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F. Clitheroe • A. Goosen • V. Kathan • T. Mlambo • M. Roebert

I. Sargeant • H. Scheepers • R. Smit • K. Walstra
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p. 65a: Ivan Synieokov/bigstock.com; p. 66: Agostinho Gallo Images; p. 125: gethinlane / istock.com; p. 128 bigstock.com; p. 176: devon/bigstock.com; p. 176:
Gonçalves/bigstock.com; p. 71: russ witherington/ A: stevanzz/bigstock.com; p.128C: Andrei Filonov/ Alistair Heap / Alamy / Afripics; p. 176: Alistair Heap /
istock.com; p. 72: Tom Hirtreiter/ bigstock.com; p. 73A: bigstock.com; p. 128D: Gary Unwin / bigstock.com; Alamy; p. 177: Environmental Stock Images by Streeter
Racheal Grazias / bigstock.com; p. 73B: Erik de Graaf / p. 129:Richard Kail/Science Photo Library; p. 130 (1): Photography; p. 180 (1): Keith Bell/bigstock.com;
bigstock.com; p. 73C: Feral Martian / istock.com; Aleksan Ghojoyan/bigstock.com: p. 130 (2): Dana p. 180 (2): ABV the Graphic Design / Prepress/ bigstock.
p. 73D: DJ Gunner / istock.com; p. 74: ahmetdogan / Rothstein/ bigstock; p. 130 (1): Sergei Devyatkin/ com; p. 180 (3): Ruslan Gilmanshin/bigstock.com;
istock.com; p. 75: Tomáš Odstrčil / istock.com; bigstock.com; p. 130 (2): Sergei Devyatkin/ bigstock. p. 180 (4): Olga Savinova/ bigstock.com; p. 180 (5):
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com; p. 75C: Federico Candoni / bigstock.com; p. 75D: atton/ bigstock.com; p. 131: Vyacheslav Ryaschikov/ Photo/ istock.com; p. 180 (7): Alexander Romanov/
Solomakhin Sergey / bigstock.com; p. 78: ccaetano / bigstock.com; p. 131: Vasyl Torous/ bigstock.com; p. bigstock.com; p. 180 (8): SK Designs/ istock.com; p. 163,
bigstock.com; p. 78: Ted Foxx / Alamy; p. 79A: Stuart 131: Marko Beric/ bigstock.com; p. 131: Dorota Caderek/ 184, 186, 187, 188, 190: Mike Carelse/LCA studio
Chapter
1 Design skills
Figure 1.1 An architect using drawing tools
mml_9780636140080_plt_tec_g09_lb_eng_zaf.indb 6 2013/06/03 1:58 PM

Graphic communication
Introduction
Graphic skills are an important way to communicate
in Technology. Graphic skills involve making diagrams,
drawings, sketches, notes and working models to
illustrate your ideas. No matter what design problem
you have to solve, you will have to communicate your
ideas to others in the form of drawings. People who
are going to make, use or sell the product will need
this information. Designing any product, building or
structure is done by a graphic designer, draughtsperson
or architect.
In Grades 7 and 8 you were introduced to many graphic

and drawing skills. You are now able to produce sketches
Figure 1.2 Basic drawing instruments
involving two dimensional (2D) and three dimensional
(3D) drawings such as single and double vanishing point
perspective, and 3D oblique and isometric drawings. In
Grade 9 you will draw orthographic projections using
basic drawing instruments.
Investigate graphic skills

Work on your own.
1. Make a list of professionals who use graphic skills to
communicate their ideas.
2. Explain why you think accurate graphic skills are so
important when a product is going to be made.
3. Why is it important to use drawing tools when
communicating through graphics?
Figure 1.3 A plan drawn by an architect
Figure 1.4 A 2D drawing of a house Figure 1.5 A 3D drawing of a house

Unit
1 First angle orthographic projection

Orthographic projection is a way of drawing a 3D object when you look at it from
Key words different directions, angles or views. It is usual for a front, side and plan (top) view
• front view – to be drawn so that a person looking at the drawing can see all the important sides.
a drawing of an Orthographic projections are also called engineering drawings or multi-view drawings.
object looking
straight at the Orthographic drawings are especially useful when a design has been developed to
front of the object a stage where it is almost ready to be manufactured. When we build a product it
is a 3D object. Before the object is built, detailed drawings are needed so that the
• side view – product will be made accurately.
a drawing of an
object looking Two methods are used for orthographic projection: first angle orthographic
straight at the side projection and third angle orthographic projection. We will be learning to do first
of the object angle orthographic projection. A first angle orthographic projection is drawn with
• plan view or top the front view drawing in the top-left quarter of the page, the left side view in the
view – a drawing top-right quarter of the page, and the top view (plan view) in the bottom-left quarter.
of an object
The difference between orthographic projection and any other drawing method
looking directly
is that we use many 2D views of the object instead of a single view. It is a method
at the object
that every architect and engineer in the world recognises. The symbol for first angle
from above
orthographic projection is shown in Figure 1.6.
Producing an orthographic drawing

The correct way of showing the three views in first angle orthographic projection
is shown below. In Figure 1.7 the 3D drawing is made up of a front, side and plan
Figure 1.6 Symbol for first
view of the simple object. In Figure 1.8 the first drawing is the front view (drawn
angle orthographic projection
looking straight at the front of the object), the second is a drawing of the object
seen from the side (called the left side view) and lastly a drawing from above,
which is called the plan view or top view. The dotted lines are guidelines, and they
are drawn to help keep each view in line at the same level and the same size.
projection plane -
plan (top) view
simple building
front view left side view

projection plane –
projection plane –
side view
front view
top view
Name: Title: A simple house Scale: 1:1
Figure 1.7 A 3D object projected into 2D views of front view, Figure 1.8 First angle orthographic drawing of a simple building in
side view and plan view. three dimensions.
8 Term 1

Enabling Task 1 Follow steps to draw a simple cube as an
orthographic projection
You will need: A4 drawing paper, drawing board, T-square, 45° set square, pencils
Before doing your orthographic drawing:
• Fix your A4 drawing paper to the drawing board in a landscape direction
(see Figure 1.9).
• Use your T-square to bring your paper into line – this is called aligning your paper.
• Draw border lines of 15 mm all around (20 mm for A3), using your set-square
and T-square.
• Draw the title/name block 15 mm above the lower border line. Insert details such
as the name, date, title and scale and the symbol for first angle orthographic
projection (see Figure 1.6 on page 8).
Set your work out as shown in Figure 1.9. All three views must be drawn.
Figure 1.9 below shows you what a rectangular box looks like when it is drawn
as a first angle orthographic projection.
Figure 1.9 Drawing sheet fixed to drawing board in landscape position

m
1. Figure 1.10 shows a 3D oblique cube at

m
0
10
45 degrees, as you learnt in Grade 8. Use the

cube’s measurements to draw a first angle
orthographic projection to represent the
cube’s front, top and left side accurately. (10)
40 mm
2. Use the measurements of the rectangular

prism shown in Figure 1.11 to draw a first angle
45°
orthographic projection of the prism’s front,
top and left side accurately. (10) Figure 1.10 Oblique cube, 10 cm3 Figure 1.11 Oblique drawing of
[TOTAL: 20] a rectangular prism
Chapter 1, Unit 1 9

Unit 1 (continued)
Outlines
Heavy
Line types
Feint lines Light In Grade 8 you learnt about line types. Let’s go over this again.
Look at Figure 1.12 to Figure 1.15.
Medium
Dashed lines
1. Thick, dark lines (outlines) are used to show the edges,
Light planes in edge view, and curved surfaces that are visible
Centre lines
from the projection plane view.
Dimension and Light
extension lines
2. Feint/thin lines (construction lines) are used to guide the
Heavy designer to complete the drawing.
Cutting plane
3. Dashed lines are used to show the hidden detail of edges,
Heavy
Break lines
{ Light
planes in edge view, and curved surfaces that are not
visible in the projected view, as they are behind other
solid features of the object.
Figure 1.12 Line types 4. Wavy lines (also called break lines) represent an area of an
Z line object that has been removed to make the view clearer or
to shorten the view. Break lines are shown as wavy lines
within an object; ‘Z’ lines are used for a flat object, and ‘S’
lines for a round object.
5. Chain dash-dot lines (or centre lines) show the axes of
circular or symmetrical features.
S line
Scale and
dimensions
The whole idea behind creating
scale drawings is to allow you
to create a drawing that is in
A B proportion to the object it
Figure 1.13 Wavy lines are used represents. Using a scale, we can
D C
to show areas of an object that create accurate drawings of very
Figure 1.15 Different lines are used
have been removed. large or very small objects so that
for different purposes.
chain
they fit on a standard-sized piece of
line paper. Figure 1.16 shows examples
indicates of different scales.
gear teeth
2:1 1:2
• Pronounced ‘two to one’ • Pronounced ‘one to two’
• DOUBLE SIZE: 2 mm on paper = • HALF SIZE : 1 mm on paper =
1 mm on the object 2 mm on the object
• The drawing is twice as large • The drawing is half the size of
chain line indicates as the object. the object.
opposite position of switch
1:1 1 : 200
• Pronounced ‘one to one’ • Pronounced ‘one to two hundred’
• FULL SIZE: 1 mm on paper = 1 mm • 1 mm on paper = 200 mm on
on the object the object.
• The drawing is exactly the same • The drawing is one two-
Figure 1.14 Chain lines show size as the object. hundredth the size of the object.
parts of an object that move or
are repeated. Figure 1.16 Different scales
10 Term 1

