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contents in brief
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Tort Law and Practice 1

CHAPTER 2 Foreseeability In Tort Law 17
CHAPTER 3 Battery 27
CHAPTER 4 Assault 41
CHAPTER 5 False Imprisonment and False Arrest 53
CHAPTER 6 Misuse of Legal Proceedings 69
CHAPTER 7 Infliction of Emotional Distress 81
CHAPTER 8 Conversion and Trespass to Chattels 101
CHAPTER 9 Strict Liability 111
CHAPTER 10 Negligence: A Summary 123
CHAPTER 11 Negligence: Element I: Duty 133
CHAPTER 12 Negligence: Element II: Breach of Duty
(Unreasonableness) 147
CHAPTER 13 Negligence: Element III: Proximate Cause 199
CHAPTER 14 Negligence: Element IV: Damages 219
CHAPTER 15 Negligence: Defenses 235
CHAPTER 16 Products Liability 251
CHAPTER 17 Survival and Wrongful Death 297
CHAPTER 18 Torts Against and Within the Family 305
CHAPTER 19 Torts Connected with Land 315
CHAPTER 20 Defamation 347
CHAPTER 21 Invasion of Privacy 371
CHAPTER 22 Misrepresentation, Tortious Interference, and
Other Torts 383
CHAPTER 23 Additional Tort Defenses 403
CHAPTER 24 Workers’ Compensation 429
APPENDIX Automobile Insurance 443

GLOSSARY 447
INDEX 465
vii
contents
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Tort Law and Practice 1

Scope 2
Definitions and Purposes 2
Elements of All the Torts 5
Categories of Torts 5
Introduction to Causation 10
CHAPTER 2 Foreseeability in Tort Law 17

Introduction 18
Defining Foreseeability 18
Foreseeability Spectrum 18
Objective Standard 19
Factors That Determine Foreseeability 20
Review of Steps to Determine Foreseeability 23
CHAPTER 3 Battery 27
Introduction 28
Act 28
Material Touching 29
Person 30
Intent 30
Harmful or Offensive Contact 31
Damages 33
Consent and Privilege 33
CHAPTER 4 Assault 41
Introduction 42
Act 42
Apprehension 42
Harmful or Offensive 43
Intent 44
Damages 46
CHAPTER 5 False Imprisonment and False Arrest 53

Introduction 54
False Imprisonment 54
False Arrest 59
ix
x C O NTE NTS
CHA P T E R 6 Misuse of Legal Proceedings 69

Introduction 70
Malicious Prosecution 70
Wrongful Civil Proceedings 73
Abuse of Process 74
CHA P T E R 7 Infliction of Emotional Distress 81

Introduction 82
Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress 82
Tort Law and the Impeachment of the
President 87
Media Defendants and the Constitution 89
Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress 95
CHA P T E R 8 Conversion and Trespass to Chattels 101

Introduction 102
Damages 102
Kind of Interference 102
Mistake Defense 105
CHA P T E R 9 Strict Liability 111

Introduction 112
Animals 112
Strict Liability for Abnormally Dangerous
Conditions or Activities 114
CHA P T E R 1 0 Negligence: A Summary 123

Introduction 124
Negligence and Breach of Duty 124
Negligence and Insurance 124
Shorthand Definition 125
Gross Negligence and Ordinary Negligence 125
Negligence Checklist 126
CHA P T E R 1 1 Negligence: Element I: Duty 133

General Rule on Duty 134
Unforeseeable Plaintiff 135
Nonfeasance and Special Relationships 137
Gratuitous Undertaking 140
Protection for the Good Samaritan 142
CHA P T E R 1 2 Negligence: Element II: Breach

of Duty (Unreasonableness) 147
Standard of Care: Reasonableness 148
Breach-of-Duty (Unreasonableness) Equation 150
CONTENTS xi
Objective or Subjective Standard? 155

Res Ipsa Loquitur (RIL) 158
Custom and Usage 163
Violation of a Statute 164
Compliance with a Statute 170
Gross Negligence (Unreasonableness) and
Willful, Wanton, and Reckless Conduct 170
Vicarious Liability 171
Introduction to Malpractice 178
Medical Malpractice 178
Legal Malpractice 186
Liability of Paralegals 190
C H A P T E R 13 Negligence: Element III:

Proximate Cause 199
Introduction 200
Terminology Problems 201
Actual Cause 201
Cutoff Test of Proximate Cause 207
Overview of Steps Needed to Analyze
Proximate Cause 215
C H A P T E R 14 Negligence: Element IV: Damages 219

Kinds of Damages 220
Present Value 222
Pain and Suffering 224
Software 225
Property Damage 226
Mitigation-of-Damages Rule 226
Collateral Source Rule 227
Joint Tortfeasors 227
Release 229
Contribution 230
Indemnity 230
September 11th Victim Compensation
Fund 231
Taxation of Damages 231
C H A P T E R 15 Negligence: Defenses 235

Introduction 236
Contributory Negligence 237
Last Clear Chance 240
Comparative Negligence 241
Assumption of the Risk 243
xii C O NTE NTS
CHA P T E R 16 Products Liability 251

Products Liability in the Media 252
Categories of Defects 253
Negligence 254
Warranty and Strict Liability 258
Express Warranty 259
Sale versus Service 260
Implied Warranties 262
Strict Liability in Tort 266
Reform 277
Mass Torts 277
CHA P T E R 17 Survival and Wrongful Death 297

Introduction 298
Survival of Torts Unrelated to Death 298
Wrongful Death 300
Avoiding Double Recovery 301
CHA P T E R 18 Torts Against and Within the Family 305

Torts Derived from Other Torts 306
Torts Not Derived from Other Torts 308
Prenatal Torts 309
Wrongful Life, Birth, Pregnancy 309
Wrongful Adoption 310
Intrafamily Tort Immunity 311
Other Family-Related Torts 312
CHA P T E R 19 Torts Connected with Land 315

Introduction 316
Nuisance 321
Traditional Negligence Liability 333
CHA P T E R 20 Defamation 347

Introduction 348
Defamatory Statement 349
Extrinsic Facts 351
Falsity of the Statement 351
Of and Concerning the Plaintiff 355
Publication 356
Republication 356
Cyberspace Defamation 357
Damages 358
Privilege 359
SLAPP Suits 361
“Veggie Libel” 362
CONTENTS xiii
C H A P T E R 21 Invasion of Privacy 371

Four Torts 372
Intrusion 372
Appropriation 373
Public Disclosure of Private Fact 374
False Light 375
Media Defendants 376
C H A P T E R 22 Misrepresentation, Tortious
Interference, and Other Torts 383
Misrepresentation 384
Interference with Contract Relations 390
Interference with Prospective Advantage 393
Wrongful Discharge 394
Disparagement 395
Injurious Falsehood 397
Prima Facie Tort 398
Bad Faith Liability 398
Dram Shop Liability 399
C H A P T E R 23 Additional Tort Defenses 403

Introduction 404
Consent in Tort Law 404
Self-Help Privileges 408
The Defense of Sovereign Immunity 418
The Defense of Official Immunity:
The Personal Liability of Government Employees 422
The Defense of Charitable Immunity 425
The Defense of Intrafamily Tort Immunity 426
C H A P T E R 24 Workers’ Compensation 429

Introduction 430
On-the-Job Injuries at Common Law 430
Workers’ Compensation Statutes 430
Injuries and Diseases Covered 432
Filing a Claim 438
Benefits Available 438
Tort Claims Against Third Parties 439
Reform 439
APPENDIX Automobile Insurance 443
G L O S SA RY 44 7
INDEX 465
table of exhibits
1–1 Tort trials in state courts in the nation’s 75 9–2 Elements of strict liability for abnormally
largest counties. 3 dangerous conditions or activities
1–2 Tort action and criminal prosecution (SLADCA). 114
for the same misconduct: Two separate 10–1 Coverage of negligence topics. 124
proceedings. 4 10–2 Elements of the tort of negligence. 124
1–3 Torts and related causes of action: The 11–1 Foreseeable and unforeseeable
elements. 6 plaintiffs. 135
1–4 Example of an Internet site relevant to tort 11–2 Affirmative conduct versus a failure to
law: Consumer Product Safety Commission act. 137
(www.cpsc.gov). 13 11–3 Special relationships that create a duty to use
2–1 Foreseeability spectrum: How foreseeable, if reasonable care in nonfeasance cases. 139
at all? 19 12–1 Factors to be assessed in the determination of
2–2 Factors that determine foreseeability. 20 reasonableness. 148
3–1 Elements of the tort of battery. 28 12–2 Reasonableness by comparison. 149
3–2 Battery and assault as torts and as 12–3 Comparison of the conduct of a perfect
crimes. 29 person, a reasonable person, and an
4–1 Elements of the tort of assault. 42 unreasonable person. 151
4–2 The transferred-intent rule: Unintended 12–4 Breach-of-duty equation. 151
plaintiffs and unintended torts. 45 12–5 Objective and subjective standards. 156
5–1 Elements of the tort of false 12–6 Spectrum of likelihood. 160
imprisonment. 54 12–7 How to determine whether the violation of a
5–2 Comparison of peace officer’s and private statute will become the standard of care in a
citizen’s privilege to arrest without a negligence action. 169
warrant. 60 12–8 Three categories of vicarious
5–3 Privilege and immunity. 61 unreasonableness. 172
6–1 Elements of the tort of malicious 12–9 Checklist of factors used to determine scope
prosecution. 71 of employment. 174
6–2 Probable cause in malicious prosecution 12–10 Liability for torts of independent
suits. 72 contractors. 176
6–3 Elements of the tort of wrongful civil 12–11 Medical malpractice damage award
proceedings. 74 trends. 180
6–4 Elements of the tort of abuse of process. 75 12–12 Elements of informed consent. 182
7–1 Elements of the tort of intentional infliction 12–13 Professional liability claims against law firms
of emotional distress. 82 by error group. 187
8–1 Elements of the torts of conversion and 12–14 Mistakes of attorneys. 188
trespass to chattels. 102 13–1 The tests of proximate cause. 201
8–2 Factors considered by a court to 14–1 Jury instructions on damages. 223
determine whether an interference with
14–2 Software to help calculate damages. 225
a chattel is serious enough to constitute
conversion. 103 15–1 Breach-of-duty equation. 238
9–1 Elements of strict liability for harm caused by 16–1 Annual injuries associated with selected
animals. 112 consumer products. 252
xv
xvi TABL E O F E XH I BI TS
16–2 Categories of defects in products. 253 22–1 Elements of the tort of

