the
amount of blending required. However, the selected process must be able to
cope with ore-type variations that are inevitable, even after blending. [21]
2.3.1.2 Mineralogical:
The quality of mineralogical information required for effective process
selection depends on the type and variability of the orebody. Ores with
“simple” mineralogy, or with similar geological and mineralogical properties
to those of other well understood deposits, require less rigorous analysis than
those with complex or unknown mineralogy, although even subtle changes in
mineralogy can greatly affect process selection and overall process
economics. For example, the mineralogy of ores from the Witwatersrand
region in South Africa is well established and relatively consistent, while
more complex refractory ores of the Pacific Rim and parts of North America
are more variable and generally require more detailed investigation. [22]
2.3.1.3 Environmental:
Over the last 25 years, environmental considerations have played an
increasingly important role in the development and exploitation of all mineral
resources. Legislation has been passed to restrict the use of environmentally
unacceptable processes and to control others. This legislation, which has
developed at different rates and to varying degrees around the world, can have
a major effect on process selection and operation. In particular, process
selection must consider the environmental impact that each unit process has
on the following: [23]

14
1) Water quality
2) Air quality
3) Land degradation
4) Visual impact
5) Noise
6) Rare and endangered species
7) Cultural resources
8) Sustainable and social development [23]
2.4 Tailings:
Tailings are materials that have been discharged from either currently
operating or dis-used gold plants as nonvalue-adding products. This class of
material can result from any of several extraction processes (e.g., cyanidation,
flotation, gravity concentration, amalgamation, etc.), and the history of the
material dictates the mineralogy and nature of gold occurrence. The
mineralogical characteristics of plant tailings are extremely diverse and are
dependent upon the following factors: [24]
1) Type of ore originally treated
2) Type of extraction process originally used
3) Efficiency of extraction processes
4) Age of tailings deposition
In most cases the gold recoveries achievable from tailings by standard
cyanidation or other cyanidation methods are low, typically 40% to 70%, and
are limited by at least one mineralogical factor. For such tailings, which may
contain only 0.5 to 2.0 g/t gold, it is extremely important to understand the
gold occurrence in order to be able to propose and optimize an appropriate
process flowsheet. Innovative mineralogical techniques have been applied to
the characterization of tailings materials. [24]
2.5 Methods of Gold Extraction:
2.5.1 Amalgamation:
In the amalgamation process, relatively pure metal particles (such as gold or
silver) are incorporated into liquid mercury and separated from gangue
minerals. Gold is readily amalgamated, and throughout history this has been
used as an effective means of separating gold from host rock. In the mid-1800s
amalgamation accounted for 48% of South African gold production. For

15
human health and environmental reasons, amalgamation of run-of-mine ore
has gradually diminished. With the exception of its use by informal miners in
Indonesia, Russia, China, Brazil, and some other Latin American countries,
the processes now virtually obsolete. Amalgamation is still commonly
employed for the treatment of gravity concentrates. [25]
2.5.1.1 Process description:
In the amalgamation process the ore is run in to "stamp mill" lined with
amalgamated copper plates, the mercury on the dissolving part of the free
gold. Stream of water flowing through the stamp carries the ore through screen
placed over the discharge gate of the mortar and then over riffles containing
mercury where additional gold is dissolved Sometimes the tailing are rich
enough to cyanide with profit Often, depending on the character of the ore,
the tailings are concentrated, roasted and cyanided. The amalgamation process
works well for an ore containing the gold in the metallic state free from arsenic
and much sulphur. To obtain the gold from the amalgam, the mercury is
distilled off and use d over again while the residual gold is melted. [26]
2.5.1.2 Advantage and Disadvantage of the amalgamation
process:
The amalgamation process due to its popularity have some positive side like
low capital cost and its simple and easy to apply but also has serous problem
like its toxic to the human health and the environment. [27]
2.5.1.3 Process Considerations:
Despite the health and environmental concerns associated with the use of
mercury, amalgamation has few serious competitors for the treatment of some
placer ore concentrates and will likely continue to be used as part of the
flowsheet for treating placer ores, particularly in developing countries, for
some time to come. On the other hand, increasingly, many placer ores and
concentrates can be effectively processed by modern centrifugal gravity
concentration equipment, followed by direct smelting or intensive
cyanidation. However, the use of amalgamation is likely to continue in some
long established plants treating free milling ores and at small scale operations
in some lesser developed countries. [28]

16
2.5.3 Gravity concentrates:
Gravity concentrates are a special class of material due to their unusual
mineral composition, principally coarse gold (i.e., >50 μm to <2 cm) and high
concentrations of dense oxide and sulfide minerals. They are recovered using
a variety of equipment, for example, sluices, jigs, spiral concentrators, shaking
tables, and centrifugal concentrators (e.g., Knelson, Falcon). The concentrates
produced typically contain primarily heavy mineral oxides such as magnetite,
ilmenite (FeTiO3), and zircon (ZrSiO4), possibly with lesser amounts of
sulfides, usually pyrite. The majority of gold present in gravity concentrates
is liberated, though some composite grains with pyrite or quartz may be
present and some gold may be coated with calcium, iron, and magnesium
oxides and carbonates. Fine unliberated gold grains can also occur in ilmenite
and rutile, which may not be readily recoverable by amalgamation. [29]
2.5.4 Flotation:
Free metallic gold can generally be recovered very effectively by flotation,
although more commonly it is recovered together with sulfide minerals, where
gold is intimately associated with the sulfides as fine unliberated grains (in
solid solution or as discrete inclusions), or occurs with barren, hydrophobic
sulfides. The most common gold-bearing sulfides are pyrite (FeS2),
arsenopyrite (FeAsS), and to a lesser extent pyrrhotite (Fe1–xS). [30]
The flotation of gold from sulfide-free ores containing very low
concentrations of free gold is difficult because of the low mass of material
reporting to the concentrate and the high density of gold (19,300 kg/m3). For
example, 0.005% (50 g/t) Au would be Avery high gold ore grade, compared
with grades of >0.5% for most copper, lead, or zinc ores treated by flotation.
This results in very poor froth stability, decreased recovery, and/or
concentrate grade. Despite these factors, close to 100% recovery of free gold
has been achieved by flotation under optimized conditions in some
applications, with con-centration ratios of between 30:1 and 300:1 achieved
Gold flotation is inherently a slow rate process compared to the flotation of
other naturally floating minerals, such as chalcopyrite, chalcocite, and
sphalerite. Ore mineralogy has a profound effect on the flotation conditions
employed. The selection of operating, type and amount of frother, collector
system and, where necessary, activators and/or depressants, are all critical to
achieve effective recovery (and concentrate grade) for a given ore type. [30]
17
2.5.5 Cyanidation:
Cyanide (CN), a single carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom, has
proved extremely useful in extracting gold from ore.one of the reasons for the
high value placed on gold is its resistance to attack by most chemicals. One
exception is cyanide; Cyanide is used in mining to extract gold from ores,
particularly low-grade ores and ores that cannot be readily treated through
simple physical processes such as crushing and gravity separation, However,
with a toxic reputation dating back to the Holocaust, its use in mining has been
very controversial. Through a process called “gold cyanidation", "the cyanide
process", or “cyanide leach mining", cyanide is used to extract gold from the
surrounding rock. While cyanide is both effective and economical, its use and
transportation present significant environmental risks. [31]
The use of water-based solutions to extract and recover metals such as gold is
called “hydrometallurgy.” Gold mining operations use very dilute solutions
of sodium cyanide(NaCN), typically in the range of 0.01% and 0.05% cyanide
(100 to 900 parts per million). The process of metal dissolution is called
leaching. The sodium cyanide dissolves in water where, under mildly
oxidizing conditions, it dissolves the gold contained in the ore. The resultant
gold-bearing solution is called “pregnant solution.” Either zinc metal or
activated carbon is then added to the pregnant solution to recover the gold by
removing it from the solution. The residual may be re-circulated to extract
more gold or routed to a waste treatment facility. There are two general
approaches to leaching gold from mined ore using cyanide: tank leaching and
heap leaching. [31]
After gold is extracted via the hydrometallurgical processes, three principal
types of cyanide compounds may be present in wastewater or process
solutions: free cyanide, weakly complexed cyanide and strongly complexed
cyanide. [31]
2.5.5.1 The Mechanism of Cyanidation:
The process of gold dissolution in cyanide (and consequently the extraction
of gold from its ores by cyanide) involves heterogeneous reactions at the solid-
liquid interfaces. Hence, the following sequential steps may be assumed as
leading to the dissolution of gold (from its ores) by cyanide: [32]
1) Absorption of oxygen in solution

18
2) Adsorption of the reactants (CN and O2) on the solid surface
3) Electrochemical reaction
4) Desorption of the soluble gold-cyanide complexes and other reaction
products from the solid surface [32]
2.6 Stages and Extraction Equipment of cyanidation process:
There are a lot of steps should follow for extraction of gold from its raw
material:
2.6.1 Size Reduction of Solids (Crushing and Grinding):
Materials are rarely found in the size range required, and it is often necessary
to reduce the particle size. size reduction or comminution is usually carried
out in order to increase the surface area because, in most reactions involving
solid particles, the rate of reactions is directly proportional to the area of
contact with a second phase. beneficiation begins with the milling of extracted
ore in preparation for further activities to recover the gold values. [33]
Milling operations are designed to produce uniformly sized particles
by crushing and grinding, Economics play a large part in determining
the degree of grinding or crushing performed to prepare the ore. Other
factors include the gold concentration of the ore, the mineralogy and
hardness of the ore, the mill's capacity. [33]
2.6.1.1 Crushing and Grinding equipment:
1) Screening:
Separation of mixtures of particulate solids according to size maybe
accomplished by a series of screens with openings of standard sizes, in sieve
analysis, standard screens with precise screen openings are arranged in a stack
from the coarsest to the finest with a pan below the bottom sieve to collect the
fines. The material is introduced on the top screen and the stack of sieves is
vibrated such that the material will stratify by particle size through the sieves.
[34]

19
Figure (2-2): vibrating screen. (source: Tyler-Niagara, Combustion Engineering,
Inc.)

2) Stag jaw crusher:

The Stag jaw crusher has a fixed jaw and a moving jaw pivoted at the top with
the crushing faces formed of manganese steel. Since the maximum movement
of the jaw is at the bottom, there is little tendency for the machine to clog,
though some uncrushed material may fall through and have to be returned to
the crusher. The maximum pressure is exerted on the large material which is
introduced at the top. The machine is usually protected so that it is not
damaged if lumps of metal inadvertently enter, by making one of the toggle
plates in the driving mechanism relatively weak so that, if any large stresses
are set up, this is the first part to fail. Easy renewal of the damaged part is then
possible. [35]

20
Figure (2-3): Typical cross-section of Stag jaw crusher. (source: Tyler-
Niagara)

3) Ball Mill:
Ball mills serve as a final stage of comminution. Balls have a greater ratio of
surface area to weight than rods so they are better suited to fine grinding. The
length to diameter ratio ranges from less than 1to about 1.5. Rotation speed is
greater than that of rod mills, being 70–80% of critical. Mills that are
subjected to vibration can operate above the critical speed. The bulk volume
of balls is about 50% of the mill volume. [36]

Figure (2-4): Typical cross-section of the ball mill. (source: Tyler-Niagara)

21
4) Liquid-solid cyclone (Hydro-cyclone):
Hydro-cyclone are used for solid-liquid separations; as well as for
solids classification, and liquid-liquid separation. It is a centrifugal
device with a stationary wall, the centrifugal force being generated by
the liquid motion, or by introducing the feed at a high tangential
velocity into the separator. Hydro-cyclones are simple, robust,
separating devices, which can be used over the particle size range from
4 to 500µm.The fluid is introduced near the top of the cylindrical
section, and overflow is removed through a centrally located offtake
pipe at the top, usually terminating approximately at the level
corresponding to the junction of the cylindrical and tapered portions
of the shell. Other configurations include an entirely cylindrical shell,
a conical shell with no cylindrical portion and curved, as opposed to
straight, sides to the tapered section. Generally, a long tapered section
is preferred. As flow patterns are influenced only slightly by
gravitational forces, hydrocyclones may be operated with their axes
inclined at any angle, including the horizontal, although the removal
of the underflow is facilitated, with the axis vertical. Much of the
separating power of the hydrocyclone is associated with the interaction
of the primary vortex which follows the walls, and the secondary
vortex, revolving about a low pressure core, The separating force is
greatest in this secondary vortex which causes medium sized particles
to be rejected outwards to join the primary vortex flow in which they
are then carried back towards the apex, It is this secondary vortex
which exerts the predominant influence in determining the largest size
or heaviest particle which will remain in the overflow stream. The
tangential fluid velocity is a maximum at a radius roughly equal to
that of the overflow discharge pipe or “vortex finder”. [37]

22
 Figure (2-5): Liquid-solid cyclone (hydro-cyclone). (source: (Tyler-
Niagara, Combustion Engineering, Inc.)

5) Thickener:
When dilute slurries are encountered on a large scale, it is more economical
to concentrate them before filtering. This is accomplished by sedimentation
or thickening in tanks for an appropriate period. The slurry is introduced at
the top center, clear liquid overflows the top edge, whereas the solids settle
out and are worked gradually towards the center with slowly rotating rakes

23
towards the discharge port at the bottom center. The concentrated slurry then
is suitable for leaching or other further processing. [38]

Figure (2-6): Typical cross-section of thickener. (source: Tyler-Niagara,

Combustion Engineering, Inc.)

2.6.2 Leaching Process:

Leaching is concerned with the extraction of a soluble constituent from a solid
by means of a solvent, extraction is a process whereby a mixture of several
substances in the liquid phase is at least partially separated upon addition of a
liquid solvent in which the original substances have different solubilises.
When some of the original substances are solids, the process is called
leaching. In a sense, the role of solvent in extraction is analogous to the role
of enthalpy in distillation. The solvent-rich phase is called the extract, and the
solvent-poor phase is called the raffinate. A high degree of separation maybe
achieved with several extraction stages in series. [39]
2.6.2.1 The Effect of Oxygen on Gold Cyanidation:
Oxygen is one of reagents consumed during cyanidation process and
deficiency of it slows leaching rate, air or pure oxygen purged through the
pulp; to maximize the dissolved concentration.
The amount of oxygen dissolved in dilute cyanide solution depends on four
parameters:

24
1) The altitude (barometric pressure)
2) The temperature of the solution
3) The type and intensity of agitation
4) The ionic strength of the solution [40]

Figure (2-7): leaching tank (cyanidation reactor), (source: Reprinted by

permission. R. F. Dewhirst, S. P. Maulf, and J. A. Coetzee, J. S.Afr. Inst. Mining and
Metallurgy (84)6: 159-63, 1984)

2.6.3 Carbon Adsorption and Activation Process:

Activated carbon, or charcoal as it is now less commonly called, is an organic
material which has an essentially graphitic structure. Due to a highly
developed internal pore structure, it has an extremely large specific surface
area, and values in excess of 1,000 m2/g are not uncommon. It used to adsorb
the gold leaching solution, the most important properties of activated carbon
for use in gold extraction are the following: [41]

25
1) Adsorptive capacity
2) Adsorption rate
3) Mechanical strength and wear resistance
4) Reactivation characteristics
5) Particle size distribution
If properly treated, virtually any carbonaceous material can be used to produce
activated carbon. [41]
The most commonly used source materials are wood, peat, coconut shells,
bituminous coal, anthracite, and fruit pips. The type of source material has a
marked influence on the physical structure of the product, in particular, the
pore volume and particle size distribution. [41]
Carbon is activated by removing hydrogen, or hydrogen-rich fractions, from
a carbonaceous raw material to produce an open, porous residue. This process
is called activation, and is typically achieved in two stages: [41]
In the first stage, the material is heated to approximately 500°C in the presence
of dehydrating agents, a process called carbonization. [41]
Many of the impurities are removed as gases (e.g., carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, or acetic acid) or remain as a tar-like residue on the carbon. As a
consequence, carbon atoms are freed to some extent and group together as
crystallographic formations, known as elementary crystallites. This results in
the development of a product with a specific surface area between 10 and 500
m2/g (and sometimes as high as 1,000 m2/g), the majority of which is due to
microspore formation. [41]
The second stage consists of exposing the carbonized material to an oxidizing
atmosphere of steam, carbon dioxide, and/or oxygen (air) at temperatures of
700 to 1,000°C to burn off the tar-like residues and to develop the internal
pore structure. Further reaction results in partial or complete burnout of
carbon layers, producing a widening of existing pores and exposing the
surfaces of the elementary crystallites formed during carbonization. Carbon
atoms at the edges and corners of the elementary crystallites, and at defects or
discontinuities, are especially reactive due to their unsaturated valencies and
are called active sites. [41]

26
2.6.4 Elution Process (Stripping):
Activated carbon that has been loaded with gold and other metals in
adsorption processes must be treated by an elution step to desorb the
metals from the carbon. This produces a smaller volume of high-
grade gold solution, suitable for final gold recovery by electro-
winning or zinc precipitation. [42]
Temperature is the most important factor in the elution of gold cyanide
from carbon, with approximately an order of magnitude increase in the
elution rate for a 100°C increase. For example, the elution rate at
180°C is eight times faster than at 90°C at atmospheric pressure.
Several elution systems have been developed and applied on a
commercial scale, and these are reviewed here. Typical operating
conditions for the different elution systems are summarized in Table
below, together with an indication of the applicability of each in
industry. [42]
1) Atmospheric elution with cyanide and caustic (Zadra process): A
solution containing approximately 1% to 2% sodium hydroxide and
0.1% sodium cyanide is used at 95°C and at a flow rate of 2 bv/hr. The
process takes between 36 and 72 hr to elute loaded carbon to a low
residual loading (<100 g/t), equivalent to 100 to 150 bv of solution.
Mild steel equipment can be used throughout.
2) Pressure elution with cyanide and caustic (pressure Zadra process).
the system is used at elevated temperature (135°C–140°C) and
pressure (400 to 500 kPa) to reduce the elution time to 8 to 14 hr at a
flow rate of 2(bed volumes) bv/hr (15 to 30 total bv of solution).
Stainless steel elution columns are required.
3) Deionized water elution with cyanide presoak (AARL process). the
carbon is acid washed in dilute mineral acid, water-washed, then
soaked in 3% sodium cyanide and1% to 2% sodium hydroxide
solution for approximately 30 min. The carbon is eluted with6 to 10

27
bv (at 2 bv/hr) of deionized water at 110°C to 120°C and 70 to 100
kPa pressure.
Elution is completed in 8 to 14 hr. A butyl rubber-lined elution column
is required to withstand acid and alkaline media, which has the
drawback of a 113°C maximum operating temperature. In some cases,
special steel may be preferred to enable operation at higher
temperatures.
4) Solvent-assisted elution. Several processes use varying proportions
of alcohols and glycols to assist in atmospheric elution (i.e., up to
95°C). Systems using 20% of suitable alcohol (ethanol or methanol)
can reduce the elution times of conventional Zadra systems below 12
to 16 hr.
Alternatively, glycols (e.g., ethylene or propylene glycol) in
proportions of 20% to 25% can reduce elution times to 24 to 36 hr,
avoiding the use of alcohols, which are a fire hazard.
5) Solvent distillation elution. In this process the elution column is
configured as a packed bed distillation tower with a solution heater at
the base of the column, an over-head condenser, and a reflux pump to
recirculate the solvent. The loaded carbon acts as the tower packing.
The carbon is presoaked with 1% to 2% sodium hydroxide and 5%
to10% sodium cyanide at ambient temperature. Ethanol, methanol, or
acetonitrile is used as the solvent (approximately 0.5 bv).
The carbon is refluxed at 65°C to 80°C for 8 hr, with gold values
eluted from the carbon by the down flowing condensate. A total of
about 1 bv of solution is used to produce a very concentrated solution.
The eluted carbon typically has high activity, which is thought to be
due to the efficient removal of organic material by the hot solvent.
[42]

28
Elution type Procedure Presoak Elution Temperature(°C) Pressure(kPa) Time(hr)

Atmospheric Zadra None 10g/l NaOH 90-100 100 36-72

(no solvent) 1-2 g/l NaCN

Pressurized Pressure None 10g/l NaOH 135-140 400-500 8-14

Zadra
2g/l NaCN

AARL 20-50g/l H2O 110-120

NaCN
110-120 170-200 8-14
10-20 g/l
NaOH

Solvent Assisted Zadra/Dual None 10%–20% 80 100 6-12

(Atmospheric) ethanol 10 g/L
NaOH 2g/L
NaCN

Anglo 20–50 g/L 90% acetone 70-90 100 6-8

NaCN or ethanol in
H2O
10–20 g/L
NaOH

Murdoch 80% 20%–40% 25-70 100 8-14

acetonitrite acetonitrite10
in H2O g/L NaCN

2g/L NaOH

Micron 20–50 g/L %–80% 60-80 100 8-80

Research NaOH50– methanol in
100 g/L H2O
NaCN

Table (2-1) comparison of typical operating conditions for various

carbon elution methods. (source: Chemistry of Gold Extraction (Published by the
Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.)