Dimension lines are continuous feint lines that are used to show the distance
between two points. Look at Figure 1.15 and remember:
1. Dimension lines have arrowheads on either end (D).
2. Dimensions (numbers) are written above the dimension lines, representing the
distance or measurement.
3. Extension or projection lines (A and C) are drawn from the outline of the
drawing to the dimension lines. There is a 2 mm gap between the outline of
the drawing and the start of the extension line (B), and the lines stick out for
2 mm outside the dimension line (C).
4. The measurements of the different features depend on the size of the drawing.
Dimension lines should be 8–10 mm from the drawing, and the arrowheads
should be 3 mm long and 0,5 mm wide.
Figure 1.17 shows the methods that may be used for dimensioning different sizes
of circles and arcs. The diameter can be placed inside or outside a circle.
Enabling Task 2 Use line type, scale and dimensions
You will need: pencil, ruler, T-square, compass, A4 paper, 45° set square
Work on your own.
1. Look at the first angle orthographic drawing in Figure 1.18 below. There is a
top, front and left side view.
2. Copy this drawing , using drawing instruments, on an A4 drawing sheet.
Use a 1 : 1 scale.
3. Add your own projection lines, dimension lines, and the dimensions
to suit your drawing. (10)
• Redraw the diagrams accurately.
• All hidden details must be included.
[TOTAL: 10] Figure 1.17 Adding dimensions
to a circle or an arc.
Figure 1.18 First angle orthographic drawing showing stairs.
Chapter 1, Unit 1 11

Unit
2 Drawing 3D objects in orthographic projection
Factors to consider when designing a ramp

with stairs
Ramps allow people using wheelchairs, as well as people pushing strollers, carts
or other wheeled objects, to access a building more easily. Ramps need to be
designed carefully if they are to have real practical value.
• There should always be steps with a ramp, especially where the rise of the
ramp is more than 300 mm.
• Ramps should be as shallow as possible. The maximum recommended
gradient is 1 : 12.
• The ramp and steps should have handrails and guard rails. The handrail should
be at a height that a person in a wheelchair can reach. The maximum height
would be between 760–965 mm (see Figure 1.19).
• The minimum clear space needed for a single wheelchair that is not moving
and that has a person sitting in it is 760 mm × 1 220 mm (see Figure 1.20).
Ramps need a lot of space. When designing a ramp, you need to think about the
following aspects: slope, length, width, level landings, location and handrails.
760 mm
1 220 mm
Figure 1.19 Side view of a wheelchair showing Figure 1.20 Top view of a wheelchair on a ramp. Note the minimum space
the maximum height for handrails. needed for the wheelchair to fit.
12 Term 1

Look at Figure 1.21 below.
1. Slope: A wheelchair ramp near stairs should use a gradient of 1 : 12, which
is is not too steep to climb in a wheelchair, but is also not too long. Measure
the length between the top of the stairs and the base, then add this to the
length between the base of the steps and any nearby walls or other obstacles.
Multiply the height of the steps in millimetres by 12 to find the length of the
ramp you will need.
2. Length: A single length of ramp should never be more than 9 m in length
between landings.
3. Width: The clear width of the ramp should be 1 000 mm. This does not include
the space needed for handrails or any other structures that might be needed.
4. Level landings: Level landings should be spaced 6–9 m apart and be at least
1 525 mm long. Where the ramp landing changes direction or turns, it should
be at least 1 525 mm × 1 525 mm to provide enough space for the wheelchair
to make the turn. There should be a flat area of at least 1 525 mm × 1 525 mm
at the top and bottom of the ramp to provide enough space for the wheelchair
to get on and off the ramp. Doors should not open out onto the free space on
the landing spaces.
5. Location: As the ramp may also be used by people who are walking, there
should be at least 2 100 mm headroom above the ramps and landings.
Objects such as air conditioners or window flower boxes should not jut out
over a ramp or the landings. Think about the position of the ramp in relation
to existing structures and features such as the driveway, the parking areas and
the entrance, and items such as trees and shrubs.
813
25
15
00
11
1 52
5
00
10
1 000
1 525
Ramp not steeper
than 1 : 12
1 120
Figure 1.21 3D view of a ramp and stairs with measurements (mm)

Unit 2 (continued)
6. Handrails: Handrails are always recommended for ramps. A handrail should

allow a user to grasp it continuously along its entire length without having to
let go of the handrail at any time. Handrails should extend horizontally for at
least 300 mm beyond the starting and ending points of any sloped surface to
enable users with poor balance to steady themselves before they move onto
the sloped surface.
Enabling Task 3 Design a ramp to allow someone using a

wheelchair to get into and out of the building,
and also design stairs into the building
Your friend is in a wheelchair. The only suitable access in and out of the house
is through the front door. The opening edge of the front door is 6 m from the
driveway, and the floor of the lounge is 600 mm above the walkway level. As you
are a Technology student, your friend’s dad has asked you to design a ramp for easy
access into the house for your friend, and stairs 150 mm in height for people not in
a wheelchair. Both the ramp and the stairs would need safety rails and handrails.
The ramp and stairs need to be sturdy, safe and usable, and must fit into the space
that is available at the front of the house.
Look at Figure 1.22.
You will need: measuring tape, pencil, ruler, T-square, pair of compasses,
A4 graph paper, drawing board, 45° set square
Work on your own.
1. Carefully read the information about ramps and stairs in the previous section
(see pages 12 to 14).
2. Write a design brief for the design of a ramp for a wheelchair and a flight of
stairs at the front door. (4)
3. In the specifications, include the following information:
a) the number of stairs (work out the number needed, taking into
consideration the height of the lounge floor from the ground and the
height of each step given in the description)
b) the width and gradient of the ramp
c) handrails for the stairs and the ramp
d) the size of level landings or turning areas, if needed
e) the location of the stairs and ramp. (5)
4. You need a drawing board with instruments to design and sketch suitable
ideas before drawing isometric and orthographic drawings.
5. Sketch the stairs and ramp in 3D using isometric projection. (3 × 2)
6. On the graph paper, sketch a drawing of the house where the ramp is going
to enter. Measure from the walkway level to the floor level of the house, and
don’t forget that the porch level will have to be raised to be even with the
lounge floor. Now that you have a sketch of your house and you know how
long your ramp has to be, you can start designing. (5)
14 Term 1

7. Draw a plan for the stairs and ramp using first angle orthographic projection.
Your drawing must include the required scale, and must use the correct views,
line types and dimensions according to convention. Include hidden details.
(5 × 2)
[TOTAL: 30]
Figure 1.22 Example of a ramp and stairs giving access to a building

Chapter
2 Structures
Figure 2.1 Steel columns are providing temporary support.
Figure 2.2 An earthquake fractured a supporting column.
16

Structures
Introduction
There are many different types of human-made
structures in the world such as bridges, buildings,
towers, houses and tents. These structures are constantly
being tested by natural forces, and the structures can fail
in lots of different ways. The three most likely ways that
structures can fail are through fracturing, bending and
falling over or collapsing.
The photo of the building that is collapsing (Figure

2.1) shows the wall crumbling under the pressure of all
the weight above it. The other photos show structures
damaged by earthquakes, blizzards and strong winds.
Structures need to be very strong or sturdy. This means

that it is very important to use the correct type of
material or structural member to build structures, and
Figure 2.3 A blizzard deposited too much snow on a tent,
causing it to collapse.
to balance their loads correctly.
Investigate structural members