16–3 Status: Who is the plaintiff? Who is the misrepresentation. 384
defendant? 254 22–2 Elements of the tort of interference with
16–4 Elements of breach of express contract relations. 391
warranty. 259 22–3 Elements of the tort of interference with
16–5 Elements of breach of implied warranty of prospective advantage. 393
merchantability. 263 22–4 Elements of the tort of wrongful
16–6 Elements of breach of implied warranty of discharge. 395
fitness for a particular purpose. 264 22–5 Elements of the tort of disparagement. 395
16–7 Elements of strict liability in tort. 266 22–6 Elements of the tort of injurious
16–8 Categories of mass tort litigation. 278 falsehood. 397
18–1 Intrafamily torts. 311 22–7 Elements of the prima facie tort. 398
19–1 Elements of the tort of trespass to land. 316 23–1 Elements of consent. 404
19–2 Elements of private nuisance. 322 23–2 An overview of the privilege of self-
defense. 410
19–3 Private nuisance: An overview. 323
23–3 An overview of the privilege of defense of
19–4 Spectrum of interference. 324 others. 411
19–5 Elements of public nuisance. 329 23–4 An overview of the privilege of
19–6 Negligence liability of occupiers of necessity. 413
land. 335 23–5 An overview of the privilege of defense of
20–1 Elements of the torts of libel and property. 414
slander. 348 23–6 An overview of the privilege of recapture of
20–2 Falsity: Standards of proof in defamation chattels (personal property). 417
cases against media defendants. 353 23–7 Federal Tort Claims Act. 419
21–1 Elements of the tort of intrusion. 372 23–8 Elements of a civil rights violation. 423
21–2 Factors a court will consider when deciding 23–9 Official immunity of government employees
whether plaintiff was engaged in a private for common-law torts and for violations of
activity. 372 the Civil Rights Act. 425
21–3 Elements of the tort of appropriation. 373 24–1 Benefits/disadvantages of workers’
21–4 Elements of the tort of public disclosure of compensation (WC). 431
private fact. 374 24–2 Example of a schedule of weeks of
21–5 Elements of the tort of false light. 375 benefits. 438
preface
Thousands of injuries occur every day on the road, at work, in department

stores, on the playground, and at home. The incidence of property damage is equally
extensive. Although most of these mishaps never find their way into the legal system,
many are caused by wrongs that we call torts. In addition to providing compensa-
tion to victims, one of the major objectives of tort law is behavior modification. A
premise of tort litigation is that one of the most effective ways to force people to
avoid injuring others or damaging their property is to hang the threat of a lawsuit
over their heads. These are some of the dynamics we will explore in this book.
It is an exciting time to study tort law. Throughout the country there is con-
siderable controversy over whether our system of tort litigation is causing more
societal ills than it is solving. Horror stories abound on talk shows and editorial
pages. An example is the seventeen-year-old Michigan high school student who sued
Nintendo and Toys “R” Us, where she bought a Nintendo video game console. Her
suit claims that she has an inflamed thumb from playing too much Nintendo. Her
doctor calls the condition “Nintendinitis” (a word that will send you to over 20,000
sites via Google). The suit alleged that the condition prevents the plaintiff from writ-
ing, from typing—and, of course, from playing Nintendo games! Such cases have
prompted calls for tort reform. The chapters of this book will help place these calls
into perspective.
The Internet has also stirred controversy. The legal system is having tremendous
difficulty trying to figure out what role it should play in the still-burgeoning life of
the World Wide Web. Should there be tort remedies to cover unsavory activity such
as plagiarism, theft of media, personal attacks (e.g., cyberbullying), and privacy in-
vasions (e.g., cyberstalking)? Communications technology in the twenty-first cen-
tury continues to force the legal system to confront such questions.
Torts is one of the first courses taught to first-year students in law school. This
is because the study of tort law can provide excellent insight into the common law,
the practice of law, and legal skills, particularly legal analysis. Paralegal students can
also tap into this insight. In a personal injury practice of law, the attorney–paralegal
team makes an important contribution. In many offices, the team is inseparable. To
achieve this work environment, one of the first steps is to understand the principles
of tort law that the attorney applies in personal injury cases. This understanding is
one of our major goals.
CHAPTER FORMAT
Each chapter includes features designed to assist the student in understanding
the material:
• A chapter outline at the beginning of each chapter provides a preview of the
major topics in the chapter.
• Chapter objectives, also at the beginning of each chapter, present a more de-
tailed listing of the themes and skills covered in the chapter.
• Exhibits and tables are used extensively to clarify concepts and present de-
tailed information in an organized chart form.
• Assignments that ask the student to apply concepts to particular fact situa-
tions are included within most chapters.
xvii
xviii P R E FAC E
• The Ethics in a Torts Practice feature asks the student to read a fact situation
and identify ethical problems that may exist. These exercises may tangentially
cover the topics of the chapters in which they are found. Their main purpose,
however, is to review the major ethical issues that apply to any law office.
• A chapter summary at the end of each chapter provides a concise review of
the main concepts discussed.
• Key terms are presented in boldface type the first time they appear in each
chapter. Also a list of key terms is found at the end of each chapter to help
review important terminology introduced in that chapter.
• Helpful websites are added at the end of each chapter to provide additional
materials on the topics of the chapter.
• Margin definitions are presented for each term in boldface type in the chapter.
• Examples are used extensively to highlight critical doctrines and practices.
• After the discussion of each major tort in a chapter, there is a comprehen-
sive checklist called Definitions, Relationships, Paralegal Roles, and Research
References. It is designed to provide the “big picture” by making connections
between the particular tort examined in the chapter and related material on
other torts discussed in other chapters. The checklist also serves as an on-the-
job refresher for individual torts.
CHANGES IN THE THIRD EDITION

• Many new and revised examples and exhibits are included.
• Each chapter begins with chapter objectives.
• Margin definitions have been added in each chapter.
• Ethics in a Tort Practice exercises have been added to the chapters.
• Each chapter concludes with review questions.
• The comprehensive charts on each of the major torts (Definitions, Relation-
ships, Paralegal Roles, and Research References) have been moved from the
beginning of the discussion of the tort to the conclusion of the discussion.
• Chapter 1 contains a new chart comparing tort actions and criminal prosecu-
tion for the same conduct.
• Chapters 1–24 contain review questions at the end of the chapters.
• Chapters 3–21 contain separate exhibits on the elements of each tort covered
in the chapters.
• Chapter 3 contains a new chart comparing civil and criminal battery and
assault.
• Chapter 3 also contains additional material on damages in battery actions.
• Chapter 4 covers the relationship between assault and the Internet offenses
of cyberstalking and cyberbullying.
• Chapter 5 contains a new chart comparing privilege and immunity.
• Chapter 7 covers emotional wrongs committed on the Internet and the tort
of intentional infliction of emotional distress.
• Chapter 7 also examines whether the families of the victims of 9/11 can sue
for intentional infliction of emotional distress.
• Chapter 8 asks whether spam can constitute trespass to chattels and whether
electronic data can be converted.
• The overview of negligence in Chapter 10 adds coverage of gross negligence
and ordinary negligence.
• Chapter 14 discusses the causation issues involved in the Columbine massa-
cre and the settlement fund set up to compensate families of the 9/11 terrorist
attack.
• Chapter 15 covers comparative negligence principles that applied to the 1993
World Trade Center bombing.
PREFACE xix
• Chapter 16 gives additional background on the Stella hot coffee case and
raises the question of whether there can be strict liability for defective web-
sites and movies.
• Chapter 16 adds the RICO litigation to the strategies leveled against the to-
bacco industry.
• Chapter 19 discusses the case against Craigslist for public nuisance and the
statutory immunity given to the firearms industry.
• Chapter 22 adds additional material on wrongful discharge and deceptive
trade practices.
TEACHING AIDS AND SUPPLEMENTS
Paralegal CourseMate
Essentials of Torts, Third Edition, includes Paralegal CourseMate, a complement to
your textbook.
Paralegal CourseMate includes:
*an interactive eBook, with highlighting, note-taking, and search capabilities
*interactive teaching and learning tools, including
• Quizzes
• Case studies
• Chapter objectives
• Flashcards
• Web links
• Crossword puzzles
• PowerPoint™ presentations
• And more!
*Engagement Tracker, a first-of-its-kind tool that monitors student engagement in
the course
Go to www.login.cengagebrain.com to access these resources, and look for this
icon which denotes a resource available with CourseMate.
Instructor’s Manual
An Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank by the author of the text accompanies this
edition and has been expanded to incorporate changes in the text and to provide
comprehensive teaching support. It includes the following:
• teaching options, such as lecture ideas and suggestions for using selected
assignments
• answers to Ethics in a Torts Practice and Review Questions
• a test bank of over 450 questions, which include a variety of questions in
true/false, multiple-choice, completion, matching, and essay formats
Instructor Resources
Delmar Cengage Learning’s Instructor Resources to accompany Essentials of Torts
can provide valuable assistance with course design and student evaluation.
This instructor CD-ROM allows you anywhere, anytime access to all of your
resources:
• The Instructor’s Manual contains various resources for each chapter of the
book.
• The Computerized Test Bank in ExamView facilitates the generation of tests
and quizzes. With many questions and different styles to choose from, you
xx P R E FAC E
can easily create customized assessments for your students. You can also add
your own unique questions.
• Customizable PowerPoint ® Presentations focus on key points for each
chapter.
(PowerPoint® is a registered trademark of the Microsoft Corporation.)
To access additional course materials (including CourseMate), please go to http://
login.cengage.com, then use your SSO (single sign-on) login to access the materials.
All of these instructor materials are also posted on our website (http://www
.paralegal.delmar.cengage.com/) in the Online Resources section.
Web Page
Visit our website at www.paralegal.delmar.cengage.com, where you will find valu-
able information such as hot links and sample materials to download, as well as
other Delmar Cengage Learning products.
Please note that the Internet resources are of a time-sensitive nature and URL
addresses may often change or be deleted.
PREFACE xxi
SUPPLEMENTS AT-A-GLANCE
SUPPLEMENT: WHAT IT IS: WHAT’S IN IT:

Paralegal Online interactive teaching and learning Interactive teaching and learning tools,
CourseMate tools and an interactive eBook. Go to login including
.cengage.com to access.
• Quizzes
• Case studies
• Chapter objectives
• Flashcards
• Web links
• Crossword puzzles
• PowerPoint™ presentations
• Interactive eBook
• Engagement Tracker
Online Instructor’s Resources for the instructor, posted online • Instructor manual with lecture ideas,
Manual at www.paralegal.delmar.cengage.com in suggested answers, and test bank with
the Online Resources section answer key
• PowerPoint® presentations
Instructor Resources Resources for the instructor, available on • Instructor manual with lecture ideas,
CD-ROM CD-ROM suggested answers, and test bank with
answer key
• Computerized test bank in ExamView
with many questions and styles to
choose from to create customized stu-
dent assessments
• PowerPoint® presentations
Torts Online Course Robust online course available on both Includes 16 lessons with introduction,
Blackboard and WebCT. (Availability upon objectives, lecture outline, video activities,
request for eCollege, Angel, Desire2Learn, journal activities, group activities, Inter-
and more.) net activities, discussion questions, ethics
questions, glossary terms, weblinks, study
The course can be used along with this
notes, and quizzes for the student.
textbook or any book for an introductory
course. See a demo at http://cengagesites Instructor materials include PowerPoint
.com/academic/?site=4074. slides and test banks.
xxii PR E FAC E
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many thanks to the reviewers who made valuable suggestions for improving
this text:
Linda Anderson
Woodbury College
Burlington, VT
Beverly Broman
Duff’s Business Institute
Pittsburgh, PA
Mimi Flaherty
RETS Technical Center
Charlestown, MA
Christie Highlander
Southwestern Illinois College
Belleville, IL
Elizabeth Mann
Greenville Technical College
Greenville, SC
Alvin McDonald
New Mexico State University at Alamagordo
Alamagordo, NM
Christine Thiltgen
American River College
Sacramento, CA
c h a p t e r
1
introduction to tort
law and practice
CHAPTER OUTLINE
• Scope
• Definitions and Purposes
• Elements of All the Torts
• Categories of Torts
• Introduction to Causation
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the financial and human scope of unintended injuries in society.
• Define tort, damages, criminal law, civil law, and related concepts.
• Know the four purposes of tort law.
• Know what is meant by stating a tort cause of action.
• Distinguish among intentional torts, negligence, and strict liability.
• Know the meaning of proximate cause.
• State the two tests for actual cause (cause in fact).
1
2 C H A P TE R 1 introduction to tort law and practice
SCOPE
tort A civil wrong (other than a Accidental or unintentional injuries take a staggering toll on society. Each year,
breach of contract) that causes the total economic cost of such injuries is $652 billion according to the National
injury or other loss for which our Safety Council. This includes medical expenses, property damage, wage losses, pro-
legal system deems it just to
provide a remedy such as damages.
ductivity losses, legal costs, police costs, and related administrative expenses. Each
Injury or loss can be to the person year, over 23 million people need medical attention and 120,000 die from unin-
(a personal tort), to movable prop- tended injuries.1
erty (a personal property tort), or to Some of these injuries are caused by torts, which brings us to the subject of
land and anything attached to the this book. Broadly speaking, a tort is a civil wrong that can be redressed by award-
land (a real property tort). ing damages. A more precise definition is that a tort is a civil wrong (other than a
damages 1. Monetary pay- breach of contract) that causes injury or other loss for which our legal system deems
ments awarded to compensate it just to provide a remedy such as damages. We’ll have more to say about this defi-
someone for a legally recognized nition shortly when we examine the categories of personal torts, personal property
wrong (noun). 2. Causes harm or torts, and real property torts. See Exhibit 1–1 for statistics on tort cases in selected
other loss (verb). (The word damage state courts in the country.
means injury, impairment, or other Federal courts also handle tort cases when the parties suing each other are cit-
loss to person or property.)
izens of different states (diversity of citizenship) or when the suit is against the
diversity of citizenship The federal government for a tort committed by a federal employee. Fourteen percent of all
disputing parties are citizens of dif- civil cases filed in U.S. district courts (the main federal trial court) are tort claims. Plain-
ferent states. This fact gives jurisdic- tiffs won about 51 percent of these cases. The median award for plaintiffs in state courts
tion (called diversity jurisdiction) to is $24,000. The median award in federal courts is considerably larger, $179,000.2
a United States district court when
the amount in controversy exceeds
Our goal in this book is to help you understand the law behind these statistics
$75,000. and the roles played by paralegals in a legal system designed to determine when
injured parties should be compensated for losses caused by torts.
DEFINITIONS AND PURPOSES

remedy 1. The means by which a When someone harms or damages the person or property of another, the primi-
right is enforced or the violation of a tive instinct of the victim is often to strike back. Our legal system functions as a check
right is prevented, compensated for,
or otherwise redressed. 2. To correct.
against this instinct so that the peace of the realm is not disturbed. If a conflict is not
resolved informally among the parties, society asks that the parties seek a remedy
jurisdiction 1. The authority in court. In the medical world, a remedy is something that cures or treats an
or power of a court to resolve a ailment. In the law, a remedy is a means by which the enforcement of a right is
dispute. Its personal jurisdiction sought or the violation of a right is prevented, compensated for, or otherwise
is its power to order a particular redressed.
defendant to do or to refrain from There are two kinds of disputes over which courts have jurisdiction: criminal
doing something. Its subject matter
jurisdiction is its power to hear
disputes and civil disputes. (Jurisdiction is the authority or power of a court to re-
certain kinds of cases. 2. The geo- solve a dispute.) These disputes are based on the two major categories of law:
graphic area over which a particular • criminal law: The law that governs crimes alleged by the government.
court has authority.
• civil law: The law that governs rights and duties between private persons or
criminal law The law that governs between private persons and the government concerning matters other than
crimes alleged by the govern- the commission of a crime. (A separate meaning of civil law is the law that
ment. Criminal law defines crimes, applies in Louisiana and some European countries.)
punishments, and procedures for
investigation and prosecution. Also Criminal law covers those wrongs that are serious enough to be classified as
called penal law. crimes, e.g., murder and burglary. Civil law covers civil wrongs, which essentially
civil law 1. The law that governs consist of everything other than criminal wrongs. Tort law is one of the branches of
rights and duties between private civil law. Another familiar branch is contract law.
persons or between private persons The word tort comes from the Latin word “tortus,” meaning twisted, and from the
and the government concerning French word “tort,” meaning injury or wrong. As we have seen, the complete defini-
matters other than the commission
tion of tort is a civil wrong (other than a breach of contract) that causes injury or other
of a crime. 2. Any law other than
criminal law. 3. The statutory or code loss for which our legal system deems it just to provide a remedy such as damages.
law applicable in Louisiana and in The same conduct can constitute both a tort and a crime. The proceedings
many Western European countries in which torts and crimes are litigated, however, are separate and substantially
other than England.
C H AP TE R 1 introduction to tort law and practice 3
Exhibit 1–1
Trials Percent change
Tort trials in state courts
Type of tort trial characteristic 2005 1996–2005 in the nation’s 75 largest
counties.
How many tort trials were disposed?
All tort trials 7,038 –31.5%
Automobile accident 3,545 –29.0
Medical malpractice 1,219 1.5
Premises liability 1,067 –52.2
Intentional tort 352 –28.4
Product liability 225 –46.7
What percentage of plaintiffs won?
All tort trials 48.0% –0.3%
Automobile accident 61.0 6.1
Medical malpractice 19.4 –17.0
Premises liability 38.9 –1.7
Intentional tort 50.4 –11.5
Product liability 37.9 –15.6
How much did prevailing plaintiffs win?
All tort trials $31,000 –18.4%
Automobile accident 16,000 –27.3
Medical malpractice 679,000 91.8
Premises liability 90,000 26.8
Intentional tort 100,000 150.0
Product liability 748,000 210.4
What percentage of plaintiffs won punitive
damages?
All tort trials 3.6% 8.5%
Medical malpractice 2.6 144.7
Intentional tort 24.3 1.2
How long did disposition of tort case take?
All tort trials 23.0 mo. 5.3%
Medical malpractice 30.7 3.5
Intentional tort 25.3 22.8
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Tort Bench and Jury Trials in State Courts, 2005, Table 12, p. 12
(November 2009) (bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/tbjtsc05.pdf). Note: The table includes all jury
trials, bench trials, trials with a directed verdict, trials that ended in a judgment notwithstanding the
verdict, and jury trials for defaulted defendants concluded in a sample of the nation’s 75 most popu-
lous counties. Product liability includes cases of asbestos exposure. Data from Civil Justice Survey
of State Courts (1996, 2001, and 2005). Data can be obtained from the University of Michigan Inter-
University Consortium for Political and Social Research.
different. A dramatic example of the difference can be seen in the O. J. Simpson