29
2.6.4.1 electrowinning cell:
The concentrated gold solutions produced in the elution(stripping) circuit, are
passed through the electrowinning cells which converts the gold ions charged
gold particles in the solution into solid gold. [43]
The process of electrowinning simply involves passing an electric current
through the electrolyte (eluate). Electrons (electricity) pass from the cathode
(negative electrode), through the solution and into the anode (positive
electrode), completing the electrical circuit. The current causes the gold to
plate out onto the steel wool cathodes. [43]
There are some factors effecting cell performance like Cell Voltage and it
should be around 3.5V is applied for optimum gold recovery, and Cell Current
The optimum amperage is somewhere in the range of 30 to 50 amps. [43]

Figure (2-8): Electrowinning Cell. (source:Alibaba)

30
Figure (2-9): Steel Wool Cathode. (source: Metalliferous Mining)
2.6.5 Tailing Treatment by Frame Filter Press:
Filtration of tailings and paste from ore processing is gaining more and more
importance since the recovery of water from the process reduces the intake of
the limited resource water. [44]
Filter presses are one of the most used solid-liquid separation machines for
discontinuous cake filtration and for demoisturing of difficult to filter
suspensions. Filtration takes place discontinuously and as a driving force;
overpressure is applied by a pump. Filter presses are in use in the mining
industry and can filter, dewater and even wash huge quantities of slurries
which is why they have been termed the ‘work horse ‘of filtration A filter
press is made up from a sequence of filter plates, typically made from
polymer, forming contained filter elements. The filter plates are mounted on
a supporting frame between the head and the end piece and are pressed
together for sealing. A disadvantage of the old frame filter press is the solids
discharge, which has to be manually performed by breaking the cake out of
the frames. [44]

31
 Figure (2-10): Frame Filter Press. (source: Leistung)
2.6.6 Refining and Smelting:
The hydrometallurgical process is the oldest and depends on the gold content
and the type of impurities present. While silver is soluble in both nitric and
sulfuric acids and gold is insoluble, these acids cannot be used to dissolve
silver away from an alloy containing more than 25% Au. For high-gold alloys,
aqua regia is therefore used. In such alloys, gold is leached, while silver forms
an insoluble residue. Further, gold is soluble in aqua regia, but a gold–silver
alloy containing more than 85% Ag cannot be attacked due to the formation
of an insoluble layer of AgCl, which stops the attack. Therefore, the aqua regia
leaching process is used only for refining high-gold bullions. [45]
Smelting is the final stage in the production of tile gold. The purpose of
smelting is to remove the metallic and other impurities into the slag phase. the
smelting can be achieved by smelting furnace and its a cylindrical firebrick
lined furnace is installed in the gold room. The furnace is LPG fixed at the
base and has a hydraulic rating mechanism for pouring. A crucible sits inside
the furnace into which the calcine material and fluxes are placed. The
crucibles are made of refractory ceramic clays to be able to withstand the
intense heat of the furnace, molten metal and slag. The charge is poured into
cast iron moulds, and the gold sets into bars. The sides of the moulds are

32
sloped inwards for easy removal of the solidified gold bars. Any slag
remaining on the bars is removed with a needle gun. [45]

Figure (2-11): Smelting Furnace. (source: Metalliferous Mining)

2.7: Methods of the Extraction by Cyanidation process:
2.7.1: Heap leaching:
Heap leaching is a low cost method that is most suitable for treatment of low-
grade materials that do not justify the higher costs of grinding and agitation
leaching. Ores can be treated either at a run-of-mine size or as crushed
material, with the optimum size determined as a trade-off between gold
recovery and crushing costs. Material handling requirements may also play a
role in optimizing particle size for heap leaching because large particles may
be difficult to transport by conveyor systems. This is an important factor in
situations where conveying presents the most efficient method of material
transport. Prior to constructing a heap, a pad and an impermeable liner are
built to collect the leachate, Heap leaching activities may involve some or all
of the following steps: [46]

33
1) Preparation of a pad with an impervious liner on a 1 to 6 slope or greater
for drainage, and extracting ore from the mine site
2) Crushing or agglomeration of the ore to between 1/2 and 1 inch in size if
necessary and cost effective; some operations may leach run-of-mine ore
3) Placing the ore on the pads using trucks, bulldozers, conveyor belts, or other
equipment
4) Applying cyanide solution using drip, spray, or pond irrigation (generally
between 0.5 and 1.0pounds of sodium cyanide per ton of solution)
5) Collecting the solution via ditches, piping, ponds, or tanks.
crushed ore (nominally <18 mm) was placed on the heap at a rate of about
350 tpd during the six warmest months of the year. Gold recovery of
approximately 65% was achieved with cyanide and lime consumptions of 0.05
and 0.50 kg/t, respectively. Today, crushed ore heap and run-of-mine leaching
operations around the world are processing large tonnages of ore (>200,000
tpd in some cases) on a year-round basis, at high altitudes and in severe
climates. [46]
2.7.1.1 Leaching efficiency in heap leaching process:
Gold extractions obtained by heap leaching are generally in the range of 50%
to 80% and depend on the following: [47]
1) Degree of gold liberation achieved at the heap feed particle size
2) Efficiency of solution contact with ore, which is a function of the
uniformity of solution application and the homogeneity of material on the
heap
3) Relationship between dissolution rate and the time allowed [47]
2.7.1.2 The Advantages and disadvantage of heap leaching
process:
Heap leaching has several advantages, including simplicity of design, lower
capital and operating costs, and shorter start up times, also heap leaching has
some disadvantages like Cyanide consumptions for crushed ore, Lime
consumptions are variable and heap leaching is very toxic to human and Couse
serous damage to the environment. [48]

34
2.7.2 Carbon in Pulp (CIP) Process:
In the CIP technique, a slurry of ore, process water, cyanide, and lime is
pumped to the first series of tanks for agitation and leaching. Gold is leached
from the ore in the leach tank train. The slurry containing leached ore and
pregnant solution is pumped to the second series of tanks for recover. [49]
In the second series of CIP tanks, the slurry is introduced into a countercurrent
flow with activated carbon. The slurry enters the first tank in the series
containing carbon that is partially loaded with the gold cyanide complex, In
the suspended slurry, the activated carbon adsorbs gold material on the
available exchange sites. As the carbon material becomes laden with precious
metals, the carbon is pumped forward in the circuit toward the incoming solids
and pregnant solution. Thus, in the last tank, the low-gold percentage solution
is exposed to newly activated and relatively gold-free carbon that is capable
of removing almost all of the remaining precious metals in the solution. Fully
loaded carbon is removed at the feed end of the absorption tank train for
elution. [49]
2.7.3 Carbon in Column(CIC) Process:
In heap leaching carbon adsorption uses the Carbon in Column (CIC)
technique. In the CIC technique, the pregnant solution collected from the
leach pile is pumped from a collection pond or tank into a series of cascading
columns containing activated carbon. The solution mixes with the carbon
column in one of two methods: fixed-bed or fluid-bed. The fluid-bed method
involves pumping pregnant solution upward through the column at a rate
sufficient to maintain the carbon bed in a fluid state moving gradually down
through the column without allowing the carbon to be carried out of the
system. Thus, loaded carbon can be removed from the bottom of the tank and
fresh carbon added at the top. The fluid-bed method is the more common of
the two methods used in operations adsorbing gold-cyanide values from
unclarified leach solutions containing minor amounts of slimes. Because the
fluid-bed method uses a countercurrent operating principal, it is often more
efficient and economical than the fixed-bed method in adsorbing the gold-
cyanide complex from solution. In the fixed-bed method, the gold-laden
cyanide solution is pumped downward through a series of columns. The
columns generally have either flat or dished heads and contain a charcoal
retention screen as well as support grid on the bottom. Normally, the height-
35
to-diameter ratio of the tanks is 2:1, although, in some instances, a larger ratio
will increase the adsorption capacity of the system. [50]
2.7.4 Carbon in Leach(CIL) process:
CIL is a modification of the CIP process, where the leaching and adsorption
process steps are performed in the same tanks simultaneously; In the first
tanks of the series, leaching of the fresh pulp and adsorption process occurred.
Adsorption takes place as the gold cyanide complex mixes with the activated
carbon. A countercurrent flow is maintained between the ore and the leaching
solution and activated carbon. the pregnant carbon undergoes elution to remove
values, the pregnant eluate then undergoes electrowinning cell to participate
gold in steel wool, the final step is to refine the gold from its associated metals
like silver and copper. [51]
2.7.4.1 The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Carbon in
Leach Process(CIL):
CIL is very commercial process and its widely used because lower capital cost
than separate leaching and carbon adsorption systems and significantly
improve gold extraction from ores containing constituents that adsorb gold
from leach solutions, and high quality gold extract (99.9% pure gold). [52]
Also CIL has some inherent disadvantages like Larger carbon inventory is
required, in-plant gold inventory, or “lockup,” is higher and Operating costs
are typically higher. [52]
2.8 Process Description for the Carbon in Leach (CIL):
2.8.1 Tailing preparation:
Before starting the operation, the tailing should be tested; to make sure its
suitable for the process and it contain the desired amount of gold, so the tailing
must be tested in the lab.
2.8.1.1 Laboratory Test of Tailing:
Take suitable amount sample of tailing and weight it, by using Aqua Regia
it’s prepared by mixing of Nitric acid (HNO3) and Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
ratio of 3:1 respectively ,then suitable amount of (aqua regia) is added to the
sample, some orange fumes are raised and its very toxic; so the sample should

36
put in fume hood to remove the toxic fume, then 10 ml from the solution and
it’s diluted with distilled water in volumetric flask to 200 ml ,add 5ml of d-
isobutyl ketone (C9H18 O) and its called (DIBK), and then the sample put in
the shake vibrating about (3-5 minutes),to make sure all the solution is
dissolved ,then after stopping the vibrating will observe yellow ring is created
in the upper side of volumetric flask, then take suitable amount of sample from
the yellow ring and put it in vessel, put the vessel inside atomic adsorption
device ,the result from the atomic adsorption (ad) multiply by volume of
DIBK solution (vd) and divided by the 10 ml of solution sample (sv).
(𝑎𝑑×𝑣𝑑)
Amount of gold in tailing =
𝑠𝑣

From 7 to 10 g AU/ton is suitable for the carbon in leaching (CIL)process,

less than 7 g AU/ton the tailing will be rejected.
2.8.1.2 crushing and grinding:
A 62.5 ton of the Ore is dumped out of the haulage trucks into vibrating
feeder; to gathering it and arranging it, then the tailing conveyed to the
vibrating screen, Oversize material (greater than 6 cm) goes to the swing jaw
crusher and undersize material (less than 6 cm) goes to a conveyor belt for
transport to the feeder. Water sprays are used to control dust when haulage
trucks are dumping ore because sometimes the tailing contains small amount
of mercury. [53]
The Slurry is conveyed to feeder where the stockpile convey ore at the rate of
62.5 tons per hour to The ball mills for grinding then the lime(CaCO3) is added
to the ore inside the ball mill at the rate of 100 ppm. The purpose of the lime
addition is to maintain the acidity (PH) of cyanide solution between 10.8 to
12 in the leach circuit to prevent any evaporation of the cyanide which can
lead to dangerous damage if it is inhaled, the slurry is pumped to the hydro-
cyclone for sizing, Undersized material (less than 75 µm) continues to the
CIL, oversize material (over75µm) is returned to the second ball mill for
further grinding. [53]
The slurry enters the thickener because the pulp concentration required for
cyanide leaching and carbon adsorption is 35-45%, the thickener dewaters the
slurry to approximately 40 percent solids by weight and 60 percent liquid, the

37
residual amount of water is recycled to the water vat. then the slurry is ready
to entering the CIL tanks for leaching. [53]
2.8.2 Leaching process and Counter-current leaching:
In tank leaching operations, primary leaching takes place in a series of tanks
(8 tanks), gold ore is slurred from the thickener with the leaching solution
from the cyanide tank (800-1000 ppm) and then the activated carbon is added
to the leaching tanks directly. [54]
The reaction for the dissolution of gold by cyanide is given in Equation:
4Au+8NaCN+2H2O+O2 4Na[Au(CN)2] +4NaOH (2.2)
This reaction which is electrochemical in nature shows that gold is oxidised
in alkaline cyanide solutions to form the aurocyanide complex in the presence
of oxygen. Aurocyanide and sodium hydroxide are formed, the agitating tank
has impellers operating at lower rotation speed and lower power motor; to
prevent the loss of gold resulting from the loss of gold loaded carbon by
avoiding the crushing of pulp loaded carbon due to the speed rotation of
impellers. [54]
Leaching efficiency can be enhanced by the application of Le Chatelier’s
principle; the lower the concentration of gold in solution, the greater the
driving force for gold dissolution to occur, an alternative explanation for this
phenomenon is the reversible adsorption of Au(I) cyanide onto ore
constituents. The gold adsorption is reversed when the solution is exchanged
for a lower-grade solution or when a material such as activated carbon is
introduced into the slurry, which actively competes for the Au(I) cyanide
species. [54]
After finishing of the leaching process; the carbon can be transported from
each tank by 8 inches’ pipe suspended inside each tank. [54]
2.8.2.2 Leaching test:
The leaching operation should be tested during the process, to avoid any
damage associated with leaching process.
There are two tests of leaching process, the first is on daily basis, the other
one is after every two hours.

38
The first test: take the samples during the process from all tanks which it
contains slurry and Carbon from each tanks, the samples must be tested for
Water, Carbon and Sand, to know how much the amounts of Gold in each
sample.
1) water:
Take sample from each tank and label it, take 10ml from water to volumetric
flak and add DIBK in high concentration add 5ml and 10ml in small
concentration, then the sample put in the shake vibrating about(3-5
minutes),to make sure all the solution is dissolved ,then after stopping the
vibrating will observe yellow ring is created in the upper side of volumetric
flask, then take suitable amount of sample from the yellow ring and put in
vessel, put the vessel inside atomic adsorption device ,the result from the
atomic adsorption (ad)multiply by volume of DIBK solution(vd) and divided
by the 10 ml of solution sample(sv).
(𝑎𝑑×𝑣𝑑)
Concentration of gold in water =
𝑠𝑣

2) carbon:
Take sample of carbon from each tank and wash it, the sample should be
grinding and then weight it and but it in oven till it convert to ash, and take
small sample for high concentration and large sample for small concentration
,then add aqua regia and potassium chloride to prevent rising of carbon in
fume hood ,and take 10ml from the solution and it’s diluted with distilled
water in volumetric flask to 200ml ,add 5ml of d-isobutyl ketone (C9H18 O)
and its called (DIBK) and then the sample put in the shake vibrating about(3-
5 minutes),to make sure all the solution is dissolved ,then after stopping the
vibrating will observe yellow ring is created in the upper side of volumetric
flask, then take suitable amount of sample from the yellow ring and put in
vessel, put the vessel inside atomic adsorption device ,the result from the
atomic adsorption (ad)multiply by volume of DIBK solution(vd) and divided
by the 10 ml of solution sample(sv).
(𝑎𝑑×𝑣𝑑)
Amount of gold in carbon =
𝑠𝑣

The second Test is for density, lime and cyanide of slurry in the leaching
tanks:

39
1) Density:
Take sample of slurry from each tank and weight it and minus the new weight
from weight of the empty vessel.
𝑤𝑒𝑖ℎ𝑔𝑡
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙

Or by reading the density percent (35-45% is suitable) by using equivalent

factor table. (see appendix A)
2) lime (CaCO3) and cyanide:
Participate The sample from density test for 30 minutes, the sample will test
for both cyanide and lime, and take sample from the water (10 ml) and add to
conical flask and add two drop of phenophsalen indicator then the water
turned to pink and titrate it with oxalic acid with concentration 0.175 normal
till the solution turn to be colourless the number from titration Can indicate
amount of lime (ppm) in slurry by multiply equivalent number (100).
To calculate the amount of cyanide, the steps of lime test should be followed
and change the indicator by silver nitrate concentration (0.1 normal), the
colour will change to yellow, the number from titration Can indicate amount
of cyanide (ppm) in slurry by multiply equivalent Number (100).
2.8.3 Adsorption onto activated carbon Mechanism:
Gold adsorbs onto activated carbon as the ion-pair, where the ion pair is the
adsorbed gold species, the adsorption of aurocyanide occurs onto activated
carbon showed by this equation:
Mn++ nAu(CN)2–Mn+[Au(CN)2–]n (2.3)
The Au(CN)2– ion is adsorbed as such and held by electrostatic forces, the
gold compound is altered to some other during the adsorption process, then
Metallic gold is precipitated on the carbon. [55]
There are also a number of factors which increase the performance of
adsorption of gold-cyanide onto activated carbon. As the pH is lowered, High
ionic strength in solution also favours the adsorption of gold due to the ready
formation of the ion-pair species. The role of oxygen in the adsorption process
have a beneficial influence, showed that the effect of oxygen is most important
in solutions of low ionic strength, the carbon surface may be oxidised by

40
oxygen at cathodes sites on the carbon, enhancing the adsorption of metal-
cyanides by an ion-exchange mechanism. [55]
2.8.4 Elution (Stripping) Process:
Loaded carbon containing as much a 3 kg of gold per ton of carbon, is pumped
in batches from the CIL tanks into the carbon reservoir with capacity of 2
tonnes till the reservoir fill with the carbon, then the carbon delivers to a
stripping column. The stripping column is a 20 foot (6 meter) tall with
capacity of 2 tonnes. A solution of 2 g/l cyanide (NaCN) or (1%) and 2 g/l
caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) or (40%) of feed; is pumped thought two
heaters to maintain the temperature of stripping solution to (135C-140C)
then the stripping solution enter the stripping column from the bottom until
the column fill with stripping solution, the stripping solution out from the top
of the column and pass through two filters to remove any impurities then the
solution delvers to electrowinning cell , after the circulation complete the
stripping operation will start in the column which the stripping solution eluate
the gold and other metals deposited in the activated carbon , then the pregnant
solution which contain the gold and others metals is out from the top of the
column pass to electrowinning cell. An electric current is passed through the
solution causing solid gold to plate out on steel wool cathodes. [56]
Electrowinning is performed in cells, constructed of non-conducting plastic
material. The cell contains a set of cathodes (negative electrodes) and anodes
(positive electrodes) immersed in the gold bearing eluate delivered from the
elution circuit. The eluate acts as a conductor between the cathodes and
anodes. When the rectifier is switched on the electrowinning circuit is
complete and current begins to flow from the cathodes to the anodes.
Residence time for the pregnant solution is up to 24 hours. [56]
2.8.4.1 Cathode Reaction (Gold Deposition):
Gold is electrolytically displaced from the alkaline cyanide solution (pregnant
eluate) and deposited on the cathode surface according to the reaction:
Au(CN)2 -+ e- Au + 2CN- (2.4)
The rectifier acts, as a battery supplying the electrons (electricity) required for
the reaction to proceed. An electron is the basic unit of electricity, the gold
cyanide complex is 'split' into a solid gold particle attached to the cathode and

41
cyanide ions that remain in solution. The cathodes are constructed from mild
steel wool woven around a stainless steel frame for support The cathodes are
contained in plastic boxes which also provides support for the steel wool and
prevents the cathodes from touching the anodes which would short circuit the
system. The steel wool has a high surface area, which means a large number
of sites for the deposition reaction to take place. This leads to higher efficiency
and reduces the time required for electrowinning. Once the cathodes are laden
with the required amount of gold they are removed from the cells for calcining
followed by smelting to produce gold bullion. [57]
2.8.4.2 Cell Anodes and Anode Slime:
The anodes, or positive electrodes, are made of stainless steel mesh. The
anode does not collect gold but is necessary for the current to flow, completing
the electrical circuit within the cell. It is important that the eluate has a high
pH, as the anodes will corrode at pH less than 12.5.
Anode slime is the cell sludge that is generated during electrowinning of base
metals that contain precious metal by-products. The insoluble material drops
off the anode as the electrode is dissolved and forms a slime, which collects
at the bottom of the electrolytic cell. [58]

Figure (2-12): Electrowinning cell circuit. (source: Metalliferous Mining)

42
2.8.5 Refining of gold:
When the stripping cycle is completed the steel wool, containing
approximately 250 ppm gold, after the circulation complete the steel wool
should be delivers to CSTR (continues stirred tank reactor) for 6 to 8 hours
containing aqua regia solution to remove all metals (silver) suspended with
gold that according to equation: [59]
2Au +9HCl +3HNO3 +2Cl 2AuCl4 +3NOCl +6H2O (2.4)

Ag +Cl AgCl (2.5)

The reaction release small amount of heat, but to complete the reaction the
heat inside the reactor should reach 120 C, to achieve this purpose ; oil with
density 888 kg/m3 should be use and to the oil must be heated inside the the
reactor jacket by using coil which suspended inside the jacket.
after removing all the metals from the gold in CSTR, the sludge delivers to
the furnace for smelting; the purpose of smelting is to remove the metallic and
other impurities into the slag phase. then some chemical materials are added
(smelting fluxes) Fluxes are materials that are added to the sludge to complete
the oxidisation of the impurities and remove them from the gold. [59]
1) Silica(SiO2) 10 % of solution out from the reactor (3600 kg): Silica forms
the basis for the flux as it has the capability to dissolve most metal oxides.
The silica reacts with and captures the base metal oxide impurities.
2) Borax(Na2B407.10H20) 50 % of solution out from the reactor (3600 kg):
Borax acts in the same way as silica in its ability to capture base metal oxides.
Silica has a high melting point and tends to form a highly viscous slag, which
may entrain precious metals. The addition of borax reduces both the melting
point and viscosity of the slag.
3) Soda Ash(Na2CO3) 20 % of solution out from the reactor (3600 kg):
Improves slag clarity and decreases viscosity.
4) Sodium nitrate
After the smelting the product, called dore bullion, now its suitable for direct
sale with 99.9% pure gold bullion. [59]

43
2.8.6 Tailing waste:
The last tank after the leaching tanks (tailing residual tank) is used to
ingathering the residual of cyanide water and tailing, the ingathering residuals
is pumped to the frame filter press which contain of ceramic filter and using
pressure press to achieve solid-liquid separation, the separated liquid (the
cyanide water) effluent to water vat and returned to the process by using pump
to the ball mills, and the separated solid (tailing) conveyed to tailing waste
container, tailing are discharge through the dry discharge process from a
central location.