Work in groups.
Complete the following questions in your workbook.
1. Look at the photos in Figures 2.1–2.4.
a) What are the possible reasons that caused the
structural members shown in the photos to fail?
b) What are the possible forces that acted on
these structures? (Refer to shear force, torsion
and compression in your answer.)
c) What kind of construction materials are
used in these structures?
2. Draw a rough sketch of the petrol station canopy
(Figure 2.4) before it fell over. Add at least two
different types of supporting members that would
stabilise the structure. Add labels to your sketch to
explain your answer.
Key word
Figure 2.4 A petrol station canopy toppled over due to
strong winds. • structural
member –
support that is an
important part of
a building
17

Unit
1 Forces and loads acting on structures

Structures can resist loads from various forces. These forces include static and
Key words dynamic forces, and even and uneven loads.
• forces – a push or
pull action that has The forward
size and direction Forces: dynamic and static moving force
A force is a push or a pull on an object. is a dynamic
• dynamic forces – force.
Forces have size as well as direction.
the forces acting
Look at Figures 2.5 to 2.7.
on an object that is
moving
Forces acting on moving objects are called
• static forces – the dynamic forces. If you pick up an object, you
forces acting on an are exerting an upward force on it. If you let
object when it is the object go, the Earth exerts a gravitational
not moving force on it and it falls to the ground. If you Figure 2.5 A man skiing downhill.
leave the object where it is, there are still The skier is moving forward.
• contact forces
forces acting on it, but they cancel each other
– the forces that
out. Forces acting on objects that are not
act when a force
moving are called static forces.
comes in direct
contact with
If an uneven or unbalanced force acts on an
another object The force
object that is standing still, the object will
downwards is
• non-contact start to move. Two equal forces acting in
a static force.
forces – forces opposite directions try to change the size or
that act across shape of the object.
a distance
There are two types of forces: contact forces
• even loads
and non-contact forces. Contact forces
– when loads Figure 2.6 A boy carries a backpack.
exist between objects that are in direct
are placed in a He is standing still.
contact with one another. Applied forces
way that means
(for example, pushing against an
that the load is
object), friction, air resistance, tension
balanced and no The man pushes
and compression are all contact forces.
movement occurs the box in this Friction is caused
Examples of non-contact forces
direction. in this direction.
• uneven loads – are the forces of gravity, electricity
when loads are and magnetism.
placed in a way
that means that Forces can make a structure bend,
stretch, compress or twist. Forces act Weight of box is in
the loads are not
internally and externally on all structures. this direction.
balanced and
there is movement Forces such as the wind blowing against Figure 2.7 A man pushes a box. Friction is
a building or gravity acting on a structure a contact force caused between the floor
are called external forces. and the moving box.
Structural members such as struts and tie beams stop structures from collapsing.
Struts are rigid members that are used where forces of compression act on
a structure. Ties are flexible members that are used where forces of tension
(stretching) act on a structure. Compression and tension are internal forces. A
structure will collapse if the external forces are greater than the internal forces.
18 Term 1

Loads
A load is the force acting on a structure that is supporting
a weight or resisting external forces. Loads can result from
static forces that do not change over time such as the
weight of the structure itself and immoveable structures
such as walls. Dynamic loads are usually unstable or
moving loads, such as winds colliding with a building,
snow settling on a roof, or cars driving across a bridge.
Even loads
The stack of sticks (Figure 2.8) is arranged in such a way
that it forms a stable structure. The sticks are said to be
aligned. When the sticks are aligned, the load is even. Figure 2.8 The loads on the stack of sticks are even.
Even loads are found in a stable, aligned structure.
When the loads on a structure are spread out evenly,
the whole structure is balanced. The load of the sticks
is uniformly spread and no movement occurs.
Static forces act on structures with even loads.
Uneven loads
Stand on one leg and lean over to the side. In this
position, it is easy for your friend to push you over.
See Figure 2.9. Movement is caused by the difference
in forces created by uneven loads. Figure 2.10 shows
Figure 2.9 Uneven loads Figure 2.10 The uneven load
a truck on an inclined plane. The load of the truck is
cause the boy to fall over. causes the truck to move downhill.
uneven, which causes it to move down the hill.
A dynamic force occurs on this load. A
Enabling Task 1 Investigate types of forces and loads

Work on your own and in pairs.
1. On your own, list the two different types of forces and the two types
of loads that can act on a structure. (4)
2. In pairs, stack six books in a straight, even pile.
B
a) Name the kind of force acting on the books. (1)
b) Suggest two reasons why the books do not fall over. (2)
3. Stack a pile of books in an uneven way until the pile collapses.
a) Count how many books you stacked before the pile fell over. (2)
b) Why did the books fall over? (1)
c) What happens to the forces present in the structure as the books
fall over? (2) C
4. Look at photos A to C in Figure 2.11.
a) Identify the type of load and force present in each. (3 × 2)
b) In photo A and C you identified the force as either static or
dynamic. How would you change the force you identified
to the opposite force? (2)
[TOTAL: 20] Figure 2.11 A, B and C

Unit
2 Strength of materials under the action of forces

Materials are under constant pressure from various forces. These materials need to
Key word
be strong. The strength of materials is improved in various ways.
• cross-bracing –
in construction,
this is where Strength of materials
the structure is Materials used in
reinforced by construction, like metal T-beam
I-beam
beams that cross beams, must resist
each other to tension, compression,
form an X shape. torsion and shear U-beam
forces. Beams used to
be constructed as solid, square
L-beam
rectangular structures. beam
This meant that beams circular beam
were very heavy and
Figure 2.13 Tension is a also expensive. Beams Figure 2.12 Cross-sections of different metal beams
pulling force exerted on are now manufactured used in construction.
an object. in various shapes, that
maintain the strength of the beams but help to reduce their weight and cost. Figure
2.12 shows the cross-sections of different metal beams. A cross-section is made when
an object is cut through at right angles to its axis so that you can see the shape of the
cut surface.
Figure 2.14 Compression
occurs when forces squash
an object.
Forces acting on materials
The strength of a beam determines how well the beam can resist a force. External
forces can pull, push, bend or twist a beam.
Tension
Figure 2.13 shows two hands pulling an object in opposite directions. Tension
occurs when equal and opposite forces are applied to the ends of an object to
increase the length of the object.
Figure 2.15 Cross-bracing
members form triangular Compression
shapes. Figure 2.14 shows two hands pushing an object together. Compression occurs
when two equal and opposite forces decrease the length of the object.
Torsion
Torsion occurs when a turning force makes an object twist. If you twist a plastic
ruler, for example, between both hands, the ruler is said to be in a state of torsion.
Figure 2.15 shows a type of framework of beams and columns that is commonly
used inside buildings. Members cross each other to form a brace. A brace makes
a structure stronger or stiffer. Internal cross-bracing helps a structure to resist
Figure 2.16 The hook broke in torsion. Notice how the internal cross-bracing members form triangular shapes.
two due to shear forces.
20 Term 1

Shear force
A shear force is a force acting at an angle to an object. Figure 2.16 shows a hook
broken in two. The weight of the load was too heavy and the downward force
made the horizontal part of the hook break. A shear force occurs where opposing
forces try to cut, tear or rip an object in two.
Figure 2.17B illustrates the weight of the skateboarder in Figure 2.17A being
applied on a beam. The load causes the top section of the beam to be in
compression. The bottom section of the beam is in tension. Imagine that the
Figure 2.17A A skateboarder
beam is an I-beam. The diagram load performing a grinding trick.
shows how the load from the
skateboarder bends the beam.
This bending of the beam is
called the deflection of the
compression force
beam. Deflection of the beam
shows how the compression neutral axis
force at the top changes to a
tension force at the bottom. In tension force
the middle of the beam, along
its length, the two forces cancel
out. This section in the beam is Figure 2.17B The impact of forces on a beam
known as the neutral axis.
Key word
• shear force –
Enabling Task 2 Investigate forces acting on the strength a force that tries
of materials to snap or break
materials apart
You will need: piece of thick card, 1ℓ yoghurt tub, styrofoam cup, sand,
A4 paper, thin A4 card
Work in groups. Did you know?
• Make a circular, a triangular and a square pillar out of the paper. The bottom section
• Place the card on each column in turn. Place the tub on top of the card. of a concrete beam
spanning across a
• Fill the tub with sand using a cup. Record the number of cups of sand
gap is weak in
that can be put into the tub before the column collapses.
tension. It must be
reinforced with steel
Complete the following questions in your workbook. bars or it will
1. a) Decide which column held the most cups of sand. Explain your answer. (2) eventually fail.
b) What force made the pillars collapse? (1)
2. Draw a cross-section of the objects in Figure 2.18
at the position of the red line. (4)
3. Tear one piece of thin A4 card into two equal pieces.
a) Name the force that occurred as you tore
the card. (1)
b) Place the two pieces on top of each other and Figure 2.18
twist the pieces together. Name the type of force. (1)
c) Hold the twisted card by the ends. Try to pull it apart.
What type of force occurred? (1)
[TOTAL: 10]