trials that gripped the attention of the nation in the 1990s. In a criminal trial, the
former football star was acquitted of murdering two persons. In a subsequent
standard of proof How believ-
civil trial, however, he was found liable for wrongfully causing the deaths of the able or convincing a version of a
same two people. These are not inconsistent results because the standard of proof is fact must be before the trier of
significantly different in criminal and civil cases. In a criminal case, the elements facts (usually a jury) can accept it
of the crime must be established against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt, as true.
whereas in most civil cases, the elements of the tort or other cause of action must
preponderance of the be established against the defendant by a preponderance of the evidence. One can
evidence The standard of proof conclude that the preponderance of evidence establishes that someone committed a
that is met when the evidence certain act, and also conclude that there is some reasonable doubt about whether he
establishes that it is more likely than
or she committed it. See Exhibit 1–2 for more examples of the differences between
not that the facts are as alleged.
civil and criminal cases.
Exhibit 1–2 Tort action and criminal prosecution for the same misconduct: Two separate proceedings. © Cengage Learning 2012
Example Facts: Jim pushes Mary against the wall, grabs her purse containing valuable
jewelry, and flees.
Tort Case Criminal Case
The wrong committed The tort of conversion (wrongfully taking or The crime of robbery (using force or violence
seriously interfering with another’s personal to take personal property from the person of
property). another).
Nature of the wrong A private wrong. Jim took Mary’s private A public wrong. When robbery occurs, the
property. public peace has been disturbed.
Court hearing the case A suit for the tort of conversion is a civil A robbery prosecution is a criminal action
action heard in a civil court. heard in a criminal court.
Parties Mary sues Jim. The moving party is Mary, The state prosecutes Jim. The moving party
who is the plaintiff; Jim is the defendant. is the state. Jim is the defendant, also
Someone accused of committing a tort is an called the accused. (Mary is the complaining
alleged tortfeasor. witness.)
Standard of proof Mary must prove the elements of the tort The state must prove the elements of rob-
of conversion by a preponderance of the bery beyond a reasonable doubt.
evidence.
Representation Mary can represent herself or she can hire The state is represented by the prosecutor
(and pay for) a private attorney to represent (sometimes called the district attorney). Jim
her. Jim can represent himself or he can hire may be able to represent himself or he can
(and pay for) a private attorney to represent hire (and pay for) a private attorney to repre-
him. sent him.
Right to counsel If Jim cannot afford a private attorney, in most If Jim cannot afford a private attorney, in most
cases he does not have the right to be repre- cases he has the right to be represented by
sented by assigned counsel paid by the state. assigned counsel paid by the state.
Procedural rules Rules of civil procedure Rules of criminal procedure
Testimony of defendant The defendant (Jim) may be forced to testify. The defendant (Jim) has a constitutional
right to silence; he cannot be forced to
incriminate himself.
Jury verdict Many states allow jury verdicts by less than Most states require jury verdicts by unani-
unanimous vote. mous vote.
Conclusion of proceeding The defendant is found liable or not liable. The defendant is found guilty or not guilty. If
The final judgment of the court includes a guilty, the final judgment includes the punish-
determination of liability. ment imposed during sentencing.
Monetary payments A defendant who is found liable may be A defendant who is found guilty may be
forced to pay money (damages) to the victim forced to pay restitution to the victim of the
of the tort. crime. The defendant might also be incarcer-
ated and forced to pay a fine. The fine is
paid to the state, not to the victim.
There are four major purposes of tort law: peace, deterrence, restoration, and
justice.3
1. Peace: To provide a peaceful means for adjusting the rights of parties who might
otherwise “take the law into their own hands.” A courtroom is a neutral setting
where allegations can be aired in order to reach a rational resolution that the
parties and the community can accept.
2. Deterrence: To deter wrongful conduct. Tort litigation takes place in public. The
media is free to report what occurs in court. News that certain conduct forced
someone into court and led to the payment of a large money judgment can en-
courage the public to avoid that kind of conduct for fear of being subjected to
a similar fate. This is sometimes called the “behavior modification” purpose of
tort law. It has the effect of encouraging socially responsible behavior such as
making safer automobiles and removing ice from sidewalks.
3. Restoration: To restore injured parties to their original position, insofar as this
is possible, usually by compensating them for their injury. This is sometimes re-
ferred to as being made whole. Of course, it is often impossible to restore some- made whole Restored to the
one to the condition that existed before the injury occurred. If you negligently condition that existed before the
break my leg, I may never be restored to full health. Yet by providing compensa- wrong was committed against the
victim insofar as this is possible. To
tion (damages), I am being made as whole as is humanly possible.
be compensated for a loss.
4. Justice: To identify those who should be held accountable for the harm that re-
sulted. A tort case can involve one or more victims and one or more defendants
alleged to have a role in causing a particular injury. The law of torts is designed to
sort through the involvement of all of the participants in order to identify who is
culpable or blameworthy and to determine who, in fairness, should be made to pay. culpable At fault; blameworthy.
Whenever someone suffers a serious loss caused by another, our tort system
could become involved. If it does, the overriding question of tort law—and the
theme of this book—is whether that loss should be shifted to someone else in light
of the peace, deterrence, restoration, and justice objectives of tort law.
ELEMENTS OF ALL THE TORTS

Every tort is a cause of action, which is simply a legally acceptable reason for cause of action 1. A legally ac-
bringing a suit. When you state a tort cause of action, you list the facts that give you a ceptable reason for bringing a suit.
right to judicial relief against the tortfeasor—the wrongdoer who has committed the A rule that constitutes a legal theory
tort. Causes of action are rules. Every rule can be broken down into the component for bringing a suit. 2. The facts that
give a person a right to judicial
parts that we call elements. (An element is a portion of a rule that is one of the relief. When you state a cause of ac-
preconditions of the applicability of the entire rule.) The elements of the torts and tion, you list the facts that give you
related causes of action that we will study in this book are listed in Exhibit 1–3. For a right to judicial relief against the
each cause of action, you are told what elements must be supported by facts in order wrongdoer. When you state a tort
to “state” the cause of action. When a party has offered sufficient evidence covering cause of action, you list the facts
every element of a cause of action, that party has presented what is called a prima that give you a right to judicial relief
facie case that will entitle the party to prevail unless the other side offers more con- against the tortfeasor.
vincing counterevidence. tortfeasor A person who has
committed a tort.
element A portion of a rule that is

CATEGORIES OF TORTS one of the preconditions of the ap-
plicability of the entire rule. A cause
There are three main categories of torts: of action is a rule. Hence, a cause
of action has elements.
• intentional torts
• negligence prima facie case A party’s
• strict liability torts presentation of evidence that will
prevail unless the other side offers
These categories are not ironclad. There are some torts that overlap the catego- more convincing counterevidence.
ries, as we will see.
Exhibit 1–3 Torts and related causes of action: The elements. © Cengage Learning 2012
1. Abuse of Process Defamation (two torts: libel and slander)

(Chapter 6) 8. Libel
1. The use of criminal or civil process (Chapter 20)
2. For improper or ulterior motive 1. Written defamatory statement by the defendant
2. Of and concerning the plaintiff
2. Alienation of Affections
3. Publication of the statement
(Chapter 18)
4. Damages:
1. The defendant intended to diminish the marital
a. In some states, special damages never have to
relationship (love, companionship, and comfort)
be proven in a libel case
between the plaintiff and the latter’s spouse
b. In other states, libel per se does not require
2. Affirmative conduct by the defendant
special damages, but libel per quod does
3. Affections between the plaintiff and spouse were in
5. Causation
fact alienated
4. The defendant caused the alienation 9. Slander
(Chapter 20)
3. Assault (Civil)
1. Oral defamatory statement by the defendant
(Chapter 4)
2. Of and concerning the plaintiff
1. Act
3. Publication of the statement
2. Intent to cause (a) an apprehension of an immi-
4. Damages:
nent harmful or offensive contact or (b) the immi-
a. Special damages are not required for slander
nent harmful or offensive contact itself
per se
3. Apprehension of an imminent harmful or offensive
b. Special damages are required for slander per
contact with the plaintiff’s person
quod
4. Causation of the apprehension
5. Causation
4. Battery (Civil)
10. Disparagement
(Chapter 3)
(Chapter 22)
1. Act
1. False statement of fact
2. Intent to cause (a) an imminent contact with the
2. Disparaging the plaintiff’s business, products, or
plaintiff’s person or (b) an apprehension of such
title to property
contact
3. Publication
3. Contact that is harmful or offensive
4. Intent
4. Causation of the harmful or offensive contact
5. Special damages
5. Civil Rights Violation 6. Causation
(Chapter 23)
11. Enticement of a Child or Abduction of a Child
1. A person acting under color of law
(Chapter 18)
2. Deprives someone of a federal right
1. The defendant intended to interfere with the
6. Conversion parent’s custody of the child.
(Chapter 8) 2. Affirmative conduct by the defendant:
1. Personal property (chattel) a. to abduct or force the child from the parent’s
2. The plaintiff is in possession of the chattel or is custody,
entitled to immediate possession b. to entice or encourage the child to leave the
3. Intent to exercise dominion over the chattel parent, or
(a serious interference) c. to harbor the child and encourage the latter to
4. Dominion stay away from the parent’s custody.
5. Causation of the dominion 3. The child left the custody of the parent.
4. The defendant caused the child to leave or to stay
7. Criminal Conversation away.
(Chapter 18)
The defendant had sexual relations with the plaintiff’s
spouse (adultery).
Exhibit 1–3 (Continued)
12. Enticement of Spouse Invasion of Privacy (four torts)