44
 Truck Hydro-cyclone
Hydro-cyclone
Tailing
TailingTruck
Lime tank
Lime tank
feeder
feeder
2.9
Vibrating
Vibrating
feeder
feeder Vibrating
Vibrating
screen
screen
Thickener
Thickener
Conveyor
Conveyor
Belt
Belt
Conveyor
Conveyor
belt
belt Pump
Pump
Conveyor Ball mills
Ballmills
2.9 Carbon

Jaw crusher
Jawcrusher Conveyor
Belt
Belt Pump
Pump

Leach (CIL) Process

Frame
Framefilter press
filterpress Cyanide
Cyanide
Carbon in

tank
tank
pump
pump

Figure (2-14): Carbon in

11

water
Separated Tailing
SeparatedTailing Compressor
Compressor 22

Water
in Leach

Conveyor belt
Conveyorbelt 33
pump

Recycledwater
pump

Recycled
Tailing
TailingWaste Truck
WasteTruck 44
55

SeparatedWater
Separated
screen
screen 66
Dam Tailing
Tailing 77
Waste Water
WaterDam (1:8)
Leach (CIL)

Tailing
TailingWaste Residual Leaching
Leachingtanks
tanks(1:8)
Water
Residual 88 Fresh
FreshWater Vibrating
Container
Container Tank Vibrating
Tank for
screen
screenfor
carbon
carbon

Tank Carbon
(CIL) Flow

Stripping
StrippingSolution
SolutionTank Carbon Recycled Water
RecycledWater
reservoir Pump
Pump
reservoir

45
44
45

44
Carbon
Flow Sheet:
Sheet:

Electrowinning cell
Electrowinningcell Filter
Filter22 Filter
Filter11 Stripping
Stripping
column
column RecycledCarbon
Recycled

Pump
Pump
Heaters
Heaters

Pump
Pump
Water
RecycledWater
Recycled

Continuous
Continuous Gold
Gold
Furnace
Furnace
stirred tank
stirredtank
reactor (CSTR)
reactor(CSTR)

Recycled Water
Recycled Water Pump
Pump
2.10 Alternative Leaching Reagents for Recovery of gold other
than cyanide:
Sodium cyanide has been the preponderant leaching reagent for gold due to
its excellent extractions from a great variety of ores and its low cost. Although
cyanide is poisonous, it has safe industrial and environmental records at the
high pH range required in cyanide leaching. [60]
Gold cyanidation rates are relatively slow, and the industry has been searching
for faster gold leaching reactions that are able to achieve a very high extraction
of gold. Due to the high value of the yellow metal, even small improvements
in recovery are always preferable to enhancements in the leaching rate. the list
of alternative reagents (other than cyanide) for gold leaching is limited, and
most of those reagents are addressed to refractory gold ores (non-amenable to
simple cyanide leaching). [60]
2.10.1 Aqua Regia:
Aqua Regia is a mixture of concentrated nitric and hydrochloric acid. This
reagent belongs to the strongest chemical dissolver and is known as royal
water because of its ability to dissolve gold. Neither any of the two acids alone
are able to dissolve gold, but a mixture of about 1/4 nitric acid and 3/4
hydrochloric acid is able to dissolve. The powerful oxidize nitric acid
dissolves an infinitesimal amount of gold, forming trivalent gold ions. The
dissolved gold ions react with chloride ions provided by hydrochloric acid to
form tetrachloroaurate anions. [61]
Au +HNO3+4HClAuCl-4 +H+ +NO+2H2O (2.3)
The dissolving reaction is shown in the above equation. [61]
2.10.2 Chlorination:
Chlorine dissolves gold in aqueous solutions by formation of soluble Ag(I)
and the more stable Ag(III) chloride complexes. The dissolution of gold
occurs in two stages. Au(I) chloride forms during the first stage on gold
surface and then AuC2- forms during the second stage. These chlorides diffuse
into the solution as AuC2- or oxidize further to AuC4- which is more stable,
depending on the oxidizing potential of the solution, a big advantage of
chlorination is the high dissolution rate compared to alkaline cyanide leaching
which is due to higher solubility of chlorides in water. The processing of silver
and lead containing minerals with chlorine is problematic because of the
46
formation of insoluble chloride layers onto the gold surface. This causes a loss
in metal recovery. Another disadvantage is the difficult handling of the
strongly corrosive chlorine solution and the need for a closed reaction
container because of formed chlorine. PH values lower than 1.5 and
temperature between 50C - 70C offers a yield of 99% in small-medium
scales. The process needs very acidic conditions. Therefore, it is generally
combined with different acidic reagents. The chlorination is capable for higher
scale processing and has already been applied in industrially significant scale.
[62]
2.10.3 Bromine and Iodine:
Two other important halide leaching reagents with a similar dissolution
reaction to chlorine are bromine and iodine. These reagents are strongly
oxidizing and show much higher dissolution rates than cyanide leaching, the
dissolution reaction can be summarized in following equations:

Au+4Br- Au Br-4+3e- (2.5)

Au+4I- Au I-4+3e- (2.6)
Because of their difficult handling, high reagent costs and health issues,
bromine and iodine haven’t been used industrially. [63]
2.10.4 Thiosulfate:
Another alternative for cyanide is thiosulfate(S2O3-2), which causes
fewer environmental impacts and is also capable to dissolve gold
efficiently. The metal dissolution generally occurs in neutral medium
in the presence of oxygen:
Au+8s2so3-2 +O2+2H2O4Au(S2O3)-3+4OH- (2.7)
The dissolution rate of gold with alkaline thiosulfate is relatively slow
but can be increased with an increased reagent concentration and
process temperature. Furthermore, the addition of the dissolution
catalysts copper and ammonia has a big impact on dissolution rate. To
receive an adequate leaching yield a high reagent consumption is
necessary. Therefore, thiosulfate is less economical than cyanide,
which is the biggest disadvantage of thiosulfate besides the lower
extraction rates. [64]

47
2.10.5 Thiourea:
The organic compound Thiourea (CS(NH2)2) poses an effective gold
dissolution reagent, in terms of extraction rate, yield and environmental
matters. In acidic solutions it forms an anionic complex to dissolve gold, as
following equation shows:
4AU+8S2O3-2+O2+2H2O4AU(S2O3)2-2+4OH- (2.8)
A gold extraction rate of 99% can be achieved at optimal conditions which
are a low pH level of 1 - 2 as well as the presence of oxygen and iron as an
oxidant. Other advantages to cyanide are a low sensitivity to base metals and
sulfur containing calcines, as well as adequate recovery from preg-robbing
ores. Furthermore, health is-sues are less critical. Well known disadvantage
of this reagent is its high consumption during the process due to reagent loss
through oxidation. This is a big problem because of the high cost of thiourea.
However, Zhang et al. reported that a mixture of thiourea, thiocyanate and
ferric sulfate reduce the thiourea consumption and herewith the process costs
at similar comparable process effectiveness. [65]
Table (2-2): Comparison of different leaching reagents.
Reagent Toxicity Advantages Disadvantages

Agua Regia High High dissolution rate No feasible large scale

applications
Chlorination Medium Good efficiency High temperatures required

Bromine & Low High dissolution rate High reagent costs

Iodine
Thiosulfate Medium Cheap reagent High reagent consumption

Thiourea low High dissolution rate and Dissolution of heavy metals

speed Reduction of besides
reagent consumption Slow reaction

(Source: journal of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering · January 2016DOI:

10.4236/msce.2016.48002)

48
 Chapter Three
Material Balances
3.1 Introduction:
Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken
over the complete process will determine the quantities of raw materials
required and products produced. Balances over individual process units set
the process stream flows and compositions. Material balances are also useful
tools for the study of plant operation and troubleshooting. They can be used
to check performance against design; to extend the often limited data available
from the plant instrumentation; to check instrument calibrations; and to locate
sources of material loss. [66]
3.2 General Material Balance Equation:
balance is a conserved quantity in a system (a single process unit, a collection
of units, or an entire process) may be written in the following general way:
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)+𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒
𝑚)−𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑡𝑒𝑚)=𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 [67]

3.3 Chemical Reaction Equation (Stoichiometric):

3.3.1 Stoichiometric and Stoichiometric Coefficient:
Stoichiometry provides a quantitative means of relating the amount of
products produced by chemical reactions to the amount of reactants.
Stoichiometric coefficients are The numbers that are precede the
chemical substances involved in the chemical reaction equation These
coefficients represent quantity of any reactant that is theoretically
required for complete conversion of other reactants. With simple
reactions it is usually possible to balance the stoichiometric equation by
inspection, or by trial and error calculations. If difficulty is experienced
in balancing complex equations, the problem can always be solved by
writing a balance for each element present.
[68]
49
3.4 Extant of Reaction:
The extent of reaction is calculated by dividing the change in the number of
moles of species that occurs in a reaction, for either a reactant or a product, by
the related stoichiometric coefficient. [69]
ni−nio
𝜉=
νi

Or 𝑛𝑖= 𝑛𝑖𝑜 ± 𝜈𝑖 𝜉
Where:
𝜉= Extant of Reaction
𝑛𝑖=Moles of species after reaction occur
𝑛𝑖𝑜=Moles of species when reaction get started
𝜈𝑖=Coefficient of species in a particular chemical reaction [69]
3.5 Conversion:
Conversion is the fraction of the feed or some key material in the feed (usually
the excess reactant) actually reacted and converted into products.
moles of feed that react
%𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = [70]
moles of feed that input

3.6 Material Balance for Gold Extraction by Carbon in Leach

process(CIL):
Note: All the information about the raw material has been taken from
alhsour mining company.
The plant need to treat 1500 ton/day of tailing which contain:
Table (3-1): grade containing in tailing
Component Amount(grade)

Gold(Au) 15 gm/ton

Silver(Ag) 6 gm/ton

50
3.6.1 Material Balance for vibrating feeder

Vibrating
M1 Feeder M2

Base=62500 kg/hr, and the efficiency of vibrating feeder operated at high

efficiency
The amount of moisture (water) add =5%
62500 × 0.05 =3125 kg/hr
3125 + 62500 =65625 kg/hr
M1=65625 kg/hr
Overall material balance:
Input=output
M1=M2
M2=65625 kg/hr
3.6.2 Material Balance for Vibrating Screen:

M2

M3
M4
Vibrating
Screen
Jaw
Crusher

M5

Overall material balance: M2=M5

51
M2=65625 kg/hr
4% of M2 recycled to jaw crusher
M3= 0.04 × 65625 kg/hr = 2625 kg/hr
M3=M4 =2625 kg/hr
The remain of M2= 96%
65625 × 0.96 = 63000 kg/hr
Input = Output
M5=63000+2625 = 65625 kg/hr
M2=M5
3.6.3 Material balance for the feeder:

M5

Feeder

M6

Overall material balance:

Input=Output
M5=M6
M6= 65625 kg/hr

52
3.6.4 Material balance for Ball mills and the Hydro-Cyclone:

M8 M12

M7 Ball mill M9 Ball mill cyclone

M10
1 2
M6

M11

M6=65625 kg/hr
M7 represent amount of lime (CaCO3) needed =100 ppm from the base
=62500 kg/hr
100 ppm from 62500 kg/hr = 6.25 kg/hr
M7=6.25 kg/hr
M8 represent amount of water:
The amount of moisture (water) added =5% of the base
62500 × 0.05 =3125 kg/hr
The amount of water in the mill process needed is 80% of tailing (base)
62500×0.8
= 250000 kg/hr
0.2

The water entered the ball mill =250000 – 3125 = 246875 kg/hr
M8=246875 kg/hr
Overall material balance for ball mill (1):
Input=output
65625+6.25+246875 =312506.25 kg/hr
M9=312506.25 kg/hr

53
Overall material balance for ball mill (2):
Assume that M9=M12
80% of M9=M10
312506.25
= 390632.81kg/hr
0.8

M10 = 390632.81 kg/hr

80% of M10 need to separate by the cyclone
20% of M10 recycled to the ball mill
M12= 390632.81× 0.8 =312506.25 kg/hr
M11= 390632.81× 0.2=78126.562 kg/hr
3.6.5 Material Balance for Thickener:

M12

M14 M13

M12= 312506.25 kg/hr

The amount of water required in leach process is 60% of feed (base)
62500×0.6
= 93750 kg/hr
0.4
The amount water recycled (M13) =250000-93750=156250 kg/hr
M14=93750+6.25+62500=156256 kg/hr

54
3.6.6 Material Balance for Leaching unit:
Calculation the amount of gold and silver in tailing:
𝐦 = 𝛒 × V× 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭 × 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐞

Where:
m=mass (kg)
ρ=Density of tailing (ton/m3)
V=volume of leaching tank (m3)
1) the amount of gold:
M=1.4 ton/m3 × 400 m3 × 0.4 × 0.015 kg/ton =3.36 kg/hr
2) the amount of silver:
M=1.4 ton/m3 × 400 m3 × 0.4 × 0.006 kg/ton =1.34 kg/hr
Calculation the amount of sodium cyanide required for leaching process:
The amount of sodium cyanide needed for leaching is 800 ppm of feed
entering the leaching tanks.
1000000
The amount of sodium cyanide = = 1250 kg/hr
800
156256.25
= = 125.005 kg/hr
1250

The component entering the leaching tank:

𝟗𝟑𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝐤𝐠/𝐡𝐫
H2O = = 5208.33 kmol/hr
𝟏𝟖 𝐤𝐠/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝟑.𝟑𝟔 𝐤𝐠/𝐡𝐫
Au = 𝟏𝟗𝟕 𝐤𝐠/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥 = 0.0170558 kmol/hr
𝟏.𝟑𝟒 𝐤𝐠/𝐡𝐫
Ag = = 0.01242 kmol/hr
𝟏𝟎𝟕𝐤𝐠/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥

55
3.6.6.1 Material balance for tank (1):
M14

M15
Tank 1 M17
M16

4Au+8NaCN+2H2O+O2 4Na[Au(CN)2] +4NaOH

4Ag+8NaCN+2H2O+O2 4Na[Ag(CN)2] + 4NaOH
The o2 (M15) =0.000143 kmol/hr
125.005 kg/hr
The sodium cyanide (M16) NaCN= = 2.5507 kmol/hr
49.0072 kg/kmol
125 kg/hr
The amount of carbon added = =10.40799 kmol/hr
12.01 kg/kmol

Component balance for O2:

Let the conversion O2 =97%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.97 × 0.000143 =0.00013871 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted O2 = 0.000143 – 0.00013871=0.00000429
kmol/hr
n.O2 out =n.O2 in –ξ1– ξ2
0.00000429 = 0.000143 –ξ1– ξ2
ξ1+ ξ2= 0.00013871 kmol/hr

56
Component balance for Ag:
Let conversion of Ag = 2%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.02 × 0.01242 =0.0002484 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted O2 = 0.01242-0.0002484= 0.0121716 kmol /hr
n.Ag out = n.Ag in – 4ξ2
0.0121716 = 0.01242 – 4ξ2
ξ2 = [0.01242 – 0.0121716]/4= 0.0000621 kmol/hr
ξ1+ ξ2 = 0.00013871 kmol/hr
ξ1 = 0.00013871 – ξ2
ξ1 = 0.00013871 – 0.0000621 =0.00007661 kmol/hr
Component balance for Au:
n.Au out = n.Au in – 4ξ1
n.Au out =0.00170558– (4×0.00007661) =0.016749 kmol/hr
or 0.016749 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol = 3.299kg/hr
Component balance for H2O:
n.H2O out = n.H2O in –2ξ1 –2ξ2
n.H2O out =5208.333 – (2×0.00007661) – (2×0.0000621) =5208.29 kmol/hr
Component balance for NaCN:
n.NaCN out = n.NaCN in –8ξ1 –8ξ2
n.NaCN out = 2.5507 – (8×0.00007661) – (8×0.0000621) =2.5495kmol/hr
Component balance for NaOH:
n.NaOH out = n.NaOH in +4ξ1 +4ξ2
n.NaOH out = 0 + (4 ×0.00007661)+(4×0.0000621) =0.0005548 kmol/hr
Component balance for Na[Ag(CN)2]:
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = n. Na[Ag(CN)2] in + 4ξ2
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = 0 +(4×0.0000621) = 0.0002484 kmol/hr
57
Component of Na[Au(CN)2] = 0 +(4×0.00007661) =0.00030644 kmol/hr
3.6.6.2 Material balance for tank (2):
M18

M17 Tank 2 M19

Stream (M17) composition:

O2 = 0.00000429 kmol/hr
Au =0.016749 kmol/hr
Ag=0.0121716 kmol/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] =0.00030644 kmol/hr
Na[Ag(CN)2] = 0.0002484 kmol/hr
H2O = 5208.29 kmol/hr
NaCN =2.549 kmol/hr
NaOH = 0.0005548 kmol/hr
Stream (M18) composition:
O2=0.000143 kmol/hr
125 kg/hr
The amount of carbon added = =10.40799 kmol/hr
12.01 kg/kmol

Component balance for O2:

O2= 0.00000429+0.000143=0.00014729 kmol/hr
Let the conversion O2 =97%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.97 × 0.00014729 =0.00014287 kmol/hr

58
Number of moles unreacted O2 =0.00014729 – 0.00014287= 0.0000044187
kmol/hr
n.O2 out =n.O2 in –ξ1– ξ2
0.0000044187 =0.00014729 –ξ1– ξ2
ξ1+ ξ2=0.0001428713 kmol/hr
Component balance for Ag:
Let conversion of Ag = 2%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.02 ×0.0121716 =0.0002434 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted O2 = 0.0212716-0.0002434=0.01193 kmol /hr
n.Ag out = n.Ag in – 4ξ2
0.01193 = 0.0121716 – 4ξ2
ξ2 = [0.01193– 0.0121716]/4= 0.0000604 kmol/hr
ξ1+ ξ2 = 0.0001428713 kmol/hr
ξ1 =0.0001428713 – ξ2
ξ1 =0.0001428713 – 0.0000604 =0.0000824713 kmol/hr
Component balance for Au:
n.Au out = n.Au in – 4ξ1
n.Au out =0.016749 – (4×0.0000824713) =0.016419 kmol/hr
or 0.016419 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =3.23456 kg/hr
Component balance for H2O:
n.H2O out = n.H2O in –2ξ1 –2ξ2
n.H2O out =5208.29 – (2×0.0000824713) – (2×0.0000604) =5208.2897
kmol/hr
Component balance for NaCN:
n.NaCN out = n.NaCN in –8ξ1 –8ξ2
n.NaCN out = 2.5495– (8×0.0000824713) – (8×0.0000604) =2.548716 kmol/hr
59
Component balance for NaOH:
n.NaOH out = n.NaOH in +4ξ1 +4ξ2
n.NaOH out =0.0005548 + (4 ×0.0000824713)+(4×0.0000604) =0.0011263
kmol/hr
Component balance for Na[Ag(CN)2]:
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = n. Na[Ag(CN)2] in + 4ξ2
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = 0.0002484 +(4×0.0000604) = 0.00049 kmol/hr
Component balance of Na[Au(CN)2]:
n.Na[Au(CN)2] out = n. Na[An(CN)2] in+4ξ1
0.00030644 +(4×0.0000824713) =0.000636325 kmol/hr
3.6.6.3 Material balance for tank (3):
M20

M19 Tank 3 M21

Stream (M19) composition:

O2 = 0.0000044187 kmol/hr
Au = 0.016419 kmol/hr
Ag= 0.01193 kmol/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] = 0.000636325 kmol/hr
Na[Ag(CN)2] = 0.00049 kmol/hr
H2O = 5208.2897 kmol/hr
NaCN = 2.548716 kmol/hr
NaOH = 0.0011263 kmol/hr

60
Stream (M20) composition:
O2=0.000143 kmol/hr
125 kg/hr
The amount of carbon added = =10.40799 kmol/hr
12.01 kg/kmol

Component balance for O2:

O2= 0.0000044187 +0.000143=0.0001474187 kmol/hr
Let the conversion O2 =97%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.97 × 0.0001474187 =0.0001429961 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted O2 =0.0001474187 – 0.0001429961 =
0.0000044256 kmol/hr
n.O2 out =n.O2 in –ξ1– ξ2
0.0000044256 =0.0001474187 –ξ1– ξ2
ξ1+ ξ2=0.0001429961 kmol/hr
Component balance for Ag:
Let conversion of Ag = 2%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.02 ×0.01193 =0.0002386 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted O2 = 0.01193 – 0.0002386=0.0116914 kmol /hr
n.Ag out = n.Ag in – 4ξ2
0.0116914 = 0.01193 – 4ξ2
ξ2 = [0.01193– 0.0116914]/4= 0.00005965 kmol/hr
ξ1+ ξ2 = 0.0001429961 kmol/hr
ξ1 =0.0001429961 – ξ2
ξ1 =0.0001429961 – 0.00005965 =0.0000833461 kmol/hr

61
Component balance for Au:
n.Au out = n.Au in – 4ξ1
n.Au out =0.016419 – (4×0.0000833461) =0.0160856 kmol/hr
or 0.0160856 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =3.16886 kg/hr
Component balance for H2O:
n.H2O out = n.H2O in –2ξ1 –2ξ2
n.H2O out =5208.2897 – (2×0.0000833461) – (2×0.00005965) =5208.28941
kmol/hr
Component balance for NaCN:
n.NaCN out = n.NaCN in –8ξ1 –8ξ2
n.NaCN out = 2.548716 – (8×0.0000833461) – (8×0.00005965) =2.5475
kmol/hr
Component balance for NaOH:
n.NaOH out = n.NaOH in +4ξ1 +4ξ2
n.NaOH out =0.0011263 + (4 ×0.0000833461)+(4×0.00005965) =0.016983
kmol/hr
Component balance for Na[Ag(CN)2]:
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = n. Na[Ag(CN)2] in +4ξ2
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = 0.00049 +(4×0.00005965) = 0.0007286 kmol/hr
Component balance of Na[Au(CN)2]:
n.Na[Au(CN)2] out = n. Na[Au(CN)2] in +4ξ1
0.000636325 +(4×0.0000833461) =0.0009697 kmol/hr

62
3.6.6.4 Material balance for tank (4):

M22

M21 Tank 4 M23

Stream (M21) composition:

O2 = 0.0000044256 kmol/hr
Au =0.0160856 kmol/hr
Ag=0.0116914 kmol/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] =0.000333384 kmol/hr
Na[Ag(CN)2] = 0.0009697 kmol/hr
H2O = 5208.28941 kmol/hr
NaCN =2.5475 kmol/hr
NaOH = 0.016983 kmol/hr
Stream (M22) composition:
O2=0.000143 kmol/hr
125 kg/hr
The amount of carbon added = =10.40799 kmol/hr
12.01 kg/kmol

Component balance for O2:

O2= 0.0000044256 +0.000143=0.0001474256 kmol/hr
Let the conversion O2 =97%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.97 × 0.0001474256 =0.0001430028 kmol/hr

63
Number of moles unreacted O2 =0.0001474256 – 0.0001430028 =
0.000004422768 kmol/hr
n.O2 out =n.O2 in –ξ1– ξ2
0.000004422768 =0.0001474256 –ξ1– ξ2
ξ1+ ξ2=0.00014300283 kmol/hr
Component balance for Ag:
Let conversion of Ag = 2%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.02 ×0.0116914 =0.000233828 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted Ag = 0.0116914 – 0.000233828 =0.011457
kmol /hr
n.Ag out = n.Ag in – 4ξ2
0.011457 = 0.0116914 – 4ξ2
ξ2 = [0.011457 – 0.0116914]/4= 0.00005825 kmol/hr
ξ1+ ξ2 = 0.00014300283 kmol/hr
ξ1 =0.00014300283 – ξ2
ξ1 =0.00014300283 – 0.00005825 =0.00008475283 kmol/hr
Component balance for Au:
n.Au out = n.Au in – 4ξ1
n.Au out =0.0160856 – (4×0.00008475283) =0.01574658 kmol/hr
or 0.01574658 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =3.102077 kg/hr
Component balance for H2O:
n.H2O out = n.H2O in –2ξ1 –2ξ2
n.H2O out =5208.28941 – (2×0.00008475283) – (2×0.00005825) =5208.2891
kmol/hr
Component balance for NaCN:
n.NaCN out = n.NaCN in –8ξ1 –8ξ2
64
n.NaCN out =2.5475 – (8×0.00008475283) – (8×0.00005825) =2.54635 kmol/hr
Component balance for NaOH:
n.NaOH out = n.NaOH in +4ξ1 +4ξ2
n.NaOH out =0.016983 + (4 ×0.00008475283)+(4×0.00005825) =0.017555011
kmol/hr
Component balance for Na[Ag(CN)2]:
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = n. Na[Ag(CN)2] in + 4ξ2
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out =0.0009697 +(4×0.00005825) = 0.00120 kmol/hr
Component balance of Na[Au(CN)2]:
n.Na[Au(CN)2] out = n. Na[An(CN)2] in+4ξ1
0.000333384 +(4×0.00008475283) =0.000672395 kmol/hr
3.6.6.5 Material balance for tank (5):
M24

M23 Tank 5 M25

Stream (M23) composition:

O2 = 0.00000442276 kmol/hr
Au =0.01574658 kmol/hr
Ag=0.011457 kmol/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] =0.000672395 kmol/hr
Na[Ag(CN)2] = 0.00120 kmol/hr
H2O = 5208.2891 kmol/hr
NaCN =2.54635 kmol/hr
NaOH = 0.017555011 kmol/hr

65
Stream (M24) composition:
O2=0.000143 kmol/hr
125 kg/hr
The amount of carbon added = =10.40799 kmol/hr
12.01 kg/kmol

Component balance for O2:

O2= 0.00000442276 +0.000143=0.00014742276 kmol/hr
Let the conversion O2 =97%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.97 × 0.00014742276 =0.000143000072
kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted O2 =0.00014742276 – 0.000143000072 =
0.000004422688 kmol/hr
n.O2 out =n.O2 in –ξ1– ξ2
0.000004422768 =0.00014742276 –ξ1– ξ2
ξ1+ ξ2=0.00014300007 kmol/hr
Component balance for Ag:
Let conversion of Ag = 2%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.02 ×0.011457 =0.00022914 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted Ag = 0.011457 – 0.00022914 =0.0112278
kmol/hr
n.Ag out = n.Ag in – 4ξ2
0.0112278 = 0.011457 – 4ξ2
ξ2 = [0.011457 – 0.0112278]/4= 0.000057285 kmol/hr
ξ1+ ξ2 = 0.00014300007 kmol/hr
ξ1 =0.00014300007 – ξ2

66
ξ1 =0.00014300007 – 0.000057285 =0.00008571507 kmol/hr
Component balance for Au:
n.Au out = n.Au in – 4ξ1
n.Au out =0.01574658 – (4×0.00008571507) =0.01540372 kmol/hr
or 0.01540372 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =3.0345 kg/hr
Component balance for H2O:
n.H2O out = n.H2O in –2ξ1 –2ξ2
n.H2O out =5208.2891 – (2×0.00008571507) – (2×0.000057285) =5208.28881
kmol/hr
Component balance for NaCN:
n.NaCN out = n.NaCN in –8ξ1 –8ξ2
n.NaCN out =2.54635 – (8×0.00008571507) – (8×0.000057285) =2.54520
kmol/hr
Component balance for NaOH:
n.NaOH out = n.NaOH in +4ξ1 +4ξ2
n.NaOH out =0.017555011 + (4 ×0.00008571507)+(4×0.000057285)
=0.018127 kmol/hr
Component balance for Na[Ag(CN)2]:
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = n. Na[Ag(CN)2] in + 4ξ2
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out =0.00120 +(4×0.000057285) = 0.00142914 kmol/hr
Component balance of Na[Au(CN)2]:
n.Na[Au(CN)2] out = n. Na[An(CN)2] in+4ξ1
0.000672395 +(4×0.00008571507) =0.0010152 kmol/hr

67
3.6.6.6 Material balance for tank (6):

M26

M25 Tank 6 M27

Stream (M25) composition:

O2 = 0.000004422768 kmol/hr
Au =0.01540372 kmol/hr
Ag=0.0112278 kmol/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] =0.0010152 kmol/hr
Na[Ag(CN)2] = 0.00142914 kmol/hr
H2O = 5208.28881 kmol/hr
NaCN =2.54520 kmol/hr
NaOH = 0.018127 kmol/hr
Stream (M26) composition:
O2=0.000143 kmol/hr
125 kg/hr
The amount of carbon added = =10.40799 kmol/hr
12.01 kg/kmol

Component balance for O2:

O2= 0.000004422768 +0.000143=0.000147422768 kmol/hr
Let the conversion O2 =97%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
68
Number of moles reacted = conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.97 × 0.00014742276 =0.000143000085
kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted O2 =0.00014742276 – 0.000143000085 =
0.0000044267504 kmol/hr
n.O2 out =n.O2 in –ξ1– ξ2
0.0000044267504 =0.000147422768 –ξ1– ξ2
ξ1+ ξ2=0.00014300009 kmol/hr
Component balance for Ag:
Let conversion of Ag = 2%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.02 ×0.0112278 =0.000224556
kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted Ag = 0.0112278 – 0.000224556
=0.011003244 kmol/hr
n.Ag out = n.Ag in – 4ξ2
0.011003244 = 0.0112278 – 4ξ2
ξ2 = [0.0112278– 0.011003244]/4= 0.000056139 kmol/hr
ξ1+ ξ2 = 0.00014300009 kmol/hr
ξ1 =0.00014300009 – ξ2
ξ1 =0.00014300009 – 0.000056139 =0.00008686109 kmol/hr
Component balance for Au:
n.Au out = n.Au in – 4ξ1
n.Au out =0.01540372 – (4×0.00008686109) =0.015056 kmol/hr
or 0.015056 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =2.96608 kg/hr

69
Component balance for H2O:
n.H2O out = n.H2O in –2ξ1 –2ξ2
n.H2O out =5208.28881 – (2×0.00008686109) – (2×0.000056139)
=5208.288524 kmol/hr
Component balance for NaCN:
n.NaCN out = n.NaCN in –8ξ1 –8ξ2
n.NaCN out =2.54520 – (8×0.00008686109) – (8×0.000056139) =2.544954
kmol/hr

Component balance for NaOH:

n.NaOH out = n.NaOH in +4ξ1 +4ξ2
n.NaOH out = 0.018127 + (4 ×0.00008686109)+(4×0.000056139) =0.018699
kmol/hr

Component balance for Na[Ag(CN)2]:

n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = n. Na[Ag(CN)2] in + 4ξ2
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = 0.00142914 +(4×0.000056139) = 0.0016536 kmol/hr

Component balance of Na[Au(CN)2]:

n.Na[Au(CN)2] out = n. Na[An(CN)2] in+4ξ1
0.0010152 +(4×0.00008686109) =0.0013626 kmol/hr

70
3.6.6.7 Material balance for tank (7):
M28

M27 Tank 7 M29

Stream (M27) composition:

O2 = 0.0000044267504 kmol/hr
Au =0.015056 kmol/hr
Ag=0.011003244 kmol/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] =0.0013626 kmol/hr
Na[Ag(CN)2] = 0.0016536 kmol/hr
H2O = 5208.288524 kmol/hr
NaCN =2.544954 kmol/hr
NaOH = 0.018699 kmol/hr
Stream (M28) composition:
O2=0.000143 kmol/hr
Component balance for O2:
O2= 0.0000044267504 +0.000143=0.000147426 kmol/hr
Let the conversion O2 =97%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.97 × 0.000147426 =0.000143003 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted O2 =0.000147426 – 0.000143003 =
0.000004422 kmol/hr
n.O2 out =n.O2 in –ξ1– ξ2
71
0.000004422 =0.000147426 –ξ1– ξ2
ξ1+ ξ2= 0.000143004 kmol/hr
Component balance for Ag:
Let conversion of Ag = 2%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.02 ×0.011003244 =0.000220064 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted Ag = 0.011003244 – 0.000220064 =0.010783
kmol/hr
n.Ag out = n.Ag in – 4ξ2
0.010783 = 0.011003244 – 4ξ2
ξ2 = [0.0112278– 0.011003244]/4= 0.000055016 kmol/hr
ξ1+ ξ2 = 0.000143004 kmol/hr
ξ1 =0.000143004 – ξ2
ξ1 =0.000143004 – 0.000055016 =0.000087988 kmol/hr
Component balance for Au:
n.Au out = n.Au in – 4ξ1
n.Au out =0.015056 – (4×0.00008686109) =0.0147 kmol/hr
or 0.0147 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =2.8966 kg/hr
Component balance for H2O:
n.H2O out = n.H2O in –2ξ1–2ξ2
n.H2O out =5208.288524 – (2×0.000087988) – (2×0.000055016)
=5208.288238 kmol/hr
Component balance for NaCN:
n.NaCN out = n.NaCN in –8ξ1 –8ξ2
n.NaCN out =2.544954 – (8×0.000087988) – (8×0.000055016) =2.5438 kmol/hr
Component balance for NaOH:
n.NaOH out = n.NaOH in +4ξ1 +4ξ2
72
n.NaOH out =0.018699 + (4 ×0.000087988)+(4×0.000055016)
=0.019227kmol/hr
Component balance for Na[Ag(CN)2]:
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = n. Na[Ag(CN)2] in + 4ξ2
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = 0.0016536 +(4×0.000055016) = 0.001873 kmol/hr
Component balance of Na[Au(CN)2]:
n.Na[Au(CN)2] out = n. Na[An(CN)2] in+4ξ1
0.0013626 +(4×0.00008686109) =0.00171004 kmol/hr
3.6.6.8 Material balance for tank (8):
M30

M29 Tank 8 M31

Stream (M29) composition:

O2 = 0.000004422 kmol/hr
Au =0.0147 kmol/hr
Ag=0.01078318 kmol/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] =0.00171004 kmol/hr
Na[Ag(CN)2] = 0.001873 kmol/hr
H2O = 5208.288238 kmol/hr
NaCN =2.5438 kmol/hr
NaOH = 0.019227 kmol/hr
Stream (M30) composition:
O2=0.000143 kmol/hr
125 kg/hr
The amount of carbon added = =10.40799 kmol/hr
12.01 kg/kmol

73
Component balance for O2:
O2= 0.000004422 +0.000143=0.000147422 kmol/hr
Let the conversion O2 =97%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.97 × 0.000147422 =0.00014299934 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted O2 =0.000147422 – 0.00014299934 =
0.00000442266 kmol/hr
n.O2 out =n.O2 in –ξ1– ξ2
0.00000442266 =0.000147422 –ξ1– ξ2
ξ1+ ξ2=0.00014299934 kmol/hr
Component balance for Ag:
Let conversion of Ag = 2%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.02 ×0.01078318 =0.000215663 kmol/hr
Number of moles unreacted Ag = 0.01078318 – 0.000215663 =0.010567517
kmol/hr
n.Ag out = n.Ag in – 4ξ2
0.010567517 = 0.01078318 – 4ξ2
ξ2 = [0.0112278– 0.011003244]/4= 0.00005394575 kmol/hr
ξ1+ ξ2 = 0.00014299934 kmol/hr
ξ1 =0.00014299934 – ξ2
ξ1 =0.00014299934 – 0.00005394575 =0.00008905359 kmol/hr

74
Component balance for Au:
n.Au out = n.Au in – 4ξ1
n.Au out =0.0147 – (4×0.00008905359) =0.014343 kmol/hr
or 0.014343 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =2.8257 kg/hr
Component balance for H2O:
n.H2O out = n.H2O in –2ξ1 –2ξ2
n.H2O out =5208.288238 – (2×0.00008905359) – (2×0.00005394575)
=5208.2879 kmol/hr
Component balance for NaCN:
n.NaCN out = n.NaCN in –8ξ1 –8ξ2
n.NaCN out =2.5438 – (8×0.00008905359) – (8×0.00005394575) =2.542656
kmol/hr
Component balance for NaOH:
n.NaOH out = n.NaOH in +4ξ1 +4ξ2
n.NaOH out =0.019227 + (4 ×0.00008905359)+(4×0.00005394575)
=0.01979899 kmol/hr
Component balance for Na[Ag(CN)2]:
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = n. Na[Ag(CN)2] in + 4ξ2
n.Na[Ag(CN)2] out = 0.001873 +(4×0.00005394575) = 0.00208878 kmol/hr
Component balance of Na[Au(CN)2]:
n.Na[Au(CN)2] out = n. Na[An(CN)2] in+4ξ1
0.00171004 +(4×0.00008905359) =0.00206625436 kmol/hr

75
3.6.7 Material Balance for Adsorption Process:
Table (3-2): Adsorption Process
Na[Au(CN)2] Na[Ag(CN)2]
kmol/hr kmol/hr
Tank(1) 0.00030644 0.0002487

Tank(2) 0.00636325 0.00049

Tank(3) 0.0009697 0.0007286

Tank(4) 0.000672395 0.00120

Tank(5) 0.0010152 0.00142914

Tank(6) 0.0013626 0.0016536

Tank(7) 0.00171004 0.001873

Tank(8) 0.00206625436 0.00208878

Total 0.014466 0.00971182

(1) The amount of gold adsorbed in leaching tanks=0.014466 kmol/hr

The amount of gold unreacted in leaching tanks=amount of gold in- amount
of gold adsorbed=0.0170558 – 0.014466= 0.0025898 kmol/hr
The total amount of gold adsorbed in leaching tanks= The amount of gold
adsorbed + The amount of gold unreacted

76
The total amount of gold adsorbed in leaching
tanks=0.014466+0.0025898=0.0170558 kmol/hr
(2) The amount of silver adsorbed in leaching tanks=0.00971182kmol/hr
The amount of silver unreacted in leaching tanks=amount of silver input –
amount of silver adsorbed=0.01242 - 0.00971182=0.00270818 kmol/hr
The total amount of silver adsorbed in leaching tanks= The amount of silver
adsorbed + The amount of silver unreacted
The total amount of silver adsorbed in leaching
tanks=0.00971182+0.00270818 =0.01242 kmol/hr
3.6.8 Material out from The Leaching Tanks:
Overall H2O balance:
The amount of water out from the leaching tanks=5208.2879 kmol/hr
The amount of water reacted in leaching tanks=input-output
5208.33 – 5208.2879=0.0421 kmol/hr
Overall sodium cyanide(NaCN) Balance:
The amount of sodium cyanide(NaCN) out from the leaching
tanks=2.542656 kmol/hr
The amount of sodium cyanide(NaCN) reacted in leaching tanks=
2.5507–2.542656=0.008044 kmol/hr
Overall Material Balance for Tailing:
Tailing out from the leaching tanks=tailing input – gold adsorbed – silver
adsorbed
Tailing out from the leaching tanks =62500 – 3.36 – 1.34= 62495.3 kg/hr

77
3.6.9 Material Balance for Tailing Residual Tank:

Tailing
M31 M32
Residual Tank

Stream (M31) composition:

H2O=5208.2879 kmol/hr × 18 kg/kmol =93749.1822 kg/hr
sodium cyanide(NaCN)= 2.542656 kmol/hr × 49.0072 kg/kmol=124.61
kg/hr
Tailing= 62495.3 kg/hr
Overall material balance: M31= M32
M32=93749.1822+ 124.61+ 62495.3 =156369.0922 kg/hr
3.6.10 Material Balance for Frame Filter Press:

M33
Frame Filter
M32
Press
M34

Stream (M32) composition (M32) =156369.0922 kg/hr:

H2O=93749.1822 kg/hr
sodium cyanide(NaCN)= 124.61 kg/hr
Tailing= 62495.3 kg/hr
Overall material balance: M32=M33+M34
M33=liquids separated (water and sodium cyanide)
93749.1822+124.61=93873.7922 kg/hr
M34 solid separated (tailing)= M32 – H2O – NaCN=156369.0922 –
93749.1822 –124.61=62495.3 kg/hr
Overall M.B: M32= 93873.7922+62495.3=156369.0922

78
3.6.11 Material Balance for Tailing Waste Container:

Tailing Waste
M34 M35
Container

Stream (M32) composition:

M34=solid separated(tailing)= 62495.3 kg/hr
overall material balance:
M34=M35
M35=62495.3 kg/hr
3.6.12 Material Balance for the Stripping Process:
The recycled water to tank (8) =5208.33 kmol/hr =93750 kg/hr
Stream M (36) out from the second tank from the leaching process
composition:
Carbon= 1000 kg/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] =0.0170558 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =3.36 kg/hr

Na[Ag(CN)2] =0.01242 kmol/hr × 107 kg/kmol=1.34 kg/hr

Total=1.34+3.36+1000=1004.7 kg/hr

The fresh water =50% of total feed from stream M (36)

Fresh water=0.5×1004.7=502.35 kg/hr

3.6.12.1 Material Balance for Carbon Reservoir:

Carbon
M36 M37
Reservoir

79
M36 composition:
Carbon= 1000kg/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] =0.0170558 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =3.36 kg/hr

Na[Ag(CN)2] =0.01242 kmol/hr × 107 kg/kmol=1.34 kg/hr

Fresh water=502.35 kg/hr

Total(M36) =1.34+3.36+1000+502.35=1507.05 kg/hr

M36=M37

M37=1507.05 kg/hr

3.6.12.2 Material Balance for Stripping Column:

M37
M41

M39
Stripping
Column
M40

M38
Stream M (37) composition:
Carbon= 1000 kg/hr
Na[Au(CN)2] =0.0170558 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =3.36 kg/hr

Na[Ag(CN)2] =0.01242 kmol/hr × 107 kg/kmol=1.34 kg/hr

Fresh water=502.35 kg/hr

Total M37 =1.34+3.36+1000+502.35=1507.05 kg/hr

80
M37=1507.05 kg/hr

Stream M (38) composition:

Water =7000 lit/day = 7 m3/day = 7000 kg/day = 291.6 kg/hr

NaCN =1g/lit water =7 kg/hr

NaOH =4g/lit water =28 kg/hr

M38=291.6+7+28=326.6 kg/hr

Overall material balance:

M37+M38=M39+M40+M41

Stream (41):

Au=0.0170558 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =3.36 kg/hr

Ag=0.01242 kmol/hr × 107 kg/kmol=1.34 kg/hr

M41=3.36+1.34+M38

M41=3.36+1.34+326.6=331.3 kg/hr

Stream (39) (recycled carbon):

M39=M37 – H2O – AU – Ag

M39=1507.05 – 502.35 – 3.36 – 1.34= 1000 kg/hr

Stream (40) (recycled water): M40= M37– Carbon – AU – Ag

M40=1507.05 – 1000 – 3.36 – 1.34=502.35 kg/hr

81
3.6.12.3 Material Balance for Electrowinning cell:

Electrowinning
M41 M42
cell

M43

Stream (41):

Au=0.0170558 kmol/hr × 197 kg/kmol =3.36 kg/hr

Ag=0.01242 kmol/hr × 107 kg/kmol=1.34 kg/hr

Stripping solution= 326.6 kg/hr

M(41)=3.36+1.34+326.6= 331.3 kg/hr

M(43)= 3.36+1.34=4.7 kg/hr

M(42)= 331.3 – 4.7=326.6 kg/hr

3.6.13 Material Balance for Continuous stirred tank reactor:

M44

Continuous stirred

M43 M45
tank reactor(CSTR)

Stream (43) composition:

3.36 kg/hr
Au= = 0.0170558 kmol/hr
197 kg/kmol

82
 1.34 kg/hr
Ag= = 0.01242 kmol/hr
107kg/kmol

Stream (44) composition:

HNO3 =0.26661 kmol/hr
HCl = 0.23038 kmol/hr
Cl = 0.14216 kmol/hr
Chemical equation:
2Au + 9HCl + 3HNO3 + 2Cl 2AuCl4 + 3NOCl + 6H2O
Ag + Cl AgCl2
Component balance for Au:
Let the conversion of Au = 99.99%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = Conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.9999×0.0170558 = 0.0170541 kmol/hr
Number of moles of unreacted Au = number of mole of feed – number of
moles reacted
Number of moles of unreacted Au = 0.0170558 – 0.0170541 = 0.0000017
kmol/hr
n.Au out = n.Au in – 2ξ1
0.0000017 = 0.0170558 – 2ξ1
ξ1 =0.00852705 kmol/hr
Component balance for Ag:
Let the conversion of Au = 99.99%
Conversion = number of moles reacted / number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = Conversion × number of moles of feed
Number of moles reacted = 0.9999×0.01242 = 0.012418758 kmol/hr