Unit
3 Properties of various construction materials
Key words Types of construction materials

There are four types of construction materials:
• density – the
amount of matter • metals, for example, aluminium and steel
in grams that fills a • non-metals, for example, glass and stone
particular volume • synthetic materials, for example, plastic and synthetic rubber
(cm3). For example • natural materials, for example, stone and wood.
1 cm3 of water has
Look at the examples in Figure 2.19 to 2.22 below.
a mass of 1 gram
• mass – a
measurement of
the level of density
of a material
• hardness –
the ability of a
stiff material to
resist scratches,
wear and tear,
or denting
• stiffness – the
ability of a material
not to bend or Figure 2.19 Aluminium window frames do Figure 2.20 Light passes through glass
lose shape under not rust. windows.
pressure
• flexibility –
the property of a
material to bend
and return to its
original shape
• corrosion –
a reaction
between a metal
and gases; the
metal oxidises, to
form an oxide layer
on the surface
Figure 2.21 Plastic pipes endure many weather Figure 2.22 Wood is a strong and cost-effective
fluctuations. material to use in house constructions.
Properties of construction materials

Most structures are built to last. They must be able to stand up to the elements
such as water, wind and sunlight. We need to know the different properties of
construction materials so that we know how to use them in the construction
of buildings.
22 Term 1

Mass and density Key words
Density is a measure of the amount of matter in an object (its mass) compared
to its volume (size). For example, the same volumes of iron and polystyrene have • durability – the
different densities because the mass of iron is much greater than the mass of ability of a material
polystyrene. The iron is heavier than the same volume of polystyrene because its to stand up to
matter is packed more tightly together. Iron sinks in water, but polystyrene floats. wear and tear or
deterioration
It is the density of a material that determines how much force it can support before
• resistant – the
being compressed or squashed. A material with a higher density can support or
ability of a material
stand up to a greater force.
not to be affected
by events like fire
Hardness and earthquakes
Hardness is the ability of a construction material such as plastic, wood, metal or
glass to resist scratching, wear and tear or denting. Stainless steel is a much harder
material than glass, and glass is harder than wood.
Stiffness
The stiffness of a construction material is a measure of how much it bends or loses
its shape when a force is applied to it. The thickness of a material can improve its
stiffness. The materials used to construct columns found in parking garages must
be stiff enough to be able to hold the floors above. A feature of concrete is that it
becomes stronger over time, which increases its stiffness.
Flexibility
The flexibility of a construction material is determined by how much the material Did you know?
is able to bend before it starts to crack. Examples of flexible materials include metal The Eiffel Tower is
and wood. made from wrought
iron and this gives
Corrosion it the properties
Corrosion is the chemical process that takes place when a metal is in contact with of flexibility and
oxygen. For example, iron reacts with oxygen and water and forms a crumbly red- strength. The top
brown substance called rust. Corrosion reduces the durability of a construction of the tower is able
material, and eventually the material is destroyed. Durability means a material can to sway up to 13 cm
stand up to wear and tear or deterioration. A corroded material will usually look in any direction in
different. Construction materials that are the least likely to corrode include plastic the wind. This helps
and stainless steel. the tower to resist
various external
Resistance to corrosion forces.
Some construction materials are more resistant to corrosion than others. A resistant
material will last longer before starting to wear. Construction materials such as
stainless steel and aluminium are resistant to corrosion because they are less reactive
to oxygen.
Prevention of corrosion
Various methods have been developed to delay the process of corrosion. These
methods aim to prevent contact between the material and oxygen and water,
which causes corrosion. This includes keeping the environment around the
material dry, painting the material with waterproof paints, and covering the
material with other rust-resistant metals such as zinc.

Unit 3 (continued)
Suitability of construction materials

Materials used in the construction industry need to fit the purpose for which they
were intended. This will result in structures that last and that are resistant to various
forces and loads. The suitability of construction materials is determined by their
properties, safety, and cost effectiveness.
Properties of materials
The properties of materials used to build structures are very important. They
determine what the material can be used for and how the material will react
to outside forces. Some of these properties include:
• Toughness: The ability of a material to stand up to sudden blows or shocks
without being damaged (Figure 2.23A).
• Brittleness: The material is not able to stand up to any strain, and cracks or
breaks easily (Figure 2.23B).
• Stability: The ability of a material to resist changes in its shape and size in
wet or dry conditions over time (Figure 2.23C).
• Fatigue: Failure of a material caused by repeated stretching (Figure 2.23D).
Figure 2.23A to D Properties of different materials determine where they are used.
Safety of materials
When building any structure,
it is important to think
about how safe it is to use
particular materials. For
example, buildings with very
large windows should use
reinforced glass, cars should
be built with hardened steel,
and wheelchairs should be
built with metals that are
light enough to move easily,
but strong enough to carry
A Roof tiles are very tough, to endure bad B Glass is very brittle. A heavy blow will cause the weight of a person for
weather conditions. it to crack and break. long periods.
Workers are exposed to many

dangerous substances and
conditions when they work
with construction materials.
Protective masks prevent
workers from inhaling toxins
or debris. Earplugs protect
the ears from noise levels that
might damage hearing. Safety
glasses protect the eyes from
flying wood splinters and
metal filings. Gloves protect
C Stable steel frames prevent cracks from D The cable’s fatigue properties are tested.
the hands against cuts. Hard
forming in the materials that cover the frame. A machine stretched the cable until it broke. hats protect the head from
falling or flying objects.
24 Term 1

Cost effectiveness of materials
The cost effectiveness of construction materials influences the overall cost of a
project. This determines which materials are used. Factors affecting cost include
whether the materials are available locally or not. The durability of a material will
determine what kind of upkeep it requires.
Enabling Task 3 Investigate construction materials

Work in pairs.
1. Collect the following items: coin or screw, wooden pencil, plastic ruler,
cooldrink can, eraser, hand-held mirror (not used anymore), brick, string,
container of water, cloth or papertowel.
2. Record your findings in a table like the one below. (4)
For the scratch test and the bend test, score each material according to this
scale: 3 for most, 2 for moderate and 1 for least.
Scratch – hardness Bend – stiffness Dry – waterproof Sun – heat conductor

Wooden pencil
a) Use a coin or screw to scratch each of the seven materials.

b) Carefully bend each material over the edge of a desk.
c) Submerge each material in a container of water for one minute. Remove
the item from the water and dab the surface dry with a cloth or paper
towel. How well did the material of each item stay dry? Use terms like
very wet, wet, slightly wet, mainly dry, and completely dry.
d) Put each material in direct sunlight for 30 minutes. How hot was each item
when you touched it? Use terms like hot, warm, slightly warm and cool.
3. Explain why the following materials are good options to use in constructions:
a) Glass – in terms of hardness c) Metal – in terms of flexibility
b) Wood – in terms of stiffness d) Plastic – in terms of corrosion. (4 × 2)
4. You are deciding on suitable construction materials to build a bridge. The area
where the bridge will be built has the following conditions: the area is known
for earthquakes; winters are wet and summers are dry; the bridge will be used
daily by many vehicles.
Name and explain three properties of the materials to consider when
designing the bridge. (3 × 2)
5. Building surveyors calculate the cost of labour and materials of a construction
project. Name two things to consider when calculating the cost effectiveness
of materials. (2)
6. Design and make an attractive A4 poster. Use the list of criteria below:
• List five safety precautions when working with construction materials.
• Provide and organise relevant pictures.
• The poster must be attractive and appealing.
• Sources must be correctly documented. (10)
[TOTAL: 30]

Term
1 The contractors
Figure 1 What could be done to help the children get to school more easily?
26