(Chapter 18) 18. Appropriation
1. The defendant intended to diminish the marital (Chapter 21)
relationship between the plaintiff and the latter’s 1. The use of the plaintiff’s name, likeness, or
spouse. personality
2. The defendant engaged in affirmative conduct 2. For the benefit of the defendant
either:
19. False Light
a. to entice or encourage the spouse to leave the
(Chapter 21)
plaintiff’s home, or
1. Publicity
b. to harbor the spouse and encourage the latter
2. Placing the plaintiff in a false light
to stay away from the plaintiff’s home.
3. Highly offensive to a reasonable person
3. The plaintiff’s spouse left home.
4. The defendant caused the plaintiff to leave home 20. Intrusion
or to stay away. (Chapter 21)
1. An act of intrusion into someone’s private affairs or
13. False Imprisonment concerns
(Chapter 5) 2. Highly offensive to a reasonable person
1. An act that completely confines the plaintiff within
fixed boundaries set by the defendant 21. Public Disclosure of Private Fact
2. Intent to confine the plaintiff or a third party (Chapter 21)
3. Causation of the confinement 1. Publicity
4. The plaintiff was either conscious of the confine- 2. Concerning the private life of the plaintiff
ment or suffered actual harm by it 3. Highly offensive to a reasonable person
22. Malicious Prosecution (see also Wrongful Civil
14. Injurious Falsehood
Proceedings)
(Chapter 22)
(Chapter 6)
1. False statement of fact
1. Instigation of criminal proceedings
2. Harmful to the pecuniary interest of the
2. Without probable cause
plaintiff
3. With malice
3. Publication
4. The criminal proceedings terminate in favor of the
4. Intent
accused
5. Special damages
6. Causation 23. Misrepresentation
(Chapter 22)
15. Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress 1. Statement of fact
(Chapter 7) 2. Statement is false
1. An act of extreme or outrageous conduct 3. Scienter (intent to deceive)
2. Intent to cause severe emotional distress 4. Justifiable reliance
3. Severe emotional distress is suffered 5. Actual damages
4. Defendant is the cause of this distress
24. Negligence
16. Interference with Contract Relations (Chapter 10)
(Chapter 22) 1. Duty
1. An existing contract 2. Breach of duty
2. Interference with the contract by the defendant 3. Proximate cause
3. Intent to interfere 4. Damages
4. Damages
5. Causation Nuisance (two torts)
25. Private Nuisance
17. Interference with Prospective Advantage (Chapter 19)
(Chapter 22) 1. An act
1. Reasonable expectation of an economic 2. Unreasonable interference with the use and
advantage enjoyment
2. Interference with this expectation 3. Of private land
3. Intent to interfere 4. Based on negligence, intent, strict liability, or viola-
4. Damages tion of a statute, ordinance, or regulation
5. Causation 5. Causation
Exhibit 1–3 (Continued)
26. Public Nuisance 33. Trespass to Land

(Chapter 19) (Chapter 19)
1. An act 1. An act
2. Unreasonable interference with the use and 2. Intrusion on land
enjoyment 3. In possession of another
3. Of a right common to the general public 4. Intent to intrude
4. Based on negligence, intent, strict liability, or viola- 5. Causation of the intrusion
tion of a statute, ordinance, or regulation
Warranty (three causes of action)
5. Causation
34. Breach of Express Warranty
27. Prima Facie Tort (Chapter 16)
(Chapter 22) 1. A statement of fact that is false
1. Infliction of harm 2. Made with the intent or expectation that the state-
2. Intent to do harm (malice) ment will reach the plaintiff
3. Special damages 3. Reliance on the statement by the plaintiff
4. Causation 4. Damages
5. Causation
28. Seduction
(Chapter 18) 35. Breach of Implied Warranty of Fitness for a Particular
The defendant had sex with the plaintiff’s minor Purpose
daughter by force or with the consent of the daughter. (Chapter 16)
1. Sale of goods
29. Strict Liability for Abnormally Dangerous Conditions or
2. By a merchant of goods of that kind
Activities
3. The merchant has reason to know the buyer’s par-
(Chapter 9)
ticular purpose in buying the goods
1. Existence of an abnormally dangerous condition or
4. The merchant has reason to know that the buyer is
activity
relying on the merchant’s skill or judgment in buy-
2. Knowledge of the condition or activity
ing the goods
3. Causation
5. The goods are not fit for the particular purpose
4. Damages
6. Damages
30. Strict Liability for Harm Caused by Animals 7. Causation
(Chapter 9)
36. Breach of Implied Warranty of Merchantability
Domestic Animals
(Chapter 16)
1. Keeping a domestic animal that the owner has rea-
1. Sale of goods
son to know has a dangerous propensity
2. By a merchant of goods of that kind
2. Harm caused by the animal due to that specific
3. The goods are not merchantable
propensity
4. Damages
Wild Animals 5. Causation
1. Keeping a wild animal
37. Wrongful Civil Proceedings
2. Harm caused by the animal
(Chapter 6)
31. Strict Liability in Tort 1. Initiation of civil proceedings
(Chapter 16) 2. Without probable cause
1. Seller 3. With malice
2. A defective product that is unreasonably dangerous 4. The proceedings terminate in favor of the person
to person or property against whom the civil proceedings were brought
3. User or consumer 5. Some states add an additional element of spe-
4. Physical harm (damages) cial injury or interference caused by the civil
5. Causation proceedings
32. Trespass to Chattels 38. Wrongful Discharge