83
Number of moles of unreacted Ag = number of mole of feed – number of
moles reacted
Number of moles of unreacted Ag = 0.01242 – 0.012418758 = 0.000001242
kmol/hr
n.Ag out = n.Ag in – ξ2
0.000001242 =0.01242 – ξ2
ξ2 =0.012418758 kmol/hr
Component balance for HCl:
n.HCl out = n.HCl in – 9ξ1
n.HCl out = 0.23038 – (9×0.00852705) = 0.1536 kmol/hr
Component balance for HNO3:
n.HNO3 out = n.HNO3 in – 3ξ1
n.HNO3 out =0.26661 – (3×0.00852705) =0.241 kmol/hr
Component balance for Cl:
n.Cl out = n.Cl in – 2ξ1 – ξ2
n.Cl out =0.14216 – (2×0.00852705) – 0.012418758 = 0.112687 kmol/hr
Component balance for NOCl:
n.NOCl out = n.NOCl3 in – 3ξ1
n.NOCl out = 0 + (3×0.00852705) = 0.02558115 kmol/hr
Component balance for H2O:
n.H2O out = n.H2O in + 6ξ1
n.H2O out = 0+(6×0.00852705) = 0.0511623 kmol/hr
Component balance for AgCl:
n.AgCl out = n.AgCl in + ξ2
n.AgCl out = 0+0.012418758 = 0.012418758 kmol/hr ×107 kg/kmol =1.33
kg/hr

84
Component balance for AuCl4:
n.AuCl4 out = n.AuCl4 in + 2ξ1
n.AuCl4 out = 0+(2×0.00852705) = 0.0170541 kmol/hr×197 kg/kmol=3.3596577
kg/hr

85
 Chapter Four
Energy Balance
4.1 Introduction:
The conservation of energy, however, differs from that of mass in that energy
can be generated (or consumed) in a chemical process. Material can change
form, new molecular species can be formed by chemical reaction, but the total
mass flow into a process unit must be equal to the flow out at the steady state.
The same is not true of energy. The total enthalpy of the outlet streams will
not equal that of the inlet streams if energy is generated or consumed in the
processes; such as that due to heat of reaction. Energy can exist in several
forms: heat, mechanical energy, electrical energy, and it is the total energy
that is conserved. [71]
4.2 Conservation of Energy:
A general equation can be written for the conservation of energy:
Energy out=Energy in+generation-consumption-accumulation (4.1)
This is a statement of the first law of thermodynamics. An energy balance can
be written for any process step. Chemical reaction will evolve energy
(exothermic) or consume energy (endothermic). For steady-state processes the
accumulation of both mass and energy will be zero. [72]
4.3 Forms of Energy:
4.3.1 Potential energy:
Energy due to position:

Potential energy=gz (4.2)

Where:
z= height above some arbitrary datum, m,
g=gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2). [73]

86
4.3.2 Kinetic energy:
Energy due to motion:
Kinetic energy=U2/2 (4.3)
Where u= velocity, m/s. [73]
4.3.2 Internal energy:
The energy associated with molecular motion. The temperature T of a material
is a measure of its internal energy U:
U=f(T) [74] (4.4)
4.3.3 work:
Work is done when a force acts through a distance:
𝟏
W=∫𝟎 𝑭𝒅𝒙 (4.5)

Where:

𝑭=force, N,
X =distance, m.
Work done on a system by its surroundings is conventionally taken as
negative; work done by the system on the surroundings as positive. [75]
4.3.4 Heat:
Energy is transferred either as heat or work. A system does not contain “heat”,
but the transfer of heat or work to a system changes its internal energy. Heat
taken in by a system from its surroundings is conventionally taken as positive
and that given out as negative. [76]

4.3.4.1 Standard Heat of reaction (∆𝐻r):

If a process involves chemical reaction, heat will normally have to be added
or removed. The amount of heat given out in a chemical reaction depends on
the conditions under which the reaction is carried out. The standard heat of
reaction is the heat released when the reaction is carried out under standard

87
 conditions: pure components, pressure 1 atm (1.01325 bar), temperature
usually, but not necessarily, 25C. [77]

4.3.4.2 Standard Heat of Formation(∆𝐻f):

The standard enthalpy of formation ∆𝐻 f of a compound is defined as the
enthalpy change when one mole of the compound is formed from its
constituent elements in the standard state. The enthalpy of formation of the
elements is taken as zero. The standard heat of any reaction can be calculated
from the heats of formation ∆𝐻 f of the products and reactants.
Conversely, the heats of formation of a compound can be calculated from the
heats of reaction; for use in calculating the standard heat of reaction for other
reactions. The relationship between standard heats of reaction and formation
is given by the following equation:

∆𝑯r = ∑ ∆𝑯 𝐟 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭 − ∑ ∆𝑯 𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 [78] (4.6)

4.4 The General Form of Energy Balance:

The sphere of influence of the process is divided into two parts, the system
and its surroundings. The region in which the process occurs is set apart as the
system; everything with which the system interacts is the surroundings. The
system may be of any size depending on the application, and its boundaries
may be real or imaginary, rigid or flexible. Frequently a system consists of a
single substance; in other cases, it may be complex. [79]
Energy out of the system
Energy in to the system m(out) H(out)
m(in) H(in)
System at time (t)

Heat

Work Shaft (ws)

Figure (4-1): General Form of Energy Balance.

88
From figure (4-1) the mathematical form of energy Balance can be write as:
𝒅(𝑼+𝑲𝑬+𝑷𝑬)
= energy (in) – energy(out)+Q+Ws (4.7a)
𝒅𝒕
KE=0, PE=0
𝑑(𝑢)
= m•in Hin – m•out Hout +Q+Ws (4.7b)
𝑑𝑡
4.5 Energy Balance for Gold Extraction by Carbon in Leach
process (CIL):
4.5.1 Energy balance for leaching unit:
The energy balance for leaching unit can be calculated by standard heat of
reaction; because the leaching process depend on reaction.
Chemical Equation:
4Au + 8NaCN + 2 H2O +O2 4Na[Au(CN)2] +4NaOH
4Ag + 8NaCN + 2 H2O +O2 4Na[Ag(CN)2] +4NaOH
Table (4-1): Heats of Formation for the Component in leaching
Component △HF(kJ/mol) △Hf(kcal/mol)
Na[Au(CN)2] – 122.0523 – 29.1712

Na[Ag(CN)2] 145.937 34.8798

NaCN – 385.9 –22.47

H2O – 285.830 – 68.31622

Au 0 0

Ag 0 0
O2 0 0

NaOH(aq) – 470.11 – 112.361

89
Heat of reaction = sum of heat of formation of product – sum of heat of
formulation of reactant.
Heat of reaction = △HF product – △HF reactant
For chemical reaction:
4Au + 8NaCN + 2 H2O +O2 4Na[Au(CN)2] +4NaOH.
△HF product = [(4×– 122.0523) +(4×– 470.11)] = –2368.65 kj/mol
△HF reactant= [(4×0) +(8×– 385.9) +0+(2×– 285.830)]
= – 3658.86 kj/mol
△HR1 = (–2368.64) – (– 3658.86) = 1290.22 kj/mol ×1000
1290220 kj/kmol
For chemical reaction:
4Ag + 8NaCN + 2 H2O +O2 4Na[Ag(CN)2] +4NaOH
△HF product = [(4×145.937) +(4×– 470.11)] = –1296.692 kj/mol
△HF reactant = [(4×0) +(8×– 385.9) +0+(2×–285.830)] = –3658.86 kj/mol
△HR2 = (– 1296.692) – (–3658.86) = 2362.168 kJ/mol×1000= 2362168
kj/kmol
△HR total=△HR1+ △HR2 =1290220 + 2362168= 3652388 KJ/Kmol
△H =△HR total × total moler flow rate
△H = 3652388 KJ/Kmol × 8693.7 kmol/hr = 3.175276556 ×1010 Kj/hr
3.175276556 ×10^10
= 8820212.654 kw
3600
There is no change in temperature T1=T2 Q=0
0
𝑑(𝑢)
= △H× FA +Q+Ws
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑢)
𝑑𝑡
= 8820212.654+ 103=8820315.654 kw

90
4.5.2 Energy Balance for Elution unit (Stripping Process):
Energy balance in elution unit can be calculated by using specific heat
capacity because there is no reaction occur in the stripping column. The heat
capacity (cp) is physical property of material .it may be expressed in any units
of energy per unit amount per unit temperature.
Q = m·× Cp mix × (T2 – T1) (4.8)
Where:
Q = heat energy
Cp mix = specific heat capacity of mixture.
T1 = inlet temperature of mixture , T2 = outlet temperature of mixture
Table (4-2): Elution unit Calculations:

Component NaOH NaCN H2O Total

Mass flow rate 28 7 291.6 326.6

(kg/hr)
Molecular 40 49 18
Weight
(kg/kmol)
Moler Flow rate 0.7 0.142857 16.2 17.042857
(Kmol/hr)
Mole fraction 0.04107 0.0083822 0.95 1.0
Mass fraction 0.085732 0.021433 0.893 1.0
Heat capacity at 6747.13 51147.7 4.184
25c
(Kj/kg.c)

91
 m =326.6 kg/hr m =326.6 kg/hr
T1=25 ° c T2=140 ° c
n(mol/hr) n(mol/hr)
0.04107 NaOH/mole 0.04107 NaOH/mole
0.0083822 NaCN/mole 0.0083822 NaCN/mole
0.95 H2O/mole 0.95 H2O/mole
P=1atm

Q=(KW)

Figure (4-2): Elution unit

Total mass flow rate (m·) = 28+7+291.6 = 326.6 kg/hr

Q = m·× Cp mix × (T2 – T1)

Cp mix = specific heat capacity of mixture.
T1 = inlet temperature of mixture =25 c
T2 = outlet temperature of mixture =140 c
m·= mass flow rate of mixture
cp mix = (mass fraction NaOH × Cp NaOH) + (mass fraction NaCN × Cp NaCN)
+(mass fraction H2O × Cp H2O)]
Cp mix= [(0.085732×6747.13) + (0.021433×51147.7) +(0.893×4.184)]
Cp mix= 1678.43 kJ/kg. c
Q = m·× Cp mix × (T2 – T1)
Q = (326.6) × (1678.43) × (140 – 25) =63040152.37 kJ/hr
Q =555937404.4 /3600= 17511.1 kw

0 0 0
𝑑(𝑢)
=m•in Hin – m•out Hout +Q+Ws
𝑑𝑡

92
 𝑑(𝑢)
=Q
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑢)
=17511.1 kw
𝑑𝑡
The internal energy for the stripping process =17511.1 kw
4.5.3 Energy Balance for (CSTR):

The Energy balance for Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor can be calculated
by using specific heat capacity because the reaction releases a lot of heat when
the reaction occurs inside the reactor. The heat capacity (cp) is physical
property of material. Then calculating the heat of reaction from the following
chemical reaction:
2Au +9HCl +3HNO3 +2Cl 2AuCl4 +3NOCl +6H2O

Ag + Cl AgCl2
Table (4-3): Heats of Formation for the Component in (CSTR):
△HF (standard heat of △HF (standard heat
Component formation ) kJ/mol of formation )
kcal/mol
Au 0 0
HCl – 167.16 – 39.95291
HNO3 – 174.10 – 41.6116
Cl 0 0
AuCl4 – 137.90217 – 32.96
NOCl 51.71 12.3592
H2O –285.830 – 68.3162
Ag 0 0
AgCl – 127.0 – 30.3542

93
 m=31.94 kg/hr
m=31.94 kg/hr V=8.4m3
T2=120° C
T1=25° C P=1 atm

Q=(kw)

Figure (4-3): continuous stirred tank reactor.

Table (4-2): Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor Unit Calculations:

Component Au Ag HNO3 Cl2 HCl Total

Mass flow 3.36 1.34 16.8 5.04 8.4 34.94

rate (kg/hr)
Molecular 197 107 63.012 35.45 36.46
Weight
(kg/kmol)
Moler Flow 0.0170558 0.0124 0.267 0.1422 0.23038 0.6686
rate
(Kmol/hr)
Mole fraction 0.025509 0.18546 0.3993 0.21268 0.34457 1.01
Mass 0.0961648 0.03835 0.4808 0.14424 0.24041 1.0
fraction
Heat 130 230 1720 400 1.38
capacity at
25c
(Kj/kg.c)

94
Total mass flow rate (m·) = 3.36+1.34+16.8+8.4+5.04 = 34.94 kg/hr
For chemical reaction:
4Au + 9HCl + 3HNO3 +2Cl 2AuCl4+3NOCl+6H2O
Heat of reaction =∑∆HF product – ∑∆HF reactant
∑∆ HF product = [(2×–137.90217) +(3×51.71) +(6×–285.830)] = – 1835.65
kj/mol
∑∆ HF reactant = [(4×0) +(9×–167.16) +(3×– 174.10) +(2×0)] = – 2025.3
kj/mol
∆HR1 = – 1835.65 – (– 2025.3) = 189.65 kJ/mol
Ag +Cl AgCl
∑∆HF product = – 127 kJ/mol
∑∆HF reactant = 0+0=0.0 kJ/mol
∆HR2 = – 127 – 0 = – 127 kJ/mol
△HR total=△HR1+ △HR2 =189.65 – 127= 62.65 KJ/Kmol (the reaction is
endothermic)
△H =△HR total × total moler flow rate
△H = 62.65 KJ/Kmol × 0.6686 kmol/hr = 41.88 Kj/hr
41.88
= 0.116355 kw
3600
Total mass flow rate (m·) = 3.36+1.34+16.8+8.4+5.04 = 34.94 kg/hr

Q = m·× Cp mix × (T2 – T1)

Cp mix = specific heat capacity of mixture.
T1 = inlet temperature of mixture =25 c
T2 = outlet temperature of mixture =120 c
m·= mass flow rate of mixture

95
cp mix = (mass fraction Au × Cp Au) + (mass fraction Ag × Cp Ag) +(mass
fraction HNo3 × Cp HNO3) + (mass fraction CL2 × Cp CL2) + (mass fraction HCL ×
Cp HCL)]
Cp mix = [(0.0961648×130) + (0.03835×230) +(0.4808×1720)
+(0.14424×400) +(0.24041×1.38)] =906.3256 kJ/kg. c
Cp mix = 906.3256 kJ/kg. c
Q1 = m·× Cp mix × (T2 – T1)
Q1 = (34.94) × (906.3256) × (120 – 25) =3008366.56 kJ/hr
Q1 =3008366.56 /3600= 835.65 kw
𝑑(𝑢)
= △H × FA +Q+Ws
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑢)
= 0.116355+835.65 + 1.06=836.721 kw
𝑑𝑡

96
 Chapter Five
Process Design
5.1 introduction:
Design is a creative activity, and as such can be one of the most rewarding
and satisfying activities undertaken by an engineer. It is the synthesis, the
putting together, of ideas to achieve a desired purpose. The design does not
exist at the commencement of the project. The designer starts with a specific
objective in mind, a need, and by developing and evaluating possible designs,
arrives at what he considers the best way of achieving that objective; be it a
better chair, a new bridge, or for the chemical engineer, a new chemical
product or a stage in the design of a production process. [80]
5.2 Liquid-solid cyclone (Hydro-cyclone) Design:
Hydro-cyclone are used for solid-liquid separations; as well as for solids
classification, and liquid-liquid separation. It is a centrifugal device with a
stationary wall, the centrifugal force being generated by the liquid motion.
Hydro-cyclones are simple, robust, separating devices, which can be used
over the particle size range from4to500µm. [81]

Figure (5-1): Liquid-solid cyclone (hydro-cyclone). (source: Coulson &

Richardson’s Chemical Engineering volume 6)

97
Figure (5-2): Hydro-cyclone typical proportions. (source:chm,eng,volume6)
The specialist manufacturers of hydro-cyclone equipment should be consulted
to determine the best arrangements and design for a particular application, so
Bradley equation can be used to make a preliminary estimate of the size of
cyclone needed: [82]

Dc3 µ
d50 =4.5 (5.1)
L1.2 (ρs- ρL)
98
Where:
d50=the particle diameter for which the cyclone is 50 per cent efficient, µm,
Dc =diameter of the cyclone chamber, cm,
µ=liquid viscosity, centipoise (mN s/m2),
L=feed flow rate, l/min,
ρL = density of the liquid, g/cm3,
ρs=density of the solid, g/cm3,

(5.2)

Where:
𝜂=the efficiency of the cyclone in separating any particle of diameter d, per
cent
d=the selected particle diameter, µm [83]
5.2.1 Design of Hydro-cyclone for Gold Extraction Plant:
We need to Estimate the size of hydro-cyclone needed to separate 90 per cent
of particles with a diameter 75µm, from 14 m3/h of slurry.
The tailing solid density (ρs) =2.7 tonne/m3, liquid density (ρL) =1000 kg/m3,
viscosity 1mNs/m2.
Solution:

ρs =2.7× 1000=2700 kg/m3

14×1000
flow rate = =233.3 lit/min
60

(ρs - ρL) =2700-1000=1700 kg/m3=1.7 g/cm3

From appendix (c) figure(C2), for 90 per cent removal of particles above
75µm

d50=51µm

99
From appendix (c) figure(C1), for µ=1mNs/m2, (ρs - ρL) =1.0g/cm3, L=
233.3 Lit/min
Chamber diameter Dc =40 cm

𝜂=100 1-e-(75/51-0.115)^3 = 91.7%

(1)

(4) (3)

(2)

(5)

Figure (5-3): Hydro-cyclone typical proportions and calculation

The diameters of the parts numbered from (1-5) on the cyclone:

(1) Dc = 40 cm
𝐷𝐶
(2)
7
= 40
7
=5.71 cm (4)
𝐷𝐶
3
= 40
3
=13.3 cm
𝐷𝐶 40 𝐷𝐶 40
(3) = =20 cm (5)
10
= 10
=4 cm
2 2

100
 5.3 Tanks and Reactors Design for Carbon in Leach
Process(CIL):
In reactor and tanks design we want to know what size and type of reactor or
tank, and method of operation are best for a given job. Because this may
require that the conditions in the reactor vary with position as well as time.
starting point for all design is the material balance expressed for any reactant
(or product): [84]

Rate Rate Rate of Rate of

reactant loss accumulatio
of of due to
n of reactant
reactant = reactant + chemical +
flow into flow out reaction in (5.3)
element element within the
element of element of
of of
volume volume
volume volume

The performance equation for continues stirred tank reactor is obtained from
equation (5.3), which makes an accounting of a given component within an
element of volume of the system, by selecting reactant A for consideration,
equation (5.3), become: [84]

=0
input = output + disappearance by reaction + accumulation (5.4)

if FAo, = voCAo is the molar feed rate of component A (Kmol/hr) to the

reactor, then considering the reactor as a whole we have:
input of A, moles/time = FAo (1 - XAo) = FAo
output of A, moles/time = FA = FAo (1- XA)

101
 disappearance of A moles A reacting volume of by reaction:
disappearance Moles A reacting Volume
of A by of (5.5)
= (-rA) V = (time) ×(volume of fluid) ×
reaction, reactor
mole/time
Introducing these three terms into Eq (5.5), we obtain:
FAo XA =(-rA) V (5.6)
where:
XA =conversion
-rA = rate of reaction(kmol/m3 .sec)
V= volume of reactants contained in the reactor (m3).
vo=volumetric flow rate(m3/hr)
CAo=initial concentration(Kmol/hr) [85]
5.3.1 Leaching Tank Design:
Mixing and agitation is the heart of the chemical industry. Almost all process
equipment’s need some type of mixing or agitation. Uniformity of
composition and desired flow pattern depends upon the type of agitator and
the speed of agitation. It is also necessary to control the quality of the product,
specifically where there is evaluation of heat and the temperature has to be
maintained constant. [86]
A typical arrangement of the agitator and baffles in a stirred tank, and the flow
pattern generated. Mixing occurs through the bulk flow of the liquid and, on
a microscopic scale, by the motion of the turbulent eddies created by the
agitator. Bulk flow is the predominant mixing mechanism required for the
blending of miscible liquids and for solids suspension. Turbulent mixing is
important in operations involving mass and heat transfer. The most suitable
agitator for a particular application will depend on the type of mixing required,
the capacity of the vessel, and the fluid properties, mainly the viscosity.
impeller size S depends on the kind of impeller and operating conditions and
for the popular turbine impeller, the ratio of diameters of impeller and vessel
falls in the range, d/Dt=0.3-0.6, the lower values at high rpm. [86]

102
Figure (5-4): A basic stirred tank (Leaching tank) (source: Anchor Institute,
Dharamsinh Desai University, Nadiad, Gujarat, India).