Mini-PAT: The contractors
Content: A structure to cross a river safely

Context: Community issues – The contractors
Introduction Scenario
A tender is an offer to do work or supply goods This task deals with the design of a structure that will
or services at a fixed price. The company that solve a problem facing a community living on the far
needs the work done is the client or employer. side of a river from the city.
The companies or individuals who tender for the
job are called the tenderers. After the tender is Ref: MPG9T1S
awarded, the tenderer is called the contractor. Tender title: The Provincial Department of
Transport invites tenders from
experienced contractors for the
construction of a structure for
pedestrians to get from Naledi
Village across Umgababa River
to the city.
Issuer: Province of KwaZulu-Natal,
Department of Transport
Issue date: To be announced
Sector: Construction and architectural
services, road construction
and maintenance
Closing date: To be confirmed
Presentation due: To be confirmed
Qualification to Open to all construction
tenderers: companies. The distance from
Durban to the village is 300 km
Figure 2A A suspension footbridge made of wood, strong for transport of construction
wire cables and mesh in Waterberg resort materials.
Description: The construction of a
pedestrian bridge for Naledi
Village across Umgababa River.
The gap to be spanned is 50 m.
The width must allow for three
people to walk abreast. The
structure needs to include
safety rails. The depth of the
river is 3 m at the deepest point.
Duration of project 8 weeks
Implementing agent Local municipality
Discuss tenders for construction work.
Work on your own.
1. What construction work is the tender for?
2. What type of structure could be built to solve
this problem?
Figure 2B A wooden footbridge to a bird hide
27

Unit
1 Investigate suitability of materials
Investigate suitable materials

and bridge structures
What type of bridge structure will assist this small
community to get to the city across the river?
Investigate existing bridges

and footbridges in South Africa
In Figure 3, the bridge was built in 1901 and is made
from wood. It consists of beams and columns. Note
that all the pylons will have an effect on the flow of
the river.
Figure 3 Milnerton, Cape Town,
beam bridge
Figure 4 A pedestrian bridge over a flood-prone river in KZN South Africa
The concrete bridge in Figure 4 is high above

the water and there are no pylons in the river
bed. This means that there is no effect on the
flow of the river, which is less harmful to the
environment.
In Figure 5, note the different parts of the
supporting structure. Concreted upright posts
on either side of the bridge are used as supports.
Wire rope on the left and right are used as hand-
railings for a person that crosses the bridge onto
which wooden decking boards are attached.
All wood will be treated in accordance to SANS
(South African National Standards). As a safety
measure, even more wire rope is threaded
Figure 5 A long wooden footbridge through the beams.
28 Term 1

Figure 6 Massive cranes move the Figure 7 Note the prepared bank and the Figure 8 The bridge slots into reinforced
pre-formed metal footbridge into position. concreted footings. The large metal support concrete bank abutments; the walkway
structure on the bridge couples with the surface is made from steel with a special
poles in the concrete on the bank. non-slip finish.
Figures 6–10 show the
construction of a pre-formed
metal footbridge.
The advantage of this bridge is no
disruption to traffic.
Hand railings form an integral part

of the bridge structure. Bearers are
bolted to the frames forming the Figure 9 Note the safety railings made from Figure 10 A metal bridge
hand railings. Steel girder stainless steel.
beams run from one bank
to the other. Note the stays
on the frames of the hand shutterboard
bearer beams
railings, which give the
frame support so that it
does not buckle. metal pillars
Formwork, which is concrete columns

usually constructed of
shutterboard or steel,
provides the shape of the Figure 11 Take note of the concrete columns, Figure 12 Formwork that is done
element being constructed metal pillars and bearer beams. prior to concrete pouring
and is constructed prior to
pouring the concrete.
Task 1 Analyse the images

Work on your own. This task is for formal assessment.
Answer the questions in your workbook.
1. Name the material that the Milnerton bridge is made from. (1)
2. The bridges in Figures 10 and 11 are both made of metal.
Compare the two structures and identify as many differences as you can. (5)
3. Choose one of the bridges in the pictures besides the metal bridges.
Discuss how the bridge is made stable and safe. (3)
4. Of all the bridges shown in the pictures, decide which bridge would be
the most suitable to solve the given scenario. (1)
[TOTAL: 10]
Mini Practical Assessment Task 1 29

Unit
2 Material and labour costs
Civil construction is a complex and costly process. The costs involve purchase of
Key word
land, quantity surveyor fees, engineering fees, and building costs. The building
• gum-poles – costs include materials, transporting the materials, machinery and labour.
treated timber The people working on a project such as the one described in the scenario would
poles that are include a project manager, civil engineer, truck drivers, heavy machinery drivers
weather resistant, and labourers.
will not rot or be
eaten by insects
Investigate the costs of constructing a bridge
Look at the table below. Use it to work out the approximate cost of the bridge
that you will build, once you have completed your design work. If you have
access to the Internet, you can get up to date information from the websites
of the Engineering Council of South Africa and the South African Federation
of Civil Engineering Contractors. These organisations give the most up to date
labour rates on their websites.
The table is an estimate of construction costs. The construction costs depend on

the design, the materials used, transport costs, machinery and equipment costs,
possible complications and any other related costs.
Material Cost Per unit

Reinforcement bar 16 mm: R8 100 120-tonne job
120-tonne job
Concrete block: R2 000 Per 1 000, if less than
400 × 200 mm per 1 000 10 000 blocks bought
Formwork to support a slab R126 metre2
Gum-poles 100–124 mm wide R26,80 Per pole (100–124 mm
× 1,2 m long wide by 1,2 m long)
Structural steel beams R20 000 Per tonne, if less than
100-tonne job
Stainless steel beams 100 mm: R6,50 p/m n/a
310 kg/m
230 kg/m
170 kg/m
Shutter board 22 mm R300 per sheet 1,2 × 2,4 sheet
Treated timber board R42 p/m 3,6 m long
38 mm × 228 mm thick
Galvanising paint R40 Per litre
Wire mesh R50 p/m2 n/a
Construction costs
Construction costs Estimated about Per metre2
R6 000
30 Term 1

Material Cost Per unit
Labour costs
Labour rates: tradesmen R40–R55 Per hour
(bricklayer, carpenter)
General labourer R20,50 Per hour
Watchman R20,50 Per hour
Site foreman R200 Per hour
Civil engineer R1 000 Per hour
Project manager R1 500 Per hour
Transport costs
Transport price R18,40 Per km
Costs of a project will vary from one company to another. One company may have
lower labour costs but higher transport costs, while another may have access to
innovative engineering ideas at lower prices.
In recent years, various high-impact

construction projects were awarded
in South Africa. A few examples are:
• Gauteng: New office building
for government department –
R365 million
• KwaZulu-Natal: Dube Trade Port –
Dube City – R5 000 million
• Limpopo: Clinker and cement
production facility – R3 000 million
• Mpumalanga: Mbombela Stadium –
Nelspruit – for 2010 World Cup –
R1,05 billion
From this information we can gather

that construction is not cheap and
therefore, the designing and tendering
processes need to consider all the
possible difficulties. Figure 13 Take note of the concrete columns and steel support and bearer beams
Task 2 Calculate costs

Work on your own. This task is not for assessment.
1. Calculate the cost of building a carport that needs nine gum-poles for
the columns and side supports. (2)
2. Calculate the cost of building an office block with a floor space of 200 m . (3)
2
3. Look back at the information about materials and costs.

Write a paragraph explaining what costs you need to consider when
building a bridge. (10)
[TOTAL: 15]

Unit Sketch initial ideas and evaluate
3 and adapt them
In this unit you will do two initial sketches to solve the problem. The designs will
be evaluated, adapted, and a final idea decided upon. You will form groups of four
that simulate the type of team that would tackle a project such as this.
Task 3 Study the images

Work with a partner.
1. Read through the scenario on page 27 and the information supplied about
pedestrian footbridges in South Africa on pages 28 and 29.
2. Look at the characteristics and qualities of the types of bridges described.
3. Decide which will best suit the given scenario.
4. Look at the different materials that footbridges can be made of. Use this
information to formulate your initial ideas.
Task 4 Initial ideas

Work on your own. This task is for
formal assessment. Answer the
questions in your workbook.
1. Sketch two initial ideas for
two possible solutions to
the scenario. (10)
2. Remember to draw your design
in proportion and to include the
following considerations: strong
fixing and joining; rigidity;
stability; bracing; safety.
3. Label each drawing carefully.
These labels must include
materials that you will use
and notes on the method
of making. (10)
Figure 14 Initial sketches are [TOTAL: 20]
rough ideas, but still reflect
your thinking. Task 5 Simulation: Form a construction company
Your teacher will divide your class into groups of four to form construction
companies. Your construction company focuses on civil infrastructure for the
development of roads, bridges and highways. The roles of the construction team
could be as follows:
Project Manager: He/she is in charge of organising the final product of the project
and meeting the standards required such as punctuality and completeness. This
person ensures that everyone is up to date with their tasks and that the project
meets the deadlines.
32 Term 1