(Chapter 8) (Chapter 22)
1. Personal property (chattel) 1. Termination of an employee by an employer
2. The plaintiff is in possession of the chattel or is 2. Retaliation
entitled to immediate possession 3. Violation of public policy
3. Intent to dispossess or intermeddle
4. Dispossession or intermeddling
5. Causation of the dispossession or intermeddling
Intentional Torts
An intentional tort is a tort in which a person either desired to bring about the intentional tort A tort in which a
result or knew with substantial certainty that the result would follow from what the person either desired to bring about
person did or failed to do. Some of the major intentional torts are battery, assault, the result or knew with substantial
certainty that the result would follow
trespass, and false imprisonment. Many of the cases asserting these torts are rela-
from what the person did or failed
tively straightforward. An easy battery case, for example, occurs when one person to do.
punches another in the nose. Other cases, however, are not so easy:
EXAMPLE
Jim rides his bicycle through a large puddle of water directly in front of a bench
where Mary is sitting. The water splashes on Mary who now sues Jim for bat-
tery. Mary v. Jim (battery)
When we study battery, we will see that a main issue in the battery case of Mary v.
Jim will be whether Jim desired to hit Mary with the water or knew with substantial
certainty that this would happen if he rode through the water.
It is often difficult to get into someone’s head to prove desire. Hence, plaintiffs
can use the alternative test of substantially certain knowledge. Compare the follow-
ing two cases:
• I place a lighted match to the newspaper you are reading, which then catches
fire. Assume that I was just joking around; I didn’t want the newspaper to go
up in flames.
• I light a cigarette in a room full of gasoline vapors, which then explode. As-
sume that I did not want this explosion to occur.
In the first case, a jury would probably conclude that I had substantially certain
knowledge that your newspaper would catch fire when I placed a lighted match to
it. To reach this result, the jury would rely on common sense and the everyday ex-
perience of all adults. The jury, however, might not conclude that I had substantially
certain knowledge that the explosion would result in the second case. I may have
been stupid to light a cigarette in that room, but stupidity or carelessness is not the
same as substantially certain knowledge.
In the case of Mary v. Jim, suppose (a) that the jury believes Jim when he asserts
that he never wanted (desired) to splash Mary (perhaps because he was riding the
bike so fast when he turned a sharp corner that he never saw anyone on the bench)
or (b) that the jury concludes he did not know with substantial certainty that he
would splash her (perhaps because he was riding the bike so slowly). In short, the
jury believes Jim when he says that he splashed Mary by accident. If the jury accepts
this version of the facts, there is no intentional tort because the element of intent
has not been proven. There is, however, another tort that Jim may have committed:
negligence.
Negligence
Negligence is the failure to use reasonable care that an ordinary prudent person negligence The failure to use
would have used in a similar situation, resulting in injury or other loss. An example reasonable care that an ordinary
might be colliding with someone while driving under the influence of medication prudent person would have used in
a similar situation, resulting in injury
that causes intense drowsiness. An ordinary prudent person taking such medication
or other loss.
would not drive. Hence the driver was negligent.
To understand the distinction between negligence and intentional torts, we need
to compare an unreasonable risk of harm and a substantial certainty of harm:
• negligence: The heart of a plaintiff’s negligence case is to show that the defen-
dant created an unreasonable risk of harm, which is a risk that an ordinary
prudent person would not take.
10 C H AP TE R 1 introduction to tort law and practice
• intentional tort: The heart of a plaintiff’s intentional tort case is to show that
the defendant wanted (desired) the harm to result or knew that there was a
substantial certainty of harm based on what the defendant did or failed to do.
In our bicycle example of Mary v. Jim, assume that Mary does not sue for bat-
tery because of the difficulty of proving intent. Instead, she sues Jim under a neg-
ligence cause of action. Now the question will be whether Jim was so careless in
riding the bike near the bench that he created an unreasonable risk of splashing
people with water. The answer may depend on a variety of facts (which a paralegal
might be asked to help uncover through interviewing and investigation) such as:
• how fast Jim was riding,
• how deep was the puddle,
• whether Jim knew his riding through other puddles in the area was causing
splashes,
• how visible to Jim was Mary on the bench, etc.
A jury might believe that Jim never wanted (desired) to splash Mary and that
he did not have substantially certain knowledge that he would splash her, but still
come to the conclusion that he created an unreasonable risk of splashing her and
that an ordinary prudent person would not have taken this risk. Hence, he commit-
ted negligence. In later chapters, we will examine other examples of this important
distinction between negligence and intentional torts.
Strict Liability
strict liability Responsibility for The general meaning of strict liability (also called absolute liability or liability
harm even if one did not intend the without fault) is responsibility for harm whether or not the person causing the harm
harm and used reasonable care was at fault or engaged in moral impropriety. If the defendant engages in a certain
to try to prevent it. Responsibility kind of conduct that causes harm, liability will result irrespective of intent or negli-
for harm whether or not the person
causing the harm was at fault or
gence. An example would be performing an abnormally dangerous activity such as
engaged in moral impropriety. Also blasting. If the plaintiff is injured because of the explosion of the defendant’s dyna-
called absolute liability and liability mite, the latter will be responsible (i.e., liable), regardless of whether the defendant
without fault. desired to injure the plaintiff or knew with substantial certainty that the plaintiff
or anyone else would be injured (intent), and regardless of whether the defendant
liable Obligated in law; legally
responsible.
acted unreasonably in setting off the explosive (negligence). As we will see, however,
it is sometimes difficult to distinguish strict liability from negligence, especially in
the area of products liability.
One final caution about definitions of legal terminology: use the definitions as
points of departure only. The most dangerous definitions are the ones that give the
appearance of universality. The meaning of a word or phrase may change when the
context changes. In the practice of law, great care is needed to localize all definitions
by determining what a particular court in your state meant by a word or phrase.
Also, keep in mind that as courts struggle to do justice, they sometimes stretch the
definitions to accommodate the result they want to reach on the facts before them.
Again, consider all definitions as no more than starting points from which you need
to make further inquiry.
proximate cause A cause that
is legally sufficient to impose liabil-
ity for the results of one’s wrongful
act or omission. There are two com-
ponents of proximate cause: actual INTRODUCTION TO CAUSATION
cause (which answers the question
of who was the cause in fact of the In Chapter 13 we will study causation extensively. Since causation will be re-
harm or other loss) and legal cause
(which answers the question of
ferred to throughout the book, a brief introduction is in order here. Proximate cause
whether the harm or other loss was is a cause that is legally sufficient to impose liability for the results of one’s wrongful
the foreseeable consequence of the act or omission. Unfortunately, courts use the phrase proximate cause in different
original risk). ways. In this book, we will use it to mean both actual cause and legal cause:
• actual cause, which answers the question of who was the cause in fact of the
harm or other loss
• legal cause, which answers the question of whether the harm or other loss
was the foreseeable consequence of the original risk
For now, let’s focus on actual cause, which means cause in fact as established actual cause Cause in fact.
by one of the following two tests: Causation established either by the
but-for test or by the substantial-
• but-for test: Would the event (e.g., the injury) have happened without the act factor test. But-for test: can it be
or omission of the party? But for the act or omission, would the event have said that an event (e.g., the injury)
occurred? would not have occurred without
• substantial-factor test: Did the party have a significant or important role in the act or omission of the party?
Substantial-factor test: can it be
bringing about the event (e.g., the injury)? said that the party’s acts or omis-
Either test is sufficient to establish actual cause. The but-for test is used when there sions had a significant or important
is only one alleged cause of an event in question. The substantial-factor test is used role in bringing about the event?
primarily when more than one causal entity is alleged. but-for test Would the event
(e.g., the injury) have happened
EXAMPLES without the act or omission of the
• But for. George fires his gun at Bill. Bill’s left arm is paralyzed by the bullet. party? But for the act or omission,
But for the gunshot wound, Bill’s arm would not have been paralyzed. There- would the event have occurred?
fore, George’s act of firing the gun was the actual cause of the paralysis. Also called the sine qua non test.
• Substantial factor. Ajax Manufacturing Co. and Winthrop, Inc., pour chemicals substantial-factor test Did the
into a stream. After they do so, the stream is so polluted that it is no longer party’s acts or omissions have a sig-
suitable for fishing. nificant or important role in bringing
— The dumping by Ajax had a significant role (i.e., was a substantial factor) about the event (e.g., the injury)?
in making the river unfishable. Therefore Ajax was an actual cause of this
result.
— The dumping by Winthrop had a significant role (i.e., was a substantial
factor) in making the river unfishable. Therefore Winthrop was an actual
cause of this result.
Again, in Chapter 13 we will have a lot more to say about these two tests for actual
cause and we will also cover legal cause, the second component of proximate cause. legal cause The loss or other
harm was the foreseeable conse-
quence of the original risk created
Common Law and Statutes on Tort Law by the defendant (see Chapter 13).
A great deal of tort law consists of court opinions and statutes covering wrong-
ful personal injury and property damage. Most of the court opinions interpret and
apply these statutes. Occasionally, court opinions will also create tort law. When it
does, the outcome is referred to as the common law. This is judge-made law created common law Judge-made law
in the absence of statutes or other controlling law. In effect, the courts create tort in the absence of statutes or other
law when there is a vacuum. If, for example, the court has a dispute before it that controlling law.
has never been litigated in the courts and is not governed by any statute or consti-
tutional provision, the court can create law to govern that dispute. What it creates
is called the common law. An example is invasion of privacy, which, as we will see
in Chapter 21, consists of four separate torts. The courts created privacy tort law at
a time when there were few or no statutes in this area. When a court creates com-
mon law, it relies primarily on the customs and values of the community from time
immemorial. Very often these customs and values are described and enforced in old
opinions, which are heavily referred to (i.e., cited) by modern courts in the continu-
ing process of developing the common law.
The statutes passed by legislatures affect tort litigation in three significant
ways:
Statutes can change the common law Generally, statutes are superior
in authority to court opinions. If the legislature desires to change the common law
Another random document with
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Nous franchissons deux portes voûtées et bastionnées, et nous
voici en ville. C’est d’abord une place, ou mieux une cour de
forteresse entourée de bâtiments militaires auxquels des galeries
extérieures, à chaque étage, enlèvent le caractère de tristesse et de
nudité particulier à l’architecture des casernes. Des soldats font
l’exercice, et de tous points éclatent des commandements, des
coups de clairon, des roulements de tambour.
On débouche dans une rue étroite, l’artère principale, Main
Street, qui suit le rocher jusqu’à la pointe d’Europe. Des ruelles
tortueuses escaladent, à gauche, les premiers contreforts et
s’arrêtent brusquement, barrées par le roc, tandis qu’à droite, elles
sont coupées par les bâtiments militaires et les ouvrages de
défense.
En une double ligne de magasins, d’entrepôts, de boutiques
gorgés de marchandises et de denrées anglaises se presse une
population étrange :
Espagnols, Marocains, Grecs, Arabes, juifs de Tanger, nègres,
Allemands, malandrins de toutes les races, « tous gens, dit Richard
Ford, qui se sont expatriés pour le bien de leur pays ». Oh ! la
curieuse foule et la belle collection de coquins ! Je retrouve la ville
algérienne d’il y a vingt-cinq ans, avec son peuple de
banqueroutiers, de renégats, de déclassés, d’aventuriers suspects,
de colons marécageux, de forbans des deux mondes.
Des fantassins en jaquette rouge, des artilleurs bleus, des
tirailleurs noirs, des officiers en tenue ou en bourgeois tranchent par
leur méticuleuse correction avec le négligé des Levantins, la
malpropreté des juifs, le débraillé des Latins, tandis que la blonde
fraîcheur et la raideur des jeunes misses contraste avec le teint mat
et la gracilité des brunes Gibraltariennes.
Çà et là, cependant, des cheveux blonds émergeant de dessous
une mantille indiquent le mélange des races et prouvent que le
vertueux John Bull n’a pas passé toutes ses soirées au prêche ni
ses nuits dans la chasteté.
Malgré huit mille hommes de garnison et une population flottante
de matelots de toutes races, gens de grands appétits et de morale
peu farouche, les commis voyageurs chercheraient vainement dans
la ville, des demoiselles « qui vont en journée la nuit ». La Mission
protestante et la Société évangélique pour la surveillance des
mœurs, qui ont pignon sur la rue principale, boutique de vertu et
entrepôt de crétinisation, ne pouvaient souffrir le trafic de Cythère
dans un siège épiscopal d’évêque anglican. Libre aux catholiques,
aux mécréants, aux infidèles d’être impurs ; un protestant ne l’est
jamais, surtout un protestant anglais. Si les privations du célibat
jointes aux aphrodisiaques climatériques harcèlent Tom Atkins [16] , il
doit sortir de Gibraltar et aller dans les villes espagnoles voisines
chercher pâture à ses « impropres » appétits, à San Roque, San
Felipe, Mayorqa, Algéciras, lieux de perdition que les évangélistes
comparent dans leurs prêches aux sept villes maudites ensevelies
dans la mer Morte ; à moins qu’il ne prenne pour autel de ses
sacrifices au dieu Éros la femme ou la fille de son camarade, plus à
sa portée et à sa convenance.
[16] Surnom du soldat anglais.
Que la pureté de tous ces prêcheurs et chenapans bibliques est