5.3.1.1 Design Calculations of Leaching Tank:

From material balance the amount of moler feed rate enter the (cstr):
Au=0.0170558 Kmol/hr
Ag =0.01242 Kmol/hr
H2O= 5208.33 Kmol/hr
O2=0.000143 kmol/hr
NaCN=2.5507 kmol/hr

103
Activated Carbon= 10.40799 Kmol/hr
Tailing=3472.22 kmol/hr
NaOH=0.15625 kmol/hr
The total moler feed rate (FAo)=8693.695 kmol/hr
From material balance the amount of Volumetric flow rate
enter the (cstr):
(1) Gold:

(density) ρAu = 19300 kg/m3

3.36 kg/hr
VAu = = 0.0001741 m3/hr
19300 kg/m3
(2) silver:
(density) ρAg = 10490 kg/m3
1.34 kg/hr
VAg= = 0.00012774 m3/hr
10490 kg/m3

(3) Activated carbon:

(density) ρc=2260 kg/m3
125 kg/hr
Vc= = 0.05531 m3/hr
2260 kg/m3

(4) sodium cynide(NaCN):

(density) ρNaCN =1600 kg/m3
125.005 kg/hr
VNaCN = = 0.07812 m3/hr
1622 kg/m3

(5) Water:
(density) ρH20 =1000 kg/m3
93750 kg/hr
VCl = = 93.75 m3/hr
1000 kg/m3

104
(6) Tailing:
(density) ρtailing =2700 kg/m3
62500 kg/hr
Vtailing = = 23.148 m3/hr
2700 kg/m3
(7) NaOH:
(density) ρNaOH =2130 kg/m3
6.25 kg/hr
VNaOH = = 0.00293 m3/hr
2130 kg/m3
(8) O2:
(density) ρO2 =2130 kg/m3
0.002288 kg/hr
VO2 = = 0.0016011 m3/hr
1.429 kg/m3
Total volumetric Flow rate: (V)=117.5 m3/hr
The tank operation data:
1- Residence time (τ) of feed =3.5 hr
2-The Conversion (XA) of the reaction = 50%
3- Molar feed rate = 8693.695 kmol/hr
4-Volumetric flow rate of total feed = 117.5 m3/hr
5-Temperature of reactor = 25 c
6-Pressure of reactor = 1 atm
FAo XA =(-rA) V
-rA =kCA (5.7)
Where:

K =the equilibrium reaction constant.

CA =the final concentration of component A (kmol/m3).
4Au+8NaCN+2H2O+O2 4Na[Au(CN)2] +4NaOH
Number of mole of reactant = 8

105
Number of mole of product = 15
ξa = (Number of mole of reactant – Number of mole of product)/Number
mole of mole of product
(5.8)
ξa = (15 – 8) / 8 = 0.875
CAo = (molar flow rate of component A) / (total volumetric flow rate of
solution) (5.9)
CA0 = [8693.695 /117.5] =74 kmol/ m3
CA = CA0 × (1 – XA)/1+(ξa × XA) (5.10)
CA = 74 ×(1 – 0.5 )/1+(0.875×0.5 ) = 25.7 kmol/m3
1) calculation of reaction constant (K):
K = XA×(1+(ξa × XA ) /τ×(1 – XA ) (5.11)

K = 0.5 ×(1+(0.875××0.5 ))/(3.5) × (1 – 0.5 )

K = 0.41071 hr-1
2) Calclation of rate of reaction (-rA):
-rA = kCA = 0.41071 × 25.7 = 10.555 kmol/m3.hr (5.12)
3) Calculation of volume of reactants:
V = (FAoXA)/-rA =(8693.695 ×0.5 ) / ( 10.555) = 411.8 m3
5.3.1.2 The Dimensions Calculations of the Leaching Tank:

cylindrical tank with formed heads on both sides was used. Hence the total
volume of the tank is given by the combination of shell volume with the
volume of the equivalent cylinder for the ends:
1) Diameter, Height and area of the tank:
V =((π/4)×Di2×H (5.13)
Where:
Di =internal diameter of the vessel.
H =height of the vessel.

106
Assume the ratio of height to diameter (H/D)=1.03
V =((3.14)/4)× Di2 ×1.03×Di
411.8 =((3.14)/4)× Di ×1.03×Di)
Di = 7.98 m
(H/Di)=1.03
H = 1.03×Di =1.03×7.98 = 8.225 m
A=(π/4)×Di2 =(3.14/4)×(7.982)=50 m2
2) Thickness of the tank:
The tank is made of stainless steel and operated at 1 atm pressure (1.01325
bar), Design pressure, take as 10 per cent above operating pressure
(p)=)1.01325–1(×1.1=0.014575 bar =0.0014575 N/mm2 and the design
tempreture=25C.from appendix (C) table (C3), typical design stress(f) = 165
N/mm2.
(A) Flat head and end and Cylindrical section:
𝐩𝐢
e =𝑪𝒑𝑫𝒆√ (5.14)
𝐟

where:
e= Thickness, mm
Cp= design constant, dependent on the edge constraint = (0.4) for flat base
and flat top.
De= diameter, m
F=design stress, N/mm2.
Pi=design pressure, N/mm2.
0.0014575
e =0.4×7.98×1000 × √ = 9 mm
165

add corrosion allowance 9+1 mm=10 mm

107
Table (5-1): Leaching tank conclusion:

Parameter Size

Volume 411.8 m3

Diameter 7.98 m

Area 50 m2

Height 8.225 m

Thickness:

(A) Flat head and end and 10 mm

Cylindrical section

D=7.98 m

A=50 m2

H=8.225 m
V=411.8 m3

Figure (5-5): Leaching tank dimensions

108
5.3.2 Continues Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTRs) Design:
Stirred tank (agitated) reactors consist of a tank fitted with a mechanical
agitator and a cooling jacket, they are operated as batch reactors or
continuously. The stirred tank reactor can be considered the basic chemical
reactor; modelling on a large scale the conventional laboratory flask. Tank
sizes range from a few litres to several thousand litres. They are used for
homogeneous and heterogeneous liquid-liquid and liquid-gas reactions; and
for reactions that involve finely suspended solids, which are held in
suspension by the agitation. As the degree of agitation is under the designer’s
control, stirred tank reactors are particularly suitable for reactions where good
mass transfer or heat transfer is required. [87]

Figure (5-6): CSTR Notation. (source: Chemical Reaction Engineering Third

Edition, 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

5.3.2.1 Calculations of Continues Stirred Tank Reactor:

From material balance the amount of moler feed rate enter the (cstr):
HCl=0.23039 Kmol/hr
HNO3 =0.26661 Kmol/hr

109
Cl= 0.14216 Kmol/hr
Au=0.0170558 kmol/hr
Ag=0.01242 kmol/hr
The total moler feed rate (FAo)=0.23039+0.2661+0.14216+0.0170558=
0.6686 kmol/hr
From material balance the amount of Volumetric flow rate
enter the (cstr):
(1) Gold:

(density) ρAu = 19300 kg/m3

3.36 kg/hr
VAu = = 0.0001741 m3/hr
19300 kg/m3
(2) silver:
(density) ρAg = 10490 kg/m3
1.34 kg/hr
VAg= = 0.00012774 m3/hr
10490 kg/m3

(3) Nitric Acid:

(density) ρHNO3=1500 kg/m3
16.8 kg/hr
VHNO3= = 0.0112 m3/hr
1500 kg/m3

(4) Hydrochloric Acid:

(density) ρHCL =1.49 kg/m3
8.4 kg/hr
VHCL = = 5.6 m3/hr
1.49 kg/m3

(5) Chlorine:
(density) ρCL =3.2 kg/m3
5.04 kg/hr
VCl = = 1.57 m3/hr
3.2 kg/m3

110
 5.04 kg/hr
VCl = = 1.57 m3/hr
3.2 kg/m3
Total volumetric Flow rate:
(V)=0.0001741+0.00012774+0.0112+5.6+1.57=7.2 m3/hr
Reactor operation condition:
1) Residence time (τ) of gold to form gold complex =70 min
2) The Conversion (XA) of gold to from gold complex = 99.9%
3) moler Flow rate of feed(FAo) = 0.6686 kmol/hr
4) Volumetric flow rate of total feed (V) = 7.2 m3/hr
5) Temperature of reactor = 25 c
6) Pressure of reactor = 1 atm
FAo XA =(-rA) V
-rA =kCA
Where:

K =the equilibrium reaction constant.

CA =the final concentration of component A (kmol/m3).
2Au + 9HCl + 3HNO3 + 2Cl 2AuCl4 + 3NOCl + 6H2O
Number of mole of reactant = 16
Number of mole of product = 11
ξa = (Number of mole of reactant – Number of mole of product)/Number
mole of mole of product
ξa = (16 – 11) / 11 = 0.4545
CAo = (molar flow rate of total feed FAo) / (total volumetric flow rate of
solution V)
CA0 =[0.6686 /7.2] =0.092861 kmol/ m3
CA = CA0 ×(1 – XA )/1+(ξa × XA)
CA = 0.092861×(1 – 0.999 )/1+(0.4545×0.999 ) = 0.000063863 kmol/m3

111
1) Calculations of reaction constant (K):
K = XA×(1+(ξa × XA ) /τ×(1 – XA )
K = 0.999 ×(1+(0.4545 ×0.999 ))/(70×60) (1 – 0.999 )
K = 0.3458 s-1
2) Calclation of rate of reaction (-rA):
-rA = kCA = 0.3458 × 0.000063863 = 0.0000220838 kmol/m3.s
3) Calculation of volume of reactor:
V = (FAoXA)/-rA =(0.6686×0.999 ) / (3600 × 0.0000220838) = 8.4 m3
5.3.1.2 The Dimensions Calculations of Continues Stirred Tank
Reactor:

The reactor is spherical from the end and the top and cylindrical in the
midsection.
1) Diameter, Height and the area of the Reactor:
V =(π/4)×Di2×H +(π/6)×Di3 (5.16)
Where:
Di =internal diameter of the vessel.
H =height of the vessel.
Assume the ratio of height to diameter (H/D)=2
H=2×D
V =((3.14)/4)× Di2 ×2×Di+(π/6)×Di3
8.4 =((3.14)/4)× Di2×2×Di) +(π/6)×Di3
Di = 1.5 m
(H/Di)=2
H = 2×Di =2×1.5 = 3 m
𝐕 𝟖.𝟒 𝐦𝟑
A=
𝐇
= 𝟑𝐦
= 2.8 m2

112
2) Thickness of the Reactor:
The reactor is spherical from the end and the top and cylindrical in the
midsection. operated at pressure (4 bar), (p)= 0.4 N/mm2 and the design
tempreture =120C.from appendix(c) table (C3), typical design stress(f)=140
N/mm2.
A) for spherical head and end:
𝐏×𝐃
e=
𝟒𝐟 – 𝐏
(5.17)
where:
e= Thickness, mm
D= diameter, m
F=design stress, N/mm2
P=design pressure, N/mm2
0.4×1.5×1000
e= = 1.1 mm
4×140–0.4
add corrosion allowance 1.1+1 mm= 2.1 mm
B) Cylindrical section:
𝐏×𝐃
e= (5.18)
𝟐𝐟 – 𝐏
0.4×1.5×1000
e= = 2 mm
2×140 – 0.4
add corrosion allowance 2+1 mm= 3 mm

3) The length from the jacket and reactor is 15 cm, so outside diameter of
the reactor (jacket diameter) can be calculating:
D= (r + t +L)×2
Where:
D = outside diameter ( jacket diameter) (m)

113
r = radius of the reactor (m)
t = cylinderical thickness of the reactor
L= length from the jacket and reactor
D= (0.75 +0.003 + 0.15)×2= 1.806 m

Table (5 -2): Continues Stirred Tank Reactor conclusion:

Parameter Size

Volume 8.4 m3

Diameter 1.5 m

Height 3m

Area of reactor 2.8 m2

Thickness:

(A) spherical head and end (A) 2.1 mm

(B) Cylindrical section (B) 3 mm

Outside diameter (Jacket Diameter) 1.806 m

Jacket height 2.5 m

114
 Diameter of the reactor
D=1.5 m

Height of the
reactor (H)=3 m
Height of the
jacket (H)=2.5 m
A=2.8 m2

Outside
Diameter of
D=1.806 m
Figure (5-7): Continues Stirred Tank Reactor Dimensions

115
 Chapter six
Process Control
6.1 Introduction:
Over the years, process control has become an integral component of all
mineral processing and hydrometallurgical plants, Process control in its broad
definition can be interpreted differently for various disciplines, however, for
current mineral and metallurgical engineering applications, it is mainly
concerned with the maintenance of desired process variables such as pressure,
pH, composition, temperature, flows, concentration and others at some
desirable value in a chemical or physical system .Since the integration of
process control in industrial mineral processes, many operations have seen
increased performance, productivity, and reduction in the cost of operations.
Advances in computer programming, new instrumentations, cloud
technologies, wireless communication and management systems have greatly
influenced the growth of process control in the metallurgical processing
industry. Similarly, factors such as control actions, parameter measurements,
and control strategies that form overall plant control management system also
impact process control development in the mineral-metallurgical processing
industry. [88]
6.2 Control and Instruments:
instruments are provided to monitor the key process variables during plant
operation. They may be incorporated in automatic control loops, or used for
the manual monitoring of the process operation. They may also be part of an
automatic computer data logging system. Instruments monitoring critical
process variables will be fitted with automatic alarms to alert the operators to
critical and hazardous situations. [89]
6.3 Instrumentation and control objectives:
The primary objectives of the designer when specifying instrumentation and
control schemes are:
1) Safe plant operation:
(a) To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits.

116
 (b) To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms
and automatic shut-down systems
(c) To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating
procedures.
2) Production rate: To achieve the design product output.
3) Product quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified
quality standards.
4) Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the
other objectives. [89]
6.4 The Procedure of Applying the Control Process:
The following procedure can be used when applying control system:
1) Identify and draw in those control loops that are obviously needed for
steady plant operation, such as: [90]
a) level controls
b) flow controls
c) pressure controls,
d) temperature controls.
2) Identify the key process variables that need to be controlled to achieve the
specified product quality. Include control loops using direct measurement of
the controlled variable, where possible; if not practicable, select a suitable
dependent variable. [90]
3) Identify and include those additional control loops required for safe
operation
4) Decide on the location of sample points.
5) Decide on the need for recorders and the location of the readout points,
local or control room.
6) Decide on the alarms and interlocks needed [90]
6.5 General Process Control Goal:
In the effort to maintaining the desired variables, special attention must also
be given to other system input variables termed ‘disturbances’ existing in the

117
process, Although the classical approach to process control in the
metallurgical industry is generally dependable, awareness of an operator to
changes in the process and taking appropriate action in a timely fashion was
cumbersome hence resulting in excessive consumption of. for any desired
process variable, the overall process control goal is to measure and understand
initial variability, stabilize and later optimize process constraint.
[91]

Figure (6-1): Generalized process control goal (reproduced from

Thwaites, 2007)
6.6 Industrial Control Systems and Strategies:
The basic objective of process control systems is the real time updating of data
to adjust the process tools over a wide range of conditions. A control system
either adjusts process based on variable values or hold values of the controlled
variables constant. To achieve the plant operating objectives, identifying the
best method to limit the variations of controlled variables and the
understanding of plant process dynamics is vital. Over the past decade, the
more common mode of operating process control systems has been the

118
electrical/electronic method. The definition of control strategy varies from
one source to the next. Fundamentally, the two most common strategies are:
[92]
6.6.1 Feedback control(closed-loop):
Feedback control is a common feature of what is popularly known as a closed-
loop system in which the output information from the process is used to
calculate the value of the controlled variable to correct the desired operational
output by the set point. The control compares the command set point with the
output value, and then adjusts the input signal appropriately to produce new
output (for example, a pH neutralization system). [93]

Figure (6-2): Simplified block diagram of the feedback control system.

(Digital Object Identifier: source https://doi.org/10.13023/etd.2019.257)

6.6.2 Feedforward control (open loop):

Feedforward control does not use the process output to manipulate the value
of the controlled variable but rather reduce the effect of input disturbances.
The control mode uses the measured input disturbances as an early warning
signal to the controlled variable. With sensors to detect process changes or
disturbances. [94]

Set point
Process Output

Figure (6-3): Simplified block diagram of the Feedforward control

(open loop)

119
6.6.3 Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controllers:
A proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller is by far the most
dominating single- loop feedback control algorithm used in industrial
processes. Although the simplest method of control is the ON/OFF
controller, the PID controller has a long history in most automatic control
applications. [95]
The PID control theory is based on error value, 𝑒(𝑡) calculated from the
difference between the set point, 𝑆𝑃(𝑡), and the actual value of a
controlled variable, 𝐶𝑉(𝑡)by the feedback controller, the error value 𝑒(𝑡),
is expressed in following the equation: [95]
e(𝑡)=𝑆𝑃(𝑡)−𝐶𝑉(𝑡)
The calculated error 𝑒(𝑡), is used to produce a control action (e.g. speed up a
pump), which controls the manipulated control variable. The error signal is
reduced when the change in the manipulated variable reduces the change
in𝐶𝑉(𝑡). [95]
Proportional Action (P) – is the controller response when the output signal is
proportional to the deviation in the controlled variable. The proportional
control output 𝐶𝑝(𝑡) is directly proportional to the control error signal, 𝑒(𝑡),
since an increase in error cause an increase to the manipulated variable. [95]
Integral control action (I) – is based on the history of the control error
occurring in the controlled variable. The integral action reduces the error
magnitude to zero by constantly adjusting the manipulated control variable.
Mathematically, the integral action is proportional to the integral of the error
Derivative Action (D) – This final control action is based on the rate at which
the error is changing. That is to say, while proportional action operates on
present error value and integral action is based on past control error values,
derivative control action rely on control error values. The derivative control
algorithm calculates the rate of change in the controlled variable and applies
a correction proportional to the time rate of change error. [95]

120
Figure (6-4) Simple block diagram for the feedback control loop PID
controller. (Source: Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.13023/etd.2019.257)
6.7 Types of Control:
In dealing with process control concepts, it is useful to classify the control
process into two categories:
6.7.1 Manual Control:
Manual control is one major process operating. This is not, as is sometimes
mistakenly supposed, inherent in process control systems implemented with
the older technologies. feedforward loops. A recently proposed variation on
this idea is that the process monitoring system should calculate and display
some meaningful measure of economic performance for the entire process.
This, in theory, then enables the human operator to use his ingenuity to find
the most profitable operating condition for the plant. [96]
Perhaps the major advantage of manual control is that the design of the
process control system is relatively simple. It can also be argued that there are
certain tasks where it will always be virtually impossible to better manual
performance. On the other hand, a major disadvantage is that the use of
manual control where a simple automatic device could do the job is a gross
misuse of the human resource. Human performance is especially bad when
simple tasks requiring concentration over extended time periods have to be

121
performed. Human concentration is a limited resource and should only be
called on in short bursts. [96]
6.7.2 Automatic Control:
Computers are being increasingly used for data logging, process monitoring
and control. They have largely superseded the strip charts and analogue
controllers seen in older plant. The long instrument panels and “mimic” flow-
chart displays have been replaced by intelligent video display units. These
provide a window on the process. Operators and technical supervision can call
up and display any section of the process to review the operating parameters
and adjust control settings. Abnormal and alarm situations are highlighted and
displayed. [97]
6.7.2.1 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC):
Programmable logic controllers or PLC are industrial computer that takes data
from instrument sensors and sends commands to actuators to implement
controls imitating the behavior of electric ladder diagram, the wide use of PLC
in mining, chemical and metallurgical process industries is due to their
efficiency and reliability in harsh environments. PLCs ability to handle a wide
range of inputs and outputs has made them the favorites of automated systems
in most industries. [98]
The PLCs have a programmable memory for storing instructions for the
purpose of providing specific timing, counting, input-output (I/O) control,
sequential and combinatorial logic, arithmetic, communication, data
processing, PLCs contain two parts the hardware and software programming.
Like any computer system, the PLC hardware consist of components such as
power supply, programming devices, central processing unit (CPU) or
controller as well as multiple inputs and outputs that simulate relay and
switches to the control device using transistors and other circuitry. [98]

122
Figure (6-5): PLC system components.(source: Digital Object Identifier:
https://doi.org/10.13023/etd.2019.257)

6.7.2.2 Benefits of implementing PLC:

1) Robustness: the standard PLC has no moving parts, hence durable in
various environments with disturbances (noise), high vibration levels, high
temperature, and humidity levels [99]
2) PLCs are easy to understand, easily programmed and reprogrammed with
a commonly understood programming language
3) PLCs have low power consumption, better ability to retain system data after
any power failure. A faster restart capability that improves process downtime
4) Cost of many PLC systems are relatively cheap compared to industrial PC
for the same applications. [99]
6.8 Alarms and Safety:
Alarms are used to alert operators of serious, and potentially hazardous,
deviations in process conditions. Key instruments are fitted with switches and
relays to operate audible and visual alarms on the control panels and
annunciator panels. Where delay, or lack of response, by the operator is likely
to lead to the rapid development of a hazardous situation, the instrument
would be fitted with a trip system to take action automatically to avert the

123
hazard; such as shutting down pumps, closing valves, operating emergency
systems. [100]
The safety plant operation is of paramount priority. Operation of these process
circuits can present safety concerns. As part of process controls, strategically
implementing interlocks and alarms will help prevent process failures. The
designed interlocks used in the pilot plant is as follows. [101]
1) The pilot plant operation will have a master ON/OFF switch to start/stop
operation during emergencies. In the event of power failure, the operator using
the standard operating proceeding (SOP) must restart the plant. The plant will
not automatically resume operation without manual intervention
2) Emergency stops (E-Stops) are strategically located on power system boxes
at strategic locations throughout the plant
3) Alarms and Overflow alarms and messages are placed throughout the plant
4) Controls strategy gives priority to emergency switches during the
occurrence of any accident [102]
6.9 Control System for Gold Extraction by Carbon in Leach
(CIL) Process:
Dependable process control in operation methods like carbon in leach (CIL)
has involved simple sampling analysis, the inception of good process control
technologies in carbon in leach (CIL) has resulted in reduced time lags
between changes in the process and operator responses, improve operational
safety and overall profitability. [103]
6.9.1 Flow control:
Flow control is usually associated with inventory control in a storage tank or
other equipment. There must be a reservoir to take up the changes in flow-
rate. To provide flow control on a compressor or pump running at a fixed
speed and supplying a near constant volume output, a by-pass control would
be used. [104]
6.9.2 Level control:
Several methods are available to determine fluid levels. Level control was
achieved with an ultrasonic single analog sensor, the sensor used to send a

124
sound wave which bounces back on the material surface and calculates the
distance based on the time the wave returns. [105]

Figure (6-6): Ultrasonic sensors for level control. (Source: https://doi.org)

6.9.3 Pump Control (Pressure control):
A large portion of the plant control system involves the handling of pumps,
most of these pumps are centrifugal pump, are easily controlled by a remote
relay level controller, activated by two capacitance level switch sensors. [106]

Figure (6-7) Masterflex pumps (a) I/P pump (b) L/S variable speed
pump. (Source:https://doi.org/10.13023/etd.2019.257)
6.9.3 Temperature and Heating Control:
Heating and temperature measurement was done using single phase only
heater with thermocouple located away from the tank bottom and sides. The
heater has corrosion and chemical resistant properties. The heater was secured
125
into the tanks at approximately 7 inches from the center through a duct made
from the tank lid to heat the leachate. The heater is used in combination with
a conductive liquid level pre-wired into an automated controller.
The heater is controlled using thermocouple readings feed to a controller
(Model DE502-P2-LC, Process Technology). The conductive level control
adds protection against damage and tank fires associated with low-level
conditions. [107]

Figure (6-8): Heating control unit mounted on a leaching tank.