Design Engineer: He/she is in charge of organising the technical details and
design of the product, as well as construction. He/she also prepares part of
the presentation.
Planning and Construction Engineer: He/she is in charge of organising the

planning related to the final design, how the model is made and what tools will be
used. This person takes notes whenever the group meets and keeps track of group
data and sources.
Sales Coordinator: He/she is in charge of organising the final presentation and

defining the roles of each person who will participate in the presentation. This
includes organising the artistic impression of the project.
Task 6 Evaluate the sketches in the groups

Work in groups. This task is not for assessment. Share your initial ideas with the group:
1. Explain your thinking for your design. (5)
2. Ask the team to suggest ways in which the design can be modified
to improve it. (5)
3. Do this for each person in the group.
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 7 Adapt and select a design

Work in your group. This task is not for assessment.
Decide which design the group prefers. The group may prefer to use a combination
of ideas in order to adapt a design to suit the purpose for which it is being built.
A design decision must be taken, based on the information gathered in the
Introduction and Unit 1. This will be the design built and used for the team’s tender bid.
At this point, it is advisable to draw
a sketch of the group’s decision,
where all details that have been
decided upon can be incorporated
and included in the drawing. Add
notes to the sides of the drawing for
ideas that the group has on making
method, materials, tools and possible
pitfalls. See the example in Figure 15.
As a team:
1. Write valid reasons to support
your choice of the design for the
pedestrian footbridge. (10)
2. Identify any additional features Notes:
that you may wish to include length: 70
in your footbridge. The above height: 50
research will be submitted to the include wire mesh 75 cm from base of bridge on hand railings for safety.
‘tender board’.
Figure 15 Initial sketch of pooled idea that lists materials, size and any other ideas that you
[TOTAL: 10]
wish to record.

Unit
4 Write a design brief and draw a flow chart
In this unit you will write a design brief and develop specifications for the final
idea. After the design brief has been written, teams meet to develop a plan of
action. Each team member draws up a flow chart.
Task 8 Write a design brief with specifications and

constraints for the pedestrian footbridge
Figure 16 Sucker sticks and glue can be used to make a bridge.

1. Compile a design brief for the pedestrian footbridge that your team wishes
to develop. Use these questions to help you.
a) Describe the problem. (2)
b) Describe where the solution will be used. (2)
c) Explain how the solution will benefit the people of Naledi Village. (2)
2. List the specifications for the footbridge. Use these guidelines to help you.
a) Describe what the footbridge must be able to do. (2)
b) Give examples of the safety factors that must be considered. (4)
3. List the constraints for the footbridge. Use these questions to help you.
a) List the materials that will be used to make the walkway structure. (3)
b) List the materials that will be used to make the bridge support structure. (3)
c) Point out the time constraints that you will have to work in. (2)
[TOTAL: 20]
34 Term 1

Task 9 Discuss the planning
Work in groups. Teams meet to develop their planning.
Before you can start planning, your team needs to decide
on the materials that will be used to make your model
pedestrian bridge. Refer to your initial ideas where you
specified materials and tools and wrote notes on the
making method. Use this information to decide on
materials and tools, and to brainstorm an order of work.
Typical materials that can be used for this model are:

recycled paper rolled into paper straws; sucker sticks;
toothpicks; 1 cm × 1 cm wooden square dowels with
card triangles and white glue; plastic straws and pins
or paper fasteners; cereal box card; corrugated card;
toilet rolls or the inside of paper rolls; string; air-drying
modelling clay; different lengths of pasta and spaghetti.
Tools that will be required are a: craft knife, cutting mat

and safety ruler; scissors and pencil; junior hacksaw
and wooden block; awl and poking pad; glue gun and Figure 17 Decide on the materials you will use to make the model.
clay-shaping tools. See Figure 17.
Task 10 Develop the flow chart

Work on your own. This task is not for formal assessment.
Complete this task in your workbook.
Each team member develops a work plan for the pedestrian footbridge. These
work plans need to be written up in the form of a flow chart (see Figures 18 and 19).
Include the tools and materials that you will use at each stage of the making process.
The flow chart is included in the tender bid as it forms part of the planning. (10)
You may wish to add additional information to your flow chart once the model
pedestrian bridge has been made. Sometimes steps in the making process are
left out.
[TOTAL: 10]
Figure 18 Your flow chart could look like this ... Figure 19 ... or like this

Unit
5 Draw a plan using working drawings
Make a 2D working drawing

Working drawings
A working drawing provides all the important information needed to make the
product. The drawing should list all the components and materials needed.
It also needs to give the dimensions for each aspect of the design. A first angle
orthographic drawing is an example of a working drawing.
First angle orthographic drawings as working drawings

An orthographic drawing consists
of three views: the front, side and
top or plan views. These three
views are drawn in 2D. Each
view in an orthographic drawing
contains different information
about the object that is being
drawn. If we drew only one view
of the object, there would be a
lot of information missing for
someone trying to understand
what the object looks like. By
drawing three different views,
enough information is given
for someone to get a complete
picture of the object and be
Figure 20 Front or end view of a pedestrian bridge able to make it as the designer
intended it to be.
Tip: Sometimes the views have details that cannot be seen from the views shown.
To show that the details are hidden, we use a thin broken line.
Task 11 Draw a first angle orthographic projection of the

pedestrian footbridge
Meet as a team. Refer back to the adapted sketch that was drawn in Task 7. Each
person is required to draw a different view of the design for the model that you have
decided upon. Before you can draw the views, decisions about scale and dimensions
need to be taken. A suggested scale would be 1:100. Allocate a view each to three
team members. They will include the correct line types and dimensions in their
drawings. The fourth team member will draw the model in double vanishing point
perspective, enhanced in two colours to show texture and shading, in Task 12.
You will need: ruler, sharp pencil, blank paper or first angle orthographic graph
paper, drawing equipment
36 Term 1

Revise the step-by-step process of how to do the view(s) that you decided upon in
orthographic projection (see page 9 in Chapter 1).
1. Make sure that each person uses the same scale.
2. Remember to use South African conventions to dimension correctly. (3)
3. Complete the drawing. (5)
4. Provide a heading for the view that you did. (2)
5. Place the drawings in your tender folder as they are part of the tender bid.
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 12 Communicate using double view vanishing point

perspective
You will need: blank paper, pencil
Work on your own. This task is for formal assessment for the fourth team member.
1. Make double view vanishing point perspective drawings of your
final model. (10)
2. Use the same scale you will be using for the first angle orthographic drawing
and write it on the drawing page.
3. Start by drawing a horizontal line to give you the eye level.
4. Decide which view you would like to draw. It can be above eye level, at eye
level, or below eye level.
5. Draw in the two vanishing points on either side of the horizontal line.
6. Draw the corner of the object that is nearest to you. This vertical line is the only
dimension that can be drawn to scale. All other lines will be smaller because
they recede.
7. Draw feint guidelines from the top of the vertical line to both vanishing points.
8. Draw in the other vertical and parallel sides of the structure.
9. Connect these corners to the vanishing points and draw in the remainder of
the model’s outline.
10. Go over and darken the lines that
form the outline. These are your
object lines.
11. Now use two colours to render
the drawing to create a more
realistic and life-like effect.
[TOTAL: 10]
Figure 21 A double view vanishing point perspective

Unit
6 Draft a budget for a ‘real-life’ solution
The expected costs of construction, with realistic prices for materials and labour,
are presented in table format in Unit 2 (see pages 30 and 31). The team needs to
work out costs for the design work, infrastructure development, materials and
construction of the pedestrian footbridge. This is based on your design and the
total time your team expects it will take to construct the footbridge. Your budget
excludes providing power or a road to the pedestrian bridge.
Additional information:
• Design work: Approximately three working days to develop and finalise the
design structure
• Budget preparation: Three working days to finalise a budget
• Site visits from a civil engineer overseeing the pedestrian bridge over
a six-week period: approximately six
• Site visits from a quantity surveyor overseeing the ground preparation:
approximately five
• Project manager: He/she will be on site daily
Task 13 Prepare the budget

Work in your workbook.
Using the tables on pages 30 and 31 as a guide, prepare a budget for your
team’s pedestrian footbridge. (10)
1. Select the information that is relevant for your team and your footbridge
design.
2. Using the given prices, work out the total cost of all the items you have listed.
3. Compile a complete list of costs, detailing the materials and relevant
labour costs.
4. Remember to present the information as clearly and logically as possible.
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 14 Develop a team budget

Work as a team. This task is not for assessment.
All members of the team submit their budget to the ‘project manager’. As a group,
brainstorm or pool your ideas to develop a team budget.
Develop as efficient, reliable and relevant a budget as possible.
Present the budget in table format.
38 Term 1