odieuse et insupportable ; et comme ces gens font comprendre et
excuser certaines arquebusades célèbres de jadis !
Les drames sanglants de l’histoire nous semblent à première vue
cruels et abominables ; mais, quand on regarde autour de soi, on
arrive à les expliquer comme fatalités nécessaires.
Qui sait si sans ces moyens extrêmes, sans quelques poignées
de très braves mais très insupportables saints passés hâtivement et
brutalement de vie à trépas, les austères luthériens et les rigides
calvinistes n’auraient pas transformé la belle et joyeuse France en
un triste et laid champ de prêche où à l’heure actuelle nous
rivaliserions de vertus publiques et privées avec les pieux hypocrites
d’outre-Manche et les sots moralistes d’outre-Rhin !
Je ne me trouvais pas en pays nouveau, comptant dans la
garnison une dizaine d’officiers de génie et d’artillerie, vieilles
connaissances de Woolwich, y compris sir John Adye, le gouverneur
de Gibraltar, qui commandait il y a quelques années l’Académie
militaire.
Ma valise repêchée sans trop de dégâts me permit de lui rendre
visite ; mais cette formalité contraire à mes usages fut pour moi un
plaisir bien plus qu’un devoir, plaisir que semble éprouver aussi le
vaillant général qui aime les Français, ayant partagé en Crimée leurs
fatigues et leur héroïsme et qui porte fièrement sur son grand
uniforme la croix de commandeur de la Légion d’honneur.
La très gracieuse lady Adye et lui me font visiter leur palais, car
c’est un palais que cette résidence, ancien prieuré, embelli, orné,
fourni, meublé de tout le confort anglais joint au luxe oriental et où,
entre des galeries mauresques, s’épanouit, sur ce rocher aride et au
milieu de ces bastions, de ces forts et de ces engins de guerre, en
touffes verdoyantes et en fleurs paradisiaques, un vrai coin des
délicieux jardins de Grenade.
Dans la salle de réception sont rangés par ordre chronologique
les portraits des gouverneurs de Gibraltar, gentlemen de grand air et
soldats de haute mine, qui tous, comme les Gomes de Silva, ont
leurs faits d’armes et leur légende.
On sent à chaque pas les constantes préoccupations d’un
gouvernement qui whig ou tory, conservateur ou libéral, a le souci de
ses serviteurs, tient à ce qu’ils représentent dignement le pays,
entourant la fin de leur carrière de respect et de bien-être.
Devenus maîtres de Gibraltar par surprise, les Anglais montrent
bien qu’ils ne sont pas disposés à se laisser reprendre la place. De
1779 à 1782, Espagnols et Français le tentèrent vainement, et si
John Bull perd jamais cette clef de la Méditerranée, ce ne sera pas
manque de précautions.
On a vu que tout étranger ne peut y pénétrer que muni d’un
permis.
Indépendamment de cela, au coucher du soleil un coup de canon
prévient les gens de la banlieue qu’ils aient à déguerpir de la ville, et
à ceux de la ville qui ont eu affaire au dehors qu’ils doivent regagner
au plus vite le logis. Rien de plus comique que le chassé-croisé qui
commence et surtout la vue des retardataires. Piétons, cavaliers,
amazones, muletiers, âniers, carrioles et fiacres se hâtent d’entrer
ou de sortir. La porte divisée en deux empêche d’ailleurs tout heurt
et tout encombrement.
Le poste est sous les armes, le clairon, l’œil au guet sur l’aiguille
de l’horloge et l’embouchure à hauteur des lèvres, attend la seconde
précise.
Aussitôt la sonnerie éclate, et l’adjudant de place, avec une
régularité de chronomètre, pousse les portes et donne un tour de
clef.
Malheur aux traînards ! Toute supplication est vaine ; tout appel à
la pitié superflu. Le mari jaloux et la femme éplorée sont séparés
pour la nuit. Le règlement n’a pas d’oreille, et l’officier, impassible,
porte gravement les clefs au gouverneur, et, à moins d’un ordre
spécial de celui-ci — ordre écrit, signé et timbré — la porte ne
s’ouvre plus qu’au coup de canon du réveil.
Il y a là matière pour un joli vaudeville.
Eh bien, malgré ces exigences d’une ville de guerre, ou, si vous
le préférez, cette « brutale tyrannie du sabre », pas un Gibraltarien
ne voudrait l’échanger contre les douceurs civiles de l’administration
espagnole. Quand je dis Gibraltarien, je parle, bien entendu, de
l’indigène du Lizard of the rock, comme l’appellent, par dérision, les
habitants des villes voisines, sujet anglais de père en fils ou ayant
obtenu la naturalisation après quarante ans de séjour, et non du
cosmopolite véreux, du forban de l’industrie ou du commerce, qui y
est venu chercher un refuge provisoire.
Ce sentiment est un peu celui des Canadiens, qui nous disent
quand nous les visitons : « Nous aimons les français, nous sommes
Français d’origine et de cœur, mais ne voudrions à aucun prix l’être
de fait. » Aveu peu flatteur ; mais il faut bien reconnaître, entre nous,
qu’il est expliqué par les procédés puérils et vexatoires de notre
administration tracassière, procédés qui peuvent ne pas trop nous
choquer, habitués que nous sommes, dès l’enfance, à être
emmaillotés dans une quantité de lisières, mais qui ne manquent
pas de heurter et révolter l’étranger.
Ce système tout latin « d’embêter les gens » se fait sentir aux
portes de Gibraltar. Dès que vous avez franchi le territoire neutre,
vous êtes littéralement assailli par une escouade de carabiniers
espagnols, embusqués à l’entrée de la barrière de San Felipe, qui
vous entraînent dans une caverne douanière où non seulement
votre valise, mais vos poches sont fouillées de belle façon. Tout se
paye, jusqu’à un cigare, jusqu’à une once de tabac trouvée sur vous.
Il faut dire aussi, pour atténuer l’odieux de ces vexations
internationales, que l’occupation de Gibraltar par les Anglais coûte
annuellement, à l’Espagne, cent cinquante millions, soit par la
contrebande [17] , qui se fait sur une échelle d’autant plus vaste que
les fonctionnaires espagnols, dit-on, y prêtent une main
complaisante, soit en faisant dévier le commerce.
[17] Les gens de Ronda, les Rondanos, ont la
spécialité d’introduire en Andalousie, en dépit de tous les
postes de douane, les ballots de cotonnades et de tabacs
entassés dans les magasins de Gibraltar.
Un autre trait caractéristique, qui ne peut manquer de frapper les