(Source:https://doi.org/10.13023/etd.2019.257)

6.9.4 pH Control:
An industrial quick-change replacement pH (Model S8000CD and S8000CD-
ORP, Sensorex, Garden Grove, CA) was used to measure and control the pH.
Whilst the pH/ORP electrode is configured for submersion use, it is also
assembled with a 4-20mA blind electronic module transmitter (Model:
EM802-PH, and EM802-ORP Sensorex), an electrode adapter with built in

126
ATC (automatic temperature control) with solution ground pin (Model:
EA899TC, and EA899 Sensorex, USA) and coaxial cable (Model
S853/20/TL, Sensorex), the electrode is loop powered by the PLC and used
for tank solution neutralization using PID control method. A pump is used to
add acid or base to the controlled system.
Control of pH will be achieved in order to maintain the alkalinity of the
solution between (8-12), to avoid evaporating of cyanide gas. [108]

Figure( 6-9):Sensorex S8000CD pH/ORP electrode

(source:https://doi.org/10.13023/etd.2019.257)

6.10 Typical Control Systems for Carbon in Leach Process:

Various control systems and strategies have been widely used for carbon in
leach (CIL) process, some specific process control applications are reviewed
in the following subsection.

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 6.10.1 Conveying and Size Reduction Control Process:
Conveyors can be controlled by tachometer sensors to determine the speed of
the belt; this can be achieved by sending signal to the speed controller which
already the set point is added, and the water flow also can control by control
valve which receive conditioned signals from the flow controller and flow
transmitter. The ball mills also can be controlled by tachometer sensors to
determine the speed of the mill; this can be achieved by sending signal to the
speed controller which already the set point (17 rpm) is added [109]
Where:
SC:Speed controller
FC:Flow controller
FT:Flow Transmitter
PC:pressure controller
PT:pressure Transmitter
:tachometer Sensor Set point

Conveyor belt
SC
Rotation
motor
Set point SC
Rotation
motor
Set point

FT FC
Ball mill
Hydro cyclone

Water inlet

Figure (6-10): conveyors and Ball mill grinding circuit control.

6.10.2 Thickener Control:
The objective of thickener control is to dewater the slurry, reclaim the clear
overflow for reuse in the process, and produce a thickened or dense underflow
(outlet). The general process control strategy for a thickener are shown in
figure (6-10). The level controller can be used to achieve this purpose the flow
should contain 60% water at the top 40%, solid the solid will precipitate at the
bottom of the thickener and the water will flow through the overflow.

128
Where:
LC:level Controller
LT:level Transmitter
S.P:Set Point
:Sensor Inlet

S.P LC LT

Outlet

Figure (6-11): Thickener Control System

6.10.3 Leaching unit control (PH and Temperature)
Operation of leaching process occur in very harsh environments with
dangerous chemicals, that can potentially pose a safety risk to people and
environment. The PH implemented by pH meter a , by using intelligent sensor
(Sensorex) instruments, Control of pH will be achieved in all leaching tanks
in order to maintain the alkalinity of the solution between (8-12), to avoid
evaporating of cyanide gas. [110]
The level also should be implemented by Ultrasonic sensors and the flow
also should be implemented to grandee the suitable amount of volume needed
in the tank also the also cyanide flow should control to maintain the amount
of the cyanide entering the tank (800-100) ppm

129
Where:
pHC :pH Controller
pHT :pH Transmitter
LT: Level controller Set Point
LT :Level Transmitter
FC :Flow controller
FC FT
FT :Flow Transmitter
Set Point
:Sensor

FT FC Cyanide in
V-3

Air in

V-2
Lime in V-4

Set Point pHC

pHT
V-5

Slurry in Slurry Out

Set Point LC
Mixer
LT
V-1

Figure (6-12): Simplified leaching tank control process.

6.10.4 Carbon Reservoir Control:
The carbon tank or reservoir usually monitored by works they measuring the
level of the solution inside the reservoir by normal stick; the way could be
dangerous to the workers; so rather than monitoring by human can be
controlled by level controller; this can be achieved by sending signal from the
level transmitter to the level controller which already the set point is added (2
m3) of height, then level controller sending signal to the valve to drain the
solution to stripping column.

130
 Where:
LT:Level Transmitter
LC:Level controller
S.P:Set point
:Sensor

Inlet

S.P

LC LT

Outlet
Figure (6-13): Carbon Reservoir Control
6.10.5 Continues Stirred Tank Reactor(CSTR) Control:
The most significance parameter should be controlled in the Continues Stirred
Tank Reactor(CSTR) is the level and temperature.to achieve this purpose
level sensor should be added to the reactor; to control the level of the reactants
inside the reactor (4m) this can be achieved by sending signal to the level
transmitter, and then the level controller which already the set point is added
which receive conditioned signals from the transmitter, the temperature also
should be controlled by temperature sensor ; by sending signal to the

131
 temperature transmitter, and then the temperature controller which already the
set point is added will receive conditioned signals from the transmitter and
compare it with the set point (120 C) and send signal to the heater to rise the
temperature by the coil inside the reactor jacket .

Where:
LT:Level Transmitter
LC:Level Controller
S.p:Set Point
:Sensor

Reactant feed

LC LT

S.P.

Product

Figure (6-14): level control system for Continues Stirred Tank Reactor

132
Where:
TT:Tempreture Transmitter
TC:Tempreture Controller
S.P:Set point
:Sensor

TT
Reactants
feed
S.P. TC

TC TT

Power supply for the heater product

Figure (6-15): Temperature control for Continues Stirred Tank Reactor.

(A Text Book of chemical engineering process control)

133
 Chapter Seven
Environment and Safety
7.1 Introduction:
Mine pits and underground workings, overburden piles, waste rock dumps,
tailings impoundments, and spent leach piles in the gold industry are potential
sources of environmental contamination. While all are not waste management
units, these are areas in which toxic contaminants are commonly found and
have the potential to escape into the environment. Toxicants associated with
these areas may include cyanide, cyanide-metal complexes, heavy metals, and
acid rock drainage. These toxicants may degrade ground water, surface water,
soil, and air quality during mine operation and after mine closure. [111]
7.2 Environmental Effects:
7.2.1 Ground Water and Surface Water:
The primary concerns for ground and surface water at mine sites are chemical
and physical contamination associated with mine operation. Acid formed by
the oxidation of sulfide minerals may be a source of long-term problems at
facilities that extract and beneficiate sulfide ores. In addition to wastes,
reagents, such as sodium cyanide, used during beneficiation may also be
released to ground and/or surface water. Mine rock dumps, disturbed areas,
and haul roads may contribute sediment and increase the total solids load to
surface water bodies. Potential environmental issues related to ground water
are discussed in more detail below: [112]
7.2.1.1 Release of Cyanide Solution from Active Heap Leach
Units:
surface and ground water contamination, both cyanide solution collection
ponds and water in the collection ditches at heap leach operations may contain
cyanide and, therefore, may be potential sources of contamination for birds
and other animals that come into contact with the pond. In response to this,
some mine operations are opting to construct tanks for pregnant solutions and
otherwise trying to cover existing ponds with fences, nets, or screens to
control access to these water sources. [113]

134
 Other tactics used to repel wildlife include recorded sounds of predator birds,
air cannons, stuffed owls, scarecrows, and firing of hazing shells. [113]
7.2.1.2 Release from Heap Leach Piles During and After
Closure:
When heap leach operations are concluded, a variety of different constituents
remains in the wastes. These include cyanide not removed during rinsing or
neutralization, as well as heavy metals, and sulfides.
After the operation has been closed or reclaimed, runoff from the spent ore
may occur without proper design and construction considerations. This runoff
may contain constituents associated with the ore, such as heavy metals, and
total suspended solids. Depending on the method and completeness of
detoxification, spent ore may also continue to have a high PH. If sulfide ores
are present, they may generate acidic leachate which may mobilize the metals
that are present in the ore. The constituents associated with the leachate
(metals and arsenic) can cause degradation of ground and surface water
quality. [114]
7.2.2 Soil:
Three types of environmental effects are commonly associated with soils:
erosion, sedimentation, and contamination. Erosion and sedimentation may
be caused by land disturbances and removal of vegetation related to mining
activities, Soil contamination may result from solution spills releases of leach
solution because liner or other equipment failure. [115]
7.2.2.1 Application of Spent Cyanide Solution:
Spent cyanide solution is generated as a waste during heap leach operations
and closure. Prior to land application, these solutions may also be neutralized
using calcium hypochlorite or ozone, or other methods. Cyanide may be
degraded or attenuated in soils by volatilization, chelation, precipitation,
adsorption, biodegradation, and oxidation to cyanate. [116]
7.2.2.2 Detoxification of Cyanide:
Detoxification of cyanide using hydrogen peroxide is applicable to spent
heaps, tailings, and solution ponds and tanks. The cyanide-bearing solution is
sent to a series of hydrogen peroxide reaction tanks. (Ahsan et al.1989.)

135
Hydrogen peroxide and lime are added to the solution forming precipitate of
metal hydroxides and oxidizing free and weakly complexed cyanide into
cyanate. [117]
International Nickel Company (INCO) has also developed a technique for
detoxification of mine waste streams containing cyanide such as CIP and CIL
pulps, barren solution, pond waters, and heap leach rinse solutions by
removing cyanide and base metal complexes. The INCO process uses SO and
air, which is dispersed in the effluent using a well-2agitated vessel. Acid
produced in the oxidation reaction is neutralized with lime at a controlled pH
of between 8 and 10. The reaction requires soluble copper, which can be
provided in the form of copper sulfate. [117]
7.2.3 Air:
Mining activities and mining support companies discharge particulate matter
into the ambient air. The grievances of the affected communities on air quality
have been the airborne particulate matter, emissions of black smoke, sulphur
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and black
smoke. [118]
7.2.3.1 Fugitive Dust:
the primary sources of air contamination at mine sites are fugitive dust from
mine pits and tailings. During the active life of the mine, water or chemicals
may be applied to control dust and prevent entrainment. After mine closure,
revegetation or other stabilizing methods may be used to control dust. [118]
Air provides exposure routes for constituents (inhalation, deposition, and
subsequent soil or surface water contamination, etc.). The potential
contaminants are heavy metals and other toxics. [118]
7.2.4 Noise and Vibration:
The sources of noise and vibration in the area comprise mobile equipment, air
blasts and vibration from blasting and other machinery. The impact of high-
pitched and other noises is known to include damage to the auditory system,
cracks in buildings, stress and discomfort. These noises can also terrify
animals, hinder their mating processes, therefore adversely affecting the
animal population. [119]

136
7.3 Waste Management:
The status of a particular waste or material, it should be noted that a number
of factors that determine whether that waste or material poses any risk to
human health or the environment. [120]
7.3.1 Spent Ore from Tank Leaching (Tailings):
Tank leaching, both CIP and CIL circuits, generate spent ore by leaching the
gold values from finely ground ore. The spent ore exits the leach circuit as a
slurry. The characteristics of this waste vary greatly, depending on the ore,
cyanide concentration, and the source of the water (fresh or recycled). The
characteristics of the gangue are dependent on the ore source. The tailings
may be treated to neutralize cyanide prior to disposal.
There are a lot of ways to treat the tailing like filter press or by using alkylation
unit, the slurry is typically disposed of in a tailings impoundment with some
of the free liquid component being recirculated to the process as make-up
water. [121]
7.3.2 Spent Ore from Heap Leaching:
Heap or valley fill leaching generates spent ore when leaching operations
cease, usually after the economically recoverable gold is removed from the
ore. Spent ore may contain residual cyanide prior to initiation of detoxification
procedures; some residual cyanide may remain complexed with other
constituents. Spent ore would contain any trace metals present in the ore body.
The spent ore in most heaps is left in place for detoxification and disposal.
Ore leached on on-off heap leach pads is removed after leaching and
detoxification. [122]
7.3.2 Amalgamation Wastes:
The slurry waste generated by amalgamation is composed of the mercury-
bearing solution and gangue. The characteristics of waste water and gangue
from amalgamation vary greatly depending on the ore. This waste may be
pumped to a tailings pond. Modern placer operations used to recover the
mercury from the sediments as a by product. [123]

137
7.3.2 Cyanide solution waste:
During operation, most of the cyanide solution is recycled to leaching
activities. The cyanide solution from both tank and heap leaching must be
disposed of following mine closure (whether seasonal, extended, or
permanent closure). In either case, solutions will contain free cyanide and
metallo-cyanide complexes of copper, iron, nickel, and zinc, as well as other
impurities, such as arsenic and antimony, that are mobilized during leaching.
Solutions may be evaporated from ponds, discharged to tailings
impoundments, or land-applied (after treatment to detoxify the cyanide). [124]
7.4 Health and Environmental Assessments in Sudan:
The mercury has only been recently introduced to the area, the hazards of
indoor burning of mercury and of mercury in tailings were evident. Evident
also is the direct relationship between individual behavior and mercury
contamination. Amalgamation and burning is often done in the privacy of the
single room home in the only pan. Considered ‘women’s work’ young girls
are frequently the burners. Mercury vapor is the most toxic form as it enters
into human body via inhalation. Mercury is a neurotoxin that concentrates in
the body, it especially affects growing fetus, and therefore it is extremely
important that women and girls of child bearing age keep away from or less
avoid it. Because of increasing poverty and adverse situation in the rural areas,
more desperate women go into artisanal activities. [125]
In the Ingessana Hills during 2004-2005, it was noticed that women and
children make 90% of work force at gold pits. All recommendations made
emphasize the necessity of keeping women and children away from
amalgamation and amalgam burning. Acute health problems include malaria,
diarrheal diseases, malnutrition and lack of obstetrical care. UNICEF provides
an immunization program for children; otherwise there is little health care.
[125]
Gugub and Khor Gidad are among the heavily mercury contaminated sites. In
a similar manner to the River Nile in the north, artisanal gold production has
created many mercury hot spots. Gold amalgamation and burning are
performed haphazardly; inside houses, in yards and around the shops. Liquid
mercury is frequently found in the village soil. Evidence of burning in the
kitchen using cooking pots is seen on the walls and ceilings of homes. Due to

138
the high annual rain fall and proximity of ASM activities to river banks along
with increasing use of mercury makes the Nile contamination eminent. The
fish were so far not affected by mercury and considering the size of the
watershed and the amount of ASM therein, it becomes urgent to prevent future
methylation and bioaccumulation. Acute environmental concerns are headed
by lack of clean water and sanitation methods as well as rapid deforestation.
[125]
7.4.1 Awareness Campaign in Sudan:
In November 2005 the Awareness Campaign was kicked off with a
“Lightening Strike” event. This was an all community event with people
travelling up to one hundred kilometers to attend. It was televised locally
throughout the Blue Nile State, as well as broadcast nationally. Based on the
previous socio-economic study and later survey during training, it is evident
that over 80% of workers trainees are illiterate. Therefore, the attempts to
teach via music and group discussions were very important both at the initial
event and henceforth as the trainings became more formal during the spring
of 2007. Gold coming from Sudan is conflict-affected, high-risk, and helping
to destabilize Darfur, Blue Nile, and South Kordofan, the country’s main
conflict zones. In those areas, civilians living around gold mining sites have
suffered killings, mass rape, and the torching of their homes and fields at the
hands of armed groups. In light of this ambiguity, the United States should
urge international gold industry leaders to ingather all gold shipments from
Sudan as “conflict gold” under existing auditing programs and to demand that
those buying Sudanese gold trace it to its mine of origin. [126]
7.5 Safety:
Any organisation has a legal and moral obligation to safeguard the health and
welfare of its employees and the general public. Safety is also good business;
the good management practices needed to ensure safe operation will also
ensure efficient operation. All manufacturing processes are to some extent
hazardous, but in chemical processes there are additional, special, hazards
associated with the chemicals used and the process conditions. The designer
must be aware of these hazards, and ensure, through the application of sound
engineering practice, that the risks should be reduced to acceptable levels.
[127]

139
7.5.1 The Hazards:
5.5.1.1 Toxicity:
Some of the materials used in the gold extraction are poisonous, the potential
hazard will depend on the inherent toxicity of the material and the frequency
and duration of any exposure, a highly toxic material that causes immediate
injury, such as cyanide, would be classified as a safety hazard so the cyanide’s
pH should be maintained from 10-12 to avoid the evaporation of cyanide gas.
[128]
7.5.1.2 Heat stress:
Workers should be informed of the nature of heat stress and its adverse effects,
as well as of protective measures. They should be taught that heat tolerance is
very dependent on drinking enough water satisfying thirst. Workers should
also be taught the signs and symptoms of heat disorders; Workers should have
ready access to water or other appropriate drinks which encourage re-
hydration. Carbonated drinks and drinks containing caffeine and heavy
concentrations of sugar or salt should not be offered. [129]
7.5.1.3 Lacking:
The lacking of the cyanide solution from the leaching tanks should be
considered to avoid any evaporation of cyanide; which can lead to serious
damage; so the sewerage should be made to drain the cyanide solution.
7.5.2 Personal protective equipment:
The gold extraction operator should provide the personal protective
equipment that is to be worn when hazards cannot be eliminated and ensure
that it is worn properly and maintained in good condition. [130]
The basic personal protective equipment should be:
1) safety helmet (hard hat) where falling objects might create a hazard
2) protective gloves when handling materials or performing work which might
cause injury to the hands
3) Safety Apparel

140
4) suitable protective footwear where there is a danger of slipping or of
injury to the feet. [130]

Figure (7-1): Safety Apparel (Coveralls). (Source: Ministry of Labour, France)

7.5.3 Safety and Warning Sings:
The Regulations cover a variety of methods of communicating health
and safety information in addition to the traditional safety sign or
signboard. The terms used in the Regulations mean the following:
1) safety or health sign is a sign providing information or instruction about
safety or health at work by means of a signboard, a colour, an illuminated sign
or acoustic signal, a verbal communication or hand signal.
2) signboard is a sign which provides information or instructions by a
combination of shape, colour and a symbol or pictogram which is rendered
visible by lighting of sufficient intensity. In practice many signboards may be

141
 accompanied by supplementary text (eg ‘Fire exit’ alongside the symbol of a
moving person. [131]

Figure (7-2): Mining safety equipment.