Checklist for budget preparation
Criteria Yes/No
Design work:
Budget preparation
Site visits: civil engineer
Site visits: quantity surveyor
Project manager
Infrastructure costs
Materials list
Labour costs
Miscellaneous
Task 15 Prepare for the tender board

The items that your construction company needs to submit include
the following:
• Sketches: The two initial ideas generated by each team member
• The adapted design: Teams include the reason for the choice of design
and the sketch of the final idea
• The design brief: Each learner’s design brief, listing the specifications
and constraints
• The flow chart: Each team member’s flow chart
• Working drawings: Three learners’ views using first angle orthographic
projection, including suitable scale, correct line types and dimensions
• Artistic impression: The fourth learner’s view using enhanced double
vanishing point perspective
• Budget: The budget, which includes correct materials, labour and
transport costs
• The model: The model,
which will be built neatly and Checklist for tender board preparation
to scale, and show evidence Criteria Yes/No
of intelligent use of materials
(This will be done in Unit 7) Sketches: 2 × initial ideas
• Evaluate: The evaluation Adapted design
instrument. (This will be Design brief: × 4
developed in Unit 8.)
Flow chart: × 4
Although the model has not yet
been made and you have not Working drawings: × 3
yet developed the evaluation
Artistic impression: ×1
instrument, it would be valuable
to gather all the documents Budget
together and include them Model
in a folder. Evaluation instrument

Unit
7 Make a model of a viable solution
In this unit you will build the model of your pedestrian footbridge using safe
working practices.
Planning for making

Refer back to the flow chart that you drew up in Task 10 in the previous unit.
Use this information to develop a separate list of suitable materials and tools
that you will use to make your model.
Task 16 Materials list

Use the flow chart and the first angle orthographic projection to develop as
comprehensive a list of materials as you can. (10)
1. Draw up a list of materials that you will use to make the footbridge.
2. Remember to include materials for the platform that is used to present or on
which you will mount the footbridge.
3. Remember to think about using materials intelligently, for example, materials
that will last, are easy to use, and readily available.
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 17 Tools list

Use the information from the flow chart, your adapted ideas and the materials list
from Task 16 to develop a list of tools that you will need to make your pedestrian
footbridge.
[TOTAL: 5]
Task 18 Safety
Work as a group. This task is not for formal assessment
Look at the list of safety features below. Use it as a guide to develop a group safety list.
Safety features:
• Protect the surface on which you are working.
Safety • If you use an awl or poking tool, use a poking pad or old magazine.
Take care when • Use a cutting mat and safety ruler when working with a craft knife.
making your model. • When glueing items together, work on an old magazine or newspaper.
Use the tools safely. • Keep your work area tidy.
Do not play with
tools with sharp • Prevent tripping by picking up any mess on the floor.
edges or points.
40 Term 1

Task 19 Make the model pedestrian footbridge
Work as a team. This task is for formal assessment.
1. You have two hours to complete the model.
2. Make sure that every team member plays a part in the building process.
3. Collect the tools and materials that you will be using.
4. Use the materials thriftily and intelligently.
5. Build the model footbridge. (8)
6. Pay close attention to joins and bracing of the structure.
7. Mount the model onto some form of platform base. (2)
8. Work neatly and safely.
[TOTAL: 10]
Figure 22 This bridge was made out of straws.

Unit
8 Evaluate and communicate
In this unit you will develop an evaluation instrument and present the team’s
tender bid to the tender board.
The evaluation instrument

The class needs to develop an evaluation instrument. This is used to assess each
team’s solution, as well as that of another team that is allocated to them by the
teacher. The evaluation of the other team can be done during their presentation.
Task 20 Develop an evaluation instrument

Work in your teams. Work in your workbooks. This task is not for assessment.
Develop an evaluation instrument that can be used by each team member to

evaluate the solution. Think of the following aspects:
• Quality of the initial sketches produced by each member
• Quality of the orthographic drawings, dimensioning, choosing the correct
scale and drawing accurately to scale
• Quality of the artistic impression of the model
• Validity of materials and tools list
• Innovative and intelligent use of materials for the building of the model
• Whether the model is fit-for-purpose, i.e. how well the model solves the
problem in the scenario
• Whether the model met all the specifications and constraints that were drawn
up in the design brief.
You could develop a rubric and use levels 1–7, or allocate marks, or you could
simplify the rubric using ‘smiley’ faces instead of marks.
Finalise a rough draft of your evaluation system to present to the class.
Task 21 Collaborate to develop an evaluation instrument

Work as a team and as a class. This task is not for assessment.
1. A team member presents one of the team’s evaluation criteria to the class.
2. This is written up on the board.
3 As a class, refine the wording until the criterion reads simply and clearly.
4. Continue to follow this process, one team at a time, until the class feels that
all criteria for evaluating the solution have been stated.
5. Once all the criteria are specified, a way of rating the criteria needs to be
developed. A class vote can be taken to decide which method to use,
i.e. levels, marks or smiley faces.
6. This evaluation instrument must be used to evaluate all the models.
42 Term 1

Communicate: Present a tender proposal
Your group will present your plans, flow chart, model and budget to the
tender board.
Task 22 Plan a team strategy to present your model

and plans to the tender board
Work as a team. This task is not for formal assessment.
1. Each team member must take part in the planning of the presentation.
2. Keep in mind that each member must:
a) Share the role as spokesperson
b Present their initial ideas, flow chart and design work.
3. The team must show the tender board:
a) Their research, designs and flow chart
b) The budget that has been put together
c) The model of the pedestrian footbridge.
Tips on presenting a tender document

The tender document is a direct reflection of your organisation. This means that
the reader will judge your organisation based on the tender. We all know the
expression, ‘don’t judge a book by its cover’, but this is exactly what happens in life.
If a tender is poorly presented, the reader will assume that the information in the
tender is of an equally poor quality.
1. Always go the extra mile to present your information
better than any other organisation does.
2. Allow yourself time to practise your presentation and
get it right.
3. Decide what you could offer that is different to your
opposition and that will set your organisation apart.
4. Use creativity when you present your tender documents:
a) Remember to be neatly dressed, look confident and
talk with assurance. Be proud of who you are and
what your organisation represents.
b) Use clear and simple language.
c) If possible, together with your documents, have a
PowerPoint presentation that provides the tender Figure 23 Go the extra mile and you will be successful.
board with a comprehensive summary of the plans,
budget and model.
d) Provide each member of the tender board with a copy of your tender
documents so that they are able to follow your presentation and make
notes if they need to.
e) Use the colours of your organisation consistently and effectively.
5. If possible, include photos, testimonials and references to act as proof
of your reliability and high quality of workmanship.

Term 1 practice test
Read each question carefully before answering.

Complete the answers in your workbook.
1. There are different options provided for the following questions. Choose the correct answer.
Write the question number and the letter of the correct answer only, for example, 1.5d.
1.1 Which symbol represents first angle orthographic projection in Figure 1? (1)
a. b. c. d.
Figure 1
1.2 How a structure should be constructed, the size it should be, the types of materials
that are used to construct it are all part of the structure’s ... (1)
a. load c. design
b. force d. function
1.3 Corrosion resistance is the property of a material that ... (1)

a. allows heat to be conducted
b. prevents the action of substances such as acids, alkalis and gases, which tends to cause
oxidisation
c. allows the action of substances such as acids, alkalis and gases, which cause mineralisation
d. enables the formation of permanent deformation in a material
1.4 Concrete has a relatively high ... (1)

a. tensile strength c. torsion strength
b. bending strength d. compressive strength
2. Match the columns. Match the most appropriate definition with a property of materials.
Write the question number and the letter of the correct answer only, for example, 2.1C. (5)
Column A Column B
Properties of construction materials Definitions
2.1 Mass/density A High resistance to various kinds of shape change
when force is applied
2.2 Hardness B Material’s ability to resist applied force
2.3 Stiffness C Capable of being bent or flexed
2.4 Flexibility D The quantity of something per unit measure,
especially per unit length, volume or area
2.5 Strength E High resistance to temperature
F Rigidity of an object and the extent to which it
resists deformation
44 Term 1