Espagnols eux-mêmes, et j’avoue que si j’étais hidalgo je me
sentirais humilié, c’est l’extrême contraste entre les soldats des deux
nations, séparés par le simple terrain neutre d’un mille environ,
lande sablonneuse qui couvre la partie la plus étroite de l’isthme.
D’un côté, l’Anglais, superbe reître bien habillé, bien nourri, d’une
propreté méticuleuse, aussi correct en faction, dans son poste isolé,
sous sa planche mobile qui l’abrite du soleil, et témoigne en même
temps du souci que l’on prend de sa santé, que lorsqu’il défile la
parade devant le palais de Buckingham ; de l’autre, l’Espagnol, mal
vêtu, mal nourri, débraillé, de méchante mine, allongé dans la
poussière.
Je suis loin de vouloir dire que l’habillement, la correction et le
bifteck fassent le soldat, et que les petits fantassins navarrais ou
andalous soient inférieurs en rien, sur le champ de bataille, aux
superbes grenadiers du Middlesex ou du Kent ; mais, quand une
nation sait obliger ses soldats, détachés dans les stations les plus
lointaines et les climats les plus divers, à observer le respect de la
discipline, le self control, à garder l’orgueil de l’uniforme aussi bien
que dans la mère patrie, à être d’autant plus fiers et corrects qu’on
est en face de l’étranger ; que de l’autre côté, au contraire, sur le sol
natal, les soldats semblent livrés au laisser-aller, abandonnés à
l’incurie de chefs indifférents ou somnolents, on ne peut manquer
d’établir involontairement une comparaison qui n’est pas à
l’avantage de ceux-ci.
Puisque je parle de soldats, je ne veux pas terminer sans ajouter
quelques mots sur l’armée espagnole encore toute-puissante dans
le pays.
Il n’y a que deux choses, dit V. Almirall dans son excellent livre
déjà cité, l’Espagne telle qu’elle est, pour lesquelles l’Espagne
marche à la tête des nations européennes, et ces deux choses sont :
sa dette publique et le nombre de ses officiers généraux.
Pour une armée qui ne dépasse pas soixante-dix mille hommes
présents sous les drapeaux, elle compte sept capitaines généraux
ou maréchaux, soixante-seize généraux de division, trois cent
quatre-vingt-quinze généraux de brigade, plus six généraux de l’état-
major du roi, en tout quatre cent quatre-vingt-quatre officiers
généraux, c’est-à-dire plus que la France et l’Angleterre, deux fois
plus que l’Italie, presque le double de l’Allemagne.
Et ces chiffres, comme ceux de la dette publique, dont l’intérêt
est de près de trois cents millions, augmentent tous les ans.
Je ne sais rien des officiers espagnols si ce n’est qu’ils sont
d’une courtoisie exquise et plus aimables compagnons que les
Anglais ; mais, s’il faut s’en rapporter à un récent manifeste du duc
de Bourbon, daté de Tarbes (28 septembre 1886), il se serait établi
dans l’armée, comme à Madrid au temps de Figaro, un système
d’espionnage et de dénonciation plus digne de disciples de la
jésuitière de Loyola que des cadets de l’École de Tolède ; « le
colonel est espionné par le commandant, celui-ci par le capitaine, le
capitaine par le lieutenant, l’officier par le sergent. »
J’ajoute que je n’en crois rien pour l’honneur de toutes les
armées.
Avec Gibraltar à l’ouest, l’Égypte à l’est, Malte et Chypre au
centre, la Méditerranée est devenue en quelque sorte un lac anglais
et la Grande-Bretagne semble réaliser à son profit le rêve que faisait
Napoléon pour la France.
Mais le rocher de Gibraltar mérite-t-il bien la réputation que les
Anglais ont contribué à lui faire ?
S’il faut s’en rapporter aux organes militaires, plus compétents en
cette matière que les épiciers du Times, Gibraltar avec les nouveaux
engins de destruction ne serait plus qu’une forteresse fantoche. Sa
force ne repose que sur la routine et les préjugés, les préjugés d’une
nation avant tout marchande, qui a trop longtemps négligé les
choses de la guerre pour être à hauteur du mouvement qui entraîne
l’Europe.
Nous sommes loin en 1888 des batteries flottantes de M. d’Arçon
que les forts de Gibraltar coulèrent en 1783 si aisément, ce qui fit
dire au comte d’Artois accouru de Versailles pour assister au
bombardement de la place que de toutes les batteries françaises,
celle qui se signala le plus, avait été sa batterie de cuisine.
Disons le mot, ou plutôt répétons ce que disent les officiers
anglais eux-mêmes. L’inexpugnabilité de Gibraltar n’est plus à
discuter quand en une demi-heure un cuirassé de cent dix tonnes
peut mettre tous ses forts en pièces !
Quant à commander le détroit et à empêcher les navires de
passer, il suffit de jeter un coup d’œil sur la carte pour en reconnaître
l’impossibilité matérielle. Tant que Ceuta ne sera pas anglais,
Gibraltar peut être utile en temps de guerre comme place d’armes,
comme station de charbon, comme port de refuge, non contre la
grosse mer, car la baie n’est pas sûre, mais contre les croiseurs
ennemis. C’est du moins l’opinion générale. Pour les deux premiers
cas, rien de plus juste ; quant au troisième, s’imaginer que des
vaisseaux trouveraient un refuge sous les canons des forts est une
erreur, par la raison bien simple qu’il n’y a pas à Gibraltar un seul
canon qui pourrait protéger un navire contre un cuirassé, et qu’un
cuirassé de cent dix tonnes mettrait, je le répète, la place en pièces
en trente minutes.
Les ingénieurs militaires reconnaissent eux-mêmes qu’il n’y a
pas moins de quatre points d’où un cuirassé bombarderait aisément
la ville sans qu’un seul canon puisse l’atteindre. Les seules grosses
pièces actuelles sont deux canons Armstrong de cent tonnes
commandés par le gouvernement italien et achetés 50 000 livres
sterling par les Anglais pendant les menaces de guerre de la Russie.
Pièces dites Muzzle-loaders, d’un calibre et d’un modèle hors
d’usage et montées de telle sorte qu’elles ne peuvent balayer la mer.
Mais assez sur Gibraltar et revenons, pour conclure, à l’Espagne.
On dit qu’elle se relève, qu’en nombre de villes le commerce
renaît, que l’industrie s’étend, que Madrid est gai, Barcelone, Séville
et Malaga prospères ! Mais il faut voir l’intérieur, s’arrêter dans les
bourgades ruinées et misérables, où l’ignorance et la superstition
règnent en despotes. Aucun élément de culture moderne, aucune
aspiration vers un mieux matériel, nul sentiment du plus vulgaire
confort. C’est toujours le pays dont parlait Saint-Simon : « La science
y est un crime ; l’ignorance et la stupidité, la première vertu. »
Dans un roman de Fernan Caballero, la Famille d’Alvareda, il est
une vieille qui peut passer pour le type de toutes les paysannes,
jeunes et vieilles, rencontrées dans ma traversée d’Irun à Malaga.
Un de ses petits-fils, revenu de l’armée, raconte avoir entendu dire
par des camarades qu’il existe des pays où l’on ne joue pas du
couteau, où il n’y a ni combats de taureaux, ni frères, ni moines, où
le ciel est gris, le soleil sans brûlants rayons, les églises sans
chapelles, la vierge sans images, où il n’y a ni rosaire ni scapulaire,
et où tous les petits enfants savent lire et écrire ; la Vieille s’exclame
toute frissonnante de joie après la stupéfaction première : « Oh ! mon
soleil, mon scapulaire, mon église, ma Vierge santissima, ma terre,
ma foi et mon Dieu ! Bienheureuse mille fois d’être née ici et d’y
mourir ! Grâce au ciel, tu n’es pas allé à ce pays, fils, pays maudit
d’hérétiques. »
Aussi pas un rayon d’intelligence n’allume leur regard.
L’hébétude seule s’y lit, l’hébétude résignée de la bête passive,
livrée à ses seuls besoins, sa routine et ses instincts. Boire, manger,
dormir, entretenir une lampe devant une image et s’agenouiller deux
fois par jour au pied d’une idole de plâtre ou de bois !
L’Espagne pourra se relever, mais quand elle aura répandu
l’instruction au fond de ses bourgades, non pour qu’elles rejettent
sur le pavé de Madrid des légions affamées de surnuméraires et
d’institutrices, mais pour arracher la population à son lamentable état
d’indifférence et d’abrutissement fataliste.
Elle se relèvera quand elle sera sûre du lendemain, à l’abri des
pronunciamientos ; quand son budget de la guerre n’absorbera pas
la plus grande partie de ses ressources, que la conscription ne
prendra plus tous ses hommes valides, et que son trésor ne sera
plus en état de permanente banqueroute [18] .
[18] La dette flottante se montait, au moment où
j’écrivais ces lignes (nov. 1887), à 112 millions 400 000
pesetas.
Elle se relèvera surtout quand elle aura secoué l’exploitation

anglo-saxonne qui la dévore, lutté contre la concurrence allemande
qui inonde de ses pacotilles tous ses marchés, écrasant les
industries locales, les tarissant à leur source, fournissant les
mantilles à Madrid, les éventails à Séville, la coutellerie à Tolède, la
soierie à Murcie, la faïencerie à Valence, les vins à l’Andalousie et
les alcools partout !
FIN
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Pages.
I. Entrée en Espagne 1
II. Les Passages 12
III. De Saint-Sébastien à Deva 17
IV. Le capitaine Bonelli 21
V. Loyola 26
VI. A travers les Andes 40
VII. Le palacio d’Urvaza 46
VIII. Messe au palacio 54
IX. Estella 60
X. Logroño 67
XI. Le col de Piqueras 73
XII. Histoire de brigands 79
XIII. La vieille Castille 88
XIV. Les ruines de Numance et Soria 93
XV. Madrid 101
XVI. Flamencos et peteneras 107
XVII. A los Toros ! 118
XVIII. Les toreros 134
XIX. L’Escorial 140
XX. Tolède 146
XXI. La petite dévote de Compostelle 152
XXII. La Vierge en chemise et le Christ en jupon 158
XXIII. Les bonnes lames de Tolède 164
XXIV. Visite aux fous 170
XXV. Le coin des folles 175
XXVI. A travers la Manche 180
XXVII. Mançanarès 185
XXVIII. El Muradiel 191
XXIX. La Carolina 196
XXX. De Baylen à Cordoue 201
XXXI. Grenade 211
XXXII. Les gitanos 217
XXXIII. Les bandoleros 223
XXXIV. Une exécution 228
XXXV. Route de Motril 233
XXXVI. La posada du Paradis 238
XXXVII. Motril et Malaga 245
XXXVIII. L’auberge du Grand Saint Iago 253
XXXIX. A travers l’Andalousie 259
XL. Séville 263
XLI. Les deux Maria de don Pedro 270
XLII. Les cigarières 277
XLIII. Sur le Guadalquivir 282
XLIV. Cadix 289
XLV. De Cadix à Algéciras 299
XLVI. Gibraltar 304
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Essentials of Torts 3rd Edition – Ebook

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Tort Law and Practice 1

APPENDIX Automobile Insurance 443

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Tort Law and Practice 1

CHAPTER 2 Foreseeability in Tort Law 17

CHAPTER 5 False Imprisonment and False Arrest 53

CHA P T E R 6 Misuse of Legal Proceedings 69

CHA P T E R 7 Infliction of Emotional Distress 81

CHA P T E R 8 Conversion and Trespass to Chattels 101

CHA P T E R 9 Strict Liability 111

CHA P T E R 1 0 Negligence: A Summary 123

CHA P T E R 1 1 Negligence: Element I: Duty 133

CHA P T E R 1 2 Negligence: Element II: Breach

Objective or Subjective Standard? 155

C H A P T E R 13 Negligence: Element III:

C H A P T E R 14 Negligence: Element IV: Damages 219

C H A P T E R 15 Negligence: Defenses 235

CHA P T E R 16 Products Liability 251

CHA P T E R 17 Survival and Wrongful Death 297

CHA P T E R 18 Torts Against and Within the Family 305

CHA P T E R 19 Torts Connected with Land 315

CHA P T E R 20 Defamation 347

C H A P T E R 21 Invasion of Privacy 371

C H A P T E R 23 Additional Tort Defenses 403

C H A P T E R 24 Workers’ Compensation 429

APPENDIX Automobile Insurance 443

16–2 Categories of defects in products. 253 22–1 Elements of the tort of

Thousands of injuries occur every day on the road, at work, in department

CHANGES IN THE THIRD EDITION

TEACHING AIDS AND SUPPLEMENTS

SUPPLEMENT: WHAT IT IS: WHAT’S IN IT:

DEFINITIONS AND PURPOSES

different. A dramatic example of the difference can be seen in the O. J. Simpson

ELEMENTS OF ALL THE TORTS

element A portion of a rule that is

1. Abuse of Process Defamation (two torts: libel and slander)

Exhibit 1–3 (Continued)

12. Enticement of Spouse Invasion of Privacy (four torts)

Exhibit 1–3 (Continued)

26. Public Nuisance 33. Trespass to Land

32. Trespass to Chattels 38. Wrongful Discharge

Que la pureté de tous ces prêcheurs et chenapans bibliques est

Un autre trait caractéristique, qui ne peut manquer de frapper les

Elle se relèvera surtout quand elle aura secoué l’exploitation

13442. — Imprimeries réunies, A, rue Mignon, 2, Paris.

Imprimeries réunies, A, rue Mignon, 2, Paris. — 13867.

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