(source:www.creationsgroup.com.au ,safety, mining & building signage)

142
Figure(7-3): Hazardous substance and Prohibition symbols.(Source
ww.creationsgroup.com.au (safety, mining & building signage)

7.5.3.1 First aid:

Workers and supervisors should be able to respond quickly to incidents and
accidents and provide basic first aid and treatment to injured persons. Rapid
first-aid treatment can prevent further serious health damage or even loss of
life to injured persons. The mining operator should ensure that suitable,
regularly replenished and properly maintained first-aid kit is provided at a
strategic location where mining operations are performed. The first-aid kit
should be easily accessible and ready for use at any time while any person is
at work. [132]

143
 Figure (7-4): First-aid signs
7.5.3.2 Emergency and escape:

Figure (7-5): 2 Emergency and escape sings

144
7.5.3.3 Firefighting signs:

Figure (7-6): Firefighting signs

7.5.4 Fire alarms:
The aim of a fire alarm is to ensure that people in the workplace are alerted to
any outbreak of fire well before it becomes life threatening. The warning
system sets in motion a planned routine for evacuating the premises.104 Fire
alarms are included in the term ‘acoustic signal’. The definition in the
Regulations is ‘a coded sound signal which is released and transmitted by a
device designed for that purpose, without the use of a human or artificial
voice’. In practice it is important that the acoustic signal for a fire alarm: [133]
1) has a sound level considerably higher than the level of ambient noise so
that the warning signal can be heard throughout the workplace
2) is easily recognisable and distinct from other acoustic signals and ambient
noise; and
3) is continuous for evacuation [133]

145
 Chapter Eight
Cost Estimate and Project Evaluation
8.1 Introduction:
Cost estimating usually involves the collection, analyzing, and summarizing
of data readily available for a construction project. This normally involves
taking into cognizance certain elements of labour, materials and plant unit cost
of the individual items of work as specified in the bill of quantities and work
specifications. estimating is an important and key step in construction process
as its reliability in terms of accuracy from the conceptual stage to the final
stage determines the success or failure of a project. cost estimating is usually
not a precise technical and analytical process but rather a subjective process
where the estimators consider other factors relevant to the success of a
construction project. [134]
8.1.2 Estimation of total capital investment (TCI):
The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities
is called the fixed capital investment, while that necessary for the plant is
termed the working capital. The sum of the fixed capital investment and the
working capital is known as the total capital investment. [135]
8.1.3 Fixed capital investment (FCI):
This is the amount that is spent during the plant construction, it represents the
capital necessary for installed process equipment which all auxiliaries that are
needed for complete operate such as expense for piping. Instruments
insulation foundation and site preparation it also includes capital needed for
construction overhead such as field office supervision expense engineering
expense contract's fees and contingencies. [136]
8.1.4 Depreciation:
Is the measure of the decrease in value of the property with time. The
inclusion of Depreciation in production cost gives a means for recovery of
Depreciation. [137]

146
 8.2 Cost Estimation for Gold Extraction by Carbon in Leach:
Table (8-1): cost of equipment’s by US Dollar $ in 2020:

equipment Cost
Ball mill x 2 $200,000
Thickener $25,000
Vibrating Screen x 5 $18,000
Hydro cyclone $3,750
Conveyor x 4 $26,000
Leaching Agitation Tank x 9 $1,210,000
Vibrating Feeder x 2 $15,600
Jaw Crusher $25,000
Lime tank 0.5 ton $3,200
Stripping solution Tank 1 ton $7,780
Cyanide Tank 1.5 ton $4,430
Carbon reservoir 2 ton $3,540
Feeder 7 tone $15,000
Filters x 2 $20,000
Heater x 2 $10,000
Electrowining cell $10,000
Carbon Filter $275
Continuous stirred tank reactor $8,000
Pumps x 8 $29,600

147
Compressor $6,213
Furnace $15,500
Tailing truck x 3 $90,800
Pickup truck x 2 $49,000
Laboratory equipment $50,000
Screen $3,900
Frame filter press x 2 $154,000.00
Wheel loader ×2 $70,000

Back loader $30,000

Flatbed Truck $36,000
Bulldozer $120,000
Water Tank Truck $18,000
Electrical Generator ×2 (1200 kva) $ 270,000
Electrical Generator ×1 $82,000
Crane $ 110,000
Excavator $ 35,000
Total = $2,775,588

(Source: Ali baba 2020)

148
8.2.1 Estimation of fixed capital investment:
This will be based on major equipment cost using Ranges of Process-Plant
Component Cost, such as:
Table (8-2): Estimation of fixed capital investment US Dollar $:
Percentage Percentage of Cost in 2020 ($)
of FCI FCI
Purchased equipment 25 22.9 $2,775,588
Purchased equipment 9 8.3 $788584.4498
installation
Instrumentation 10 9.2 $874093.607
(installed)
Piping (installed) 8 7.3 $693574.2751

Electrical (installed) 5 4.6 $437046.8035

Buildings (including 5 4.6 $437046.8035

services)
Yard improvement 2 1.8 $171018.3144

Service facilities 15 13.8 $1311140.41

(installed)
Engineering and 8 7.3 $693574.2751
supervision
Construction expense 10 9.2 $874093.607

Legal expense 2 1.8 $171018.3144

Contractor’s fee 2 1.8 $171018.3144

Contingency 8 7.3 $693574.2751

Total fixed cost 109 99.9 =$12,108,354,14

149
Work capital= 15% of TCI (Total capital investment)

TCI =total FCI +W.C (Work capital)

TCI =FCI +0.15TCI =

TCI= $12,108,354,14 +0.15 TCI

TCI=$14,245,122.52

8.2.2 Calculation of fixed charges:

1) Depreciation (D.p) =(B-Sv)/n

Where:

B= equipment cost.

Sv=Selvages value =0%

n =Service life =20 years

$𝟐,𝟕𝟕𝟓,𝟓𝟖𝟖−𝟎
Depreciation = = 138,779.4 $/year
𝟐𝟎

2) FCI=(PCE/0.229) (from table of estimation of fixed capital

investment (FCI) (Purchased equipment (PCE))

$2,775,588
FCI = = $12,120,471.62 (for Purchased equipment)
0.229

3) Local taxes (1% of FCI) =0.01×$12,108,354 =$ 1,210,83.5414

4) Insurance (1% of FCI) =0.01×$12,108,354 =$ 1,210,83.5414

(2) Total fixed charges

=138,779.4+121083.5414+121083.5414=$3,809,46.4828

150
Table (8-3): Direct Manufacturing Cost:

Raw materials $0.50 TPS

Operating labor $0.15 TPS

Direct supervision $0.0275 TPS

Maintenance and repairs $0.06 FCI

Operating supplies $0.009 FCI

Laboratory charges $0.015 TPS

Utilities $0.045 TPS

Total  $0.7375 TPC + 0.069 FCI

Table (8-4): General expenses:

Plant overhead 0.2127 TPC

Administrative cost $0.0375TPC

Distribution and marketing $0.0095 TPC

Research and Development $0.003 TPC

Total general expenses  0.0473 TPC + 0.2127 TPC

Total Production Cost (TPC) = 0.7375 TPC + 0.069 FCI + Total fixed
charges + 0.0473 TPC +0.21 27 TPC

TPC= 0.7375 TPC + 835476.4357 + 3,809,46.4828+ 0.0473 TPC

+0.2127TPC

TPC=$ 499,800,000

151
8.2.3 Cost per unit:

24.2 tons/year × production efficiency =24.2×0.94=22.7 tons/year

The government Ratio (35%)=×27.26×0.35= 7.9 ton/year

Rate of production=22.7 – 7.9= 14.7 ton/year

Cost per unit = (TPC/ rate of production) = (499,800,000/14.7)=$34,000,000

Selling price =$35,050,783.56

Income (sale) = rate of production× Selling price

Income (sale) =14.7×35,050,783.56 =$515,246,518.4

Gross profit = Income (sale) – TPC = (515,246,518.4– 499,800,000) =

$15,446,518.4

8.2.4 Net profit:

Tax =17 % of the gross profit

Net profit = gross profit × (1– 0.17) =15,446,518.4× (1– 0.17)

=$12,820,610.27

8.2.5 Internal rate of return (IRR):

Internal rate of return (IRR) = (Net profit/ TCI) ×100

IRR = (12,820,610.27)/ (14,245,122.52) ×100= 90%

8.2.6 Payback or payout period:

Payback or payout period =(1/IRR)

Payback or payout period = (1/0.90) =1.1 years

152
 8.2.7 Breakeven point:

Fixed cost +variable cost =Income

Fixed cost + (cost per unit× rate of product at B.E.P) =Income

Let the production rate per at the BEP = n

12,108,354.14 +34,000,000 n=35,050,783.56 n

n=11.52 ton/year

Breakeven point (B.E.P) = (n/ rate of production) ×100

Breakeven point (B.E.P) = (11.52 /22.7) × 100= 50% of full capacity

Table (8-5): Cost of Raw Material by US Dollar $ in 2020:

Material Cost
Tailing(45000 ton/month) $1,704,477
Lime CaCO3 (4.5 ton/month) $1,260.00
Sodium cyanide(NaCN) (90 ton/month) $51,570.00
Activated Carbon (90 ton/month) $225,000.00
NaOH (840 kg/month) $310.80
NaCN for stripping (210 kg/month) $120.33
HNO3 (12.1 ton/month) $4,598.00
HCl (6.05 ton/month) $3,327.50
Cl (3.63 ton/month) $4,356.00
Silica (SiO2) 10% (360 kg/month) $4,680
Borax(Na2BO7.10H2O) (1800 kg/moth) $13,500

153
Soda Ash(Na2CO3) (720 kg/month) $8,640
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) (720 kg/month) $7,200
Balls (67.5 ton/month) $1,890,000.00
Steel wool (9 kg/month) $93.00
Fuel 9900 barrel/month) $75,556.80
Total = $3,994,689.43
(Source: Ali Baba)

154
 Chapter Nine
Plant Layout
9.1 Introduction:
The efficiency of production depends on how well the various machines;
production facilities and employee’s amenities are located in a plant. Only
the properly laid out plant can ensure the smooth and rapid movement of
material, from the raw material stage to the end product stage. Plant layout
encompasses new layout as well as improvement in the existing layout. It
may be defined as a technique of locating machines, processes and plant
services within the factory so as to achieve the right quantity and quality of
output at the lowest possible cost of manufacturing. It involves a judicious
arrangement of production facilities so that workflow is direct. A plant layout
can be defined as follows: Plant layout refers to the arrangement of physical
facilities such as machinery, equipment, furniture etc. with in the factory
building in such a manner so as to have quickest flow of material at the
lowest cost and with the least amount of handling in processing the product
from the receipt of material to the shipment of the finished product. [138]

9.2 Importance:
Plant layout is an important decision as it represents long-term commitment.
An ideal plant layout should provide the optimum relationship among
output, floor area and manufacturing process. It facilitates the production
process, minimizes material handling, time and cost, and allows flexibility of
operations, easy production flow, makes economic use of the building,
promotes effective utilization of manpower, and provides for employee’s
convenience, safety, comfort at work, maximum exposure to natural light
and ventilation. It is also important because it affects the flow of material
and processes, labour efficiency, supervision and control, use of space and
expansion possibilities. [139]

155
9.3 The Stages of the Gold Extraction Plant:

1) Kitchen, oven and washing machine

2) Housing
3) a ball field
4) trees
5) the clinic
6) Self-security
7) The mosque
8) Electricity generators
9) Water tanks
10) The store
11) Offices [140]
9.3.1 The kitchen:

is prepared with the finest types of food, meat, proteins, legumes and fresh
juices for both engineers and workers. The oven and washing machine are
located far from the factory to avoid dust and contamination of bread. [141]

9.3.2 The residences:

The residences are separated from the administrators and engineers from the
workers and technicians, and the housing is placed far from the factory and
with the direction of the winds to avoid dust and emissions from the factory,
which is located in the (southeast) direction, and each room has an air
freshener and a spray that kills insects and mosquitoes. All bathrooms are
clean and heated for the winter. [142]

156
9.3.3 Ball field:

Exercise and sporting activities increase the mental performance of workers

and employees and the bonding between them. [143]

9.3.4 Trees

help planting trees to sequester plankton, soil, pollution, photosynthesis, and

the production of oxygen for a healthy and pure environment. [144]

9.3.5 The clinic:

There is a clinic on site equipped with all medical and emergency supplies, all
medicines and drugs, and it works 24 hours a day. [145]

9.3.6 The mosque:

is a mosque, placed in the middle for easy access to perform prayers in it.
[146]

9.3.7 Electricity generators:

There are 3 generators, two of them are high basic and reserve generation,
and the other is low, where the small generator is operated in the event that
the factory stops lighting, offices, housing and air conditioning only. The
two large generators are operated on behalf of 12 hours each or when there
is overpressure and many machines are operated together. To share the
pressure between them, each of them generates 1200kva and each of them
consumes 30 gallons of diesel, while the small one generates 300kva and
consumes 8 gallons of diesel. [147]

157
9.3.8 Water tanks Water:

Water tanks Water is drawn from the Nile by pumps to the main basin, as the
basin is divided into 3 parts, one part by the other is filled by over flow until
the last part of the concrete to deposit dirt, the second basin is to feed the
factory and the third is to cool the machines, the main basin is the one that
feeds the first The second is connected to the treatment unit in the factory. The
Nile water is treated through and then it goes to the sand filter to seize the
impurities, and then it goes to the coal filter to absorb odors (Adsorption) and
chlorine to kill microbes and algae with (flow). rate) 5 drops per liter and then
transported to its own tank and transported to all drinking water coolers
distributed throughout the manufacture. [148]

9.3.9 The warehouse:

The warehouse is where the factory supplies such as clothes, spare parts, food,
etc. are stored, and they are checked periodically. [149]

9.3.10 Offices:

There are about 12 offices in each office, there are from 1 to 3 computers,
printers, air conditioners, and wardrobe. [150]

9.4 Sections of the factory:

1) Movement and operation department, which is responsible for the

movement of mechanisms and authentication of entry and exit permits.
The factory has 5 tipper trucks, 2 front loaders, 2 backhoe loaders, flat bed
truck, bulldozer, a excavator, crane and water tank truck. [151]

158
2) The Administrative Affairs Department, whose duties are in charge of
all matters related to administration, including warnings, appointment and
personnel documents
3) Accounts section, whose accounts are arranged, everything related to
the calculation of salaries, incentives, discounts, etc.
4) The Department of Safety and Environment (HESE), which plays
important and major roles in the field in terms of occupational and
environmental safety and equipment. The ground is sprayed with water
after cleaning it with the mechanisms. Lectures and training are conducted
for all factory workers. Emergencies, types of extinguishers, making
experiments on the purity of drinking water, sending reports about the
whole plant from every department, and others
5) Purchases section, in which orders are recorded in detail, number, and
sent to bring the requirements of safety spare parts and supplies
6) Section of the Sudanese Mineral Resources Company Ltd. (SMRC),
which is specialized in monitoring the structure of the plant and its
movement and sending daily reports about the plant to the Ministry of
Minerals
7) The Maintenance section is where the plant and machinery needs are
known, such as spare parts and maintenance, and establishing, changing or
canceling lines

8) Department of Information Technology and Networks IT, which is

responsible for Wi-Fi networks that consist of 5 devices, ensuring that
every office and device have access to the Internet, and that each device
works properly and is required, cameras, and its work and review the
registration

159
9) Electricity Section Electricity In this section it makes sure that the
generators are working perfectly and all electrical parts in the factory are
working, and in the event of an electric overload, the problem is treated
10) The construction and geology department, in which construction
planning is based on digging basins or constructing another building
11) The store section, in which all stored materials are reviewed and their
data recorded, to request more when the equipment, supplies and supplies
are about to expire
12) The Lab Department, in which samples from the factory are
examined at various stages and sent to the production department to take
decisions necessary for the operation of the factory
13) Production Department, which is one of the most important
departments that is considered the main one because it contains the entire
factory operating department from Raw to Production and is responsible
for the workflow [152]

160
Figure (9-1): Factory field
(source:Ali Baba )

161
Figure (9-2): Plant layout (Satellite).

162
163
 Chapter Ten
Conclusion and Recommendation
10.1 Conclusion:
The justification of selecting the cyanidation process by using carbon in leach
(CIL) technique will be discuss in the following subsection.
the mining industry, and in particular the gold mining industry, has been using
cyanide in its production processes for many decades. While cyanide is
commonly perceived as being a deadly substance, it is in fact a widely used
chemical that is essential to the modern world. the key to its safe use is the
implementation of sound management practice. Cyanide is one of only a few
chemical reagents that will dissolve gold in water. It Is a common industrial
chemical that is readily available at a reasonably low cost. For both technical
and economic reasons, cyanide is the chemical of choice for the recovery of
gold from ores. Cyanide has been used in metal extraction since 1887 and is
now safely used and managed in gold recovery around the world. Gold mining
operations use very dilute solutions of sodium cyanide, typically in the range
of 0.01% and 0.05% cyanide (100 to 900 parts per million). one of the major
health and environmental concerns with some synthetic chemicals is that they
do not decompose readily and can thereby accumulate in the food chain.
Cyanide is less toxic chemicals; Since cyanide oxidizes when exposed to air
or other oxidants, it decomposes and does not persist. While it is a deadly
poison when ingested in a sufficiently high dose, it does not give rise to
chronic health or environmental problems when present in low
concentrations; so the lime(CaCO3) was added to prevent production of
hydrogen cyanide gas.
The carbon in leach (CIL) technique is a variation of carbon in pulp(CIP) and
carbon in column(CIC); where the leaching of gold occurs simultaneously
with the adsorption of gold onto activated carbon in the same tank, the process
offers advantages of lower capital cost than separate leaching and carbon
adsorption systems and can significantly improve gold extraction from ores
containing constituents that adsorb gold from leach solutions. the process also
provides 99.9% gold purity.
In the carbon in leach (CIL) technique, the tailing contain cyanide has been
treated by simple facility it’s the frame filter press; which dewater the tailing
164
and separate liquid from it (cyanide solution). And also the safety inside the
plant has been applied by adding safety alarms and putting sings all over the
plant.
10.2 Recommendation:
The members of this research recommended some points:
10.2.1 Legislation and Regulations:
Gold mining continues to play an important role in the economy all over the
world, this contribution to the economy has, however, compromised the
integrity of the environment. This has been due to lack of appropriate
environmental legislation and Regulations, lack of knowledge and the focus
on financial benefits.
Regulations, imposed most often by governments, attempt to enforce the
management of risks. Examples of regulations recommended by the members
of this research in the cyanide life cycle include:
1) establishing packaging and transportation standards
2) setting industrial hygiene standards for cyanide concentrations in the air
and worker safety
3) establishing limitations on effluent discharge to surface and ground waters.
Governments have used results from research and development and a public-
policy process to establish procedures and standards that are protective of
worker safety, public health and the environment.
10.2.2 Environment:
In order to improve the environment and to prevent further pollution the
following actions are recommended:
1) Planting trees to replace the shrinking plantation, this will have a number
of benefits, namely, maintenance of the green surroundings in a sparsely
vegetated region, community awareness of the need to plant indigenous
species and improved relationship between the mine and the community.
2) Maintenance and monitoring of the surface water dams to avoid discharges
of cyanide.

165
3) The surface water dams, in particular the Holding dam should be lined to
prevent percolation of polluted water into the groundwater. Further
groundwater analysis should be undertaken to determine whether there has
been pollution from the unlined holding dam.
4) A study to quantify the groundwater pollution arising from both the tailings
dams and other surface water bodies should be undertaken. The data should
be collected over a long period of time (a number of years) to ensure that the
slow movement of pollutants into and within the groundwater is not missed
5) The causes of improved water quality should be investigated. The results
of the investigation can be used to prevent/reduce pollution on other dumps.
These measures which recommended by the research members, if
implemented, will not only benefit the environment but will also reduce the
financial loss.
10.2.3 Awareness Campaigns:
More than 100 million people worldwide in over 60 countries depend on
artisanal gold mining for their livelihood. An estimated 25-30% of the world
gold production comes from some 15 million artisanal miners, including 4
million women and 1 million children. This gold rush is causing dangerous
levels of mercury pollution throughout the world. The problem derives from
the miners’ use of mercury to extract fine particles of gold - this method
releases about 1,000 tonnes of mercury every year, or roughly 1/3 of all the
global anthropogenic mercury released annually. The simple gold extraction
process used, known as amalgamation, can potentially contaminate the air,
soil, rivers, and lakes with mercury. The health of the miners and other people
living nearby is negatively affected through inhalation of mercury vapour,
direct contact with mercury, and the consumption of fish and other food
contaminated by the mercury.
10.2.3.1 The Criteria Should Concern in Awareness
Campaigns:
The main project objectives should assist the countries in the assessment of
the extent of pollution from current activities, to introduce cleaner gold
mining and extraction technologies to minimize or eliminate mercury
releases, and to develop capacity and regulatory mechanisms that will enable

166
the sector to minimize negative environmental impacts. This was
accompanied by the development of monitoring programs and, in
collaboration with participating governments, the development of policies and
legislation that will lead to practical and implementable standards for artisanal
gold mining. In order to ensure sustainability of the monitoring programs, the
project worked to build capacity of local institutions (e.g., local laboratories)
through training and material support, enabling them to carry out continuous
monitoring beyond the initial project’s term. The project aimed to increase
knowledge and awareness of the environmental impacts associated with
amalgamation among miners, government institutions, and the public at large.
This was bolstered by the introduction and demonstration of cleaner and more
efficient technologies that minimize negative environmental impacts while
improving earnings, health, and safety.
10.2.4 Alternative Leaching Reagents Other than Cyanide:
Over 25 alternative lixiviate processes to cyanide have been tested in the
laboratory, some of which have been successful applications. Most of the
work has focussed on thiosulfate, thiourea, Aqua Regia, Chlorination,
Bromine and Iodine; which reviewed in chapter two. In most alternative
cyanide-leaching processes, reductions in the quantity of reagents used,
reagent consumptions and improvements in recovery technology are required,
also pose health, safety and environmental concerns. Consequently, proper
disposal of wastes.
The research should continue to develop those reagents and make them more
effective

167
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171
 Appendix (A)
Table(A1): equivalent factor Data. Source:(alhsour mining company.)

172
 Appendix (B)

Enthalpy of Free energy of Entropy

Substance formation ∆H0f , formation ∆G0f , S0,
kJ/mol kJ/mol J/(K·mol)
Chlorine
Cl2(g) 0 0 223.07
Cl(g) 121.68 105.68 165.20
Cl–(aq) -167.16 -131.23 56.5
HCl(g) -92.31 -95.30 186.91
HCl(aq) -167.16 -131.23 56.5
Copper
Cu(s) 0 0 33.15
Hydrogen
H2(g) 0 0 130.68
H(g) 217.97 203.25 114.71
H+(aq) 0 0 0
H2O(l) -285.83 -237.13 69.91
H2O(g) -241.82 -228.57 188.83
H2O2(l) -187.78 -120.35 109.6
H2O2(aq) -191.17 -134.03 143.9
Nitrogen
N2(g) 0 0 191.61
NO(g) 90.25 86.55 210.76
N2O(g) 82.05 104.20 219.85
NO2(g) 33.18 51.31 240.06
N2O4(g) 9.16 97.89 304.29
HNO3(l) -174.10 -80.71 155.60
HNO3(aq) -207.36 -111.22 146.4
NO3–(aq) -205.0 -108.74 146.4
Sodium
Na(s) 0 0 51.21
Na(g) 107.32 76.76 153.71
Na+(aq) -240.12 -261.91 59.0
NaOH(s) -425.61 -379.49 64.46
NaOH(aq) -470.11 -419.15 48.1

173
 Na[Au(CN)2] –122.0523 - -
Na[Ag(CN)2] 145.937 - -
AuCl4 -137.90217 - -
NOCl 51.71 - -
AgCl -127.0 - -
Table (B1): Thermodynamic data at 25oC for assorted inorganic
substances.( source : https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-
answers/standard-heat-formation-agcl-s-1270-kj-mol-following-equations-associated-heat-
formation-v-q8901765)
Table (B2): Heat capacity data
Substance Heat capacity at 25c
(Kj/kg.c)
NaOH 6747.13

NaCN 51147.7

Source:(webbook.nist.gov)

174
 Appendix (C)

Figure (C1): Chamber diameter Dc from flow-rate, physical properties, and

d50 particle size. Source: Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering volume 6 (Zanker, 1977).

175
Figure (C2): Determination of d50 from the desired particle separation. (Source:
Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering volume 6 (Zanker, 1977).

176
Table (C3): Typical design stresses for plate.

(Source: Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering volume 6)

177