3. Interpreting isometric projection
Look at the diagrams in Figure 2.
3.1 Name the three views. (3)
3.1.1 ‘A’ view: _________ view
3.1.2 ‘B’ view: _________ view
3.1.3 ‘C’ view: _________ view
‘A’ view ‘B’ view
3.2 Draw the missing projection ‘A’ view
neatly and accurately in your workbook.
3.2.1 Copy the blocks as scale 1 : 1 (4)
3.2.2 Draw the missing view onto
your drawn blocks. (2)
3.2.3 Supply the missing word:
‘B’ is drawn as a _________
dimensional shape. (1) ‘C’ view ‘D’ view
Figure 2
4. Forces act on structures all the time.
Look at Figure 3 and then demonstrate
your knowledge of forces by completing
the following statements.
4.1 The columns are in _________ . (1)
4.2 The cables are in _________ . (1)
4.3 The bridge roadway is in _________
and _________. (2)
Figure 3
5. Investigate and interpret the diagram
shown in Figure 4 by answering the
following questions:
5.1 What shape is ‘A’? Explain how you
drew that conclusion. (2)
5.2 What shape is ‘B’? Explain how you
drew that conclusion. (2)
5.3 Draw a freehand sketch of the 3D shape
represented by the diagram. Assume that
the thickness of the shape is 100 units. (3)
[TOTAL: 30]
Figure 4
Term test 45

Chapter
3 Mechanical systems and sub-systems
Figure 3.1 Machines are used to assemble cars in factories.
46

Mechanical systems and control
Introduction
Mechanisms are the moving parts in machines that
use energy to transmit force and motion to do work.
Machines that are designed well help us work faster and
with less effort. Simple mechanisms are used together to
make complex mechanical systems.
To start To operate The result of

a system ... the system ... the system
Figure 3.5 A systems diagram shows how a system works.
Figure 3.2 Sewing machines use many sub-systems to sew.

Complex mechanical systems have several parts. Each
part is a mechanical system that is part of a bigger
system. Each part of a complex mechanical system is
called a sub-system. Each sub-system performs a specific
function needed to make the machine work. All systems
use energy to work, whether it be human, mechanical,
electrical or chemical energy. We can also use the energy
created by using gases or fluids under pressure:
• Pneumatic systems use air under pressure.
• Hydraulic systems use liquids under pressure.
Identify sub-systems
Work on your own.
Choose one of the machines shown in Figures 3.1
Figure 3.3 A bicycle uses a combination of mechanical systems. to 3.4. Then complete the following questions in
your workbook:
1. Identify the sub-systems in the machine.
2. Name the type of energy used to drive
the sub-systems.
3. Draw a flow chart to show how these sub-systems
work together. To do this, divide each sub-system
into input, mechanism and output, as shown in
Figure 3.5.
4. Suggest the advantages and disadvantages
of using this system.
Figure 3.4 A mill grinds grain into flour.
47

Unit
1 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems

Some machines need to slave cylinder (output)
Key words
transmit a force in awkward
• master cylinder – spaces or around corners.
input pressure Other machines need a
is applied to this very large force to dig deep
cylinder trenches or raise heavy loads.
Pneumatic and hydraulic linking tube
• slave cylinder –
systems are used in these
a resulting output
situations. Figure 3.6 shows piston
pressure occurs at
a simple diagram of these
this cylinder; the master
systems. It shows a master
pressure is equal to cylinder (input)
cylinder linked by a tube to
the applied input
an equal-sized slave cylinder.
pressure
A master cylinder is identified
Figure 3.6 Two equal-sized syringes joined by a tube
• piston – a disc as the input of the system.
attached to a rod It is the point where pressure
that fits tightly is applied to the system.
inside a cylinder A slave cylinder is identified as the output of the system. It is the point to which
and that moves the resulting effect of the applied pressure is transmitted. Pistons move inside the
up and down the cylinders to transfer force applied to the system. A piston moves up and down
cylinder inside a cylinder in the direction in which pressure is applied. If a force is applied
to the piston in the master cylinder, the gas or liquid moves through the system
• cylinder – a tube
and pushes out the slave piston. This will lift a load attached to the slave cylinder.
that can fill up with
liquid or air Pneumatic systems
• pneumatic A pneumatic system controls mechanisms by using compressed gases like air
system – or nitrogen. A gas has so much space between its particles that these particles
a mechanical can be forced together under compression. When the gas expands again,
system that uses it releases energy, which we use to do work. This is called potential energy.
compressed air Potential energy is the stored energy in objects, which we can use to do work.
to do work Pneumatic systems are used in simple everyday tools like bicycle pumps
• potential energy – and in industrial tools like jackhammers.
the energy that
is released when
stationary objects
move
• compressed –
when something
(a gas) is squeezed
into a small space
• hydraulic system
– a mechanical
system that uses
compressed fluid Figure 3.8 A powerful
to do work jackhammer can smash
Figure 3.7 A pump inflates a bicycle wheel. through rock and concrete.
48 Term 2

Advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic systems
Pneumatic systems are cheaper than hydraulic systems. However, since air is
so easily compressed, pneumatic systems are not suitable for machines where
precise, controlled movement is needed. Compressed air can be very dangerous
because it is unpredictable and kickback can occur.
Hydraulic systems
A hydraulic system controls mechanisms by using oil. Oil is a lubricant. It
reduces friction and does not freeze as easily as water. A hydraulic system can
transfer forces evenly throughout a system using fluid that is under pressure.
Liquids cannot be compressed like air because there are no spaces between
a liquid’s molecules. Hydraulic systems can be very powerful and are used in
several industries. These systems use machines with electrically-driven pumps
to drive fluid into the cylinders. A hydraulic system controls mechanisms by
using oil. At school, water is used in syringes to simulate hydraulics.
Advantages and
disadvantages of Figure 3.9 A treadle pump is
used to pump water to nearby
hydraulic systems crop fields.
A hydraulic system is
effective since the
pressure in the system
is constant. Force is
transferred directly and
immediately. The system
is efficient because oil
reduces friction, but leaks
are expensive and messy. Figure 3.10 A hydraulic jack is used to lift heavy loads.
Enabling Task 1 Compare simple pneumatic and

hydraulic systems
You will need: length of tubing, empty plastic bottle that can be squeezed
easily, balloon, two unused syringes of 5 mm and 10 mm,
without needles.
Work in pairs. Complete the following questions in your workbook.
1. Connect the balloon to the mouth of the empty plastic bottle.
Depress the bottle and watch what happens to the balloon. (2) Did you know?
2. Fill one syringe halfway with water and use one finger to block Hydraulics and
the opening. Try pushing the piston in. What do you notice? (2) pneumatics are
3. Link two water-filled syringes with tubing. Make sure that there are called fluid
no air bubbles in the system. Push the piston in one of the syringes mechanics, because
and observe what happens. (2) liquids and gases are
4. Compare the results from questions 1–3. Present your answer to the class. (4) not solid substances
and they can both
[TOTAL: 10] move in a system.

Action research 1
Experience force transfer Safety
1. Investigate Take care when
pressing the syringe’s
The amount of fluid that moves in a hydraulic system stays constant, but can piston too hard,
move easily to other parts in the system to do work. You will experiment with it might cause the
two different-sized syringes that are linked by a tube that is filled with hydraulic opposite syringe
fluid. A pneumatic test will allow you to compare your force transfer results. piston to pop out.
For hydraulic research:
You will need: two syringes of unequal sizes and a length of plastic tubing that
fits tightly around the syringe opening, small cardboard box that
contains five stones
For pneumatic research:

You will need: one syringe and a length of plastic tubing that fits tightly
around the syringe opening, 2ℓ empty plastic bottle with
its lid, bicycle pump, glue to seal the joints
Work in groups.
2. Instructions
1. Immerse the tubing and syringes in water to fill the system.
2. Make sure that you have no air bubbles in the system when you connect
your syringes.
2. Connect the two syringes together. The smaller syringe will be the input
master cylinder. The larger syringe is the output slave cylinder.
3. The input syringe’s piston should be extended outwards
and the output cylinder’s piston should be pushed in.
3. Method slave cylinder

(output)
Experience force transfer master cylinder
using hydraulics (input)
Experiment with two different-sized syringes linked by
a tube and filled with water. For ease of use, you will use
piston
a simple hydraulic system filled with water as a hydraulic
fluid rather than oil.
linking tube
Distance multiplication using hydraulics
1. Push the master piston in to transfer the liquid to the
slave cylinder. Measure how far the slave piston moves.
2. Reverse the order, making the larger cylinder the master
and the smaller cylinder the slave. Once again, measure Figure 3.11 Two syringes of unequal size linked
the output distance. by a tube
50 Term 2

Force multiplication using hydraulics
desk
1. Position the output syringe against the
edge of a table. Attach the small box with small box containing stones;
stones to the head of the plunger on the attached to a piston
output cylinder.
2. Push the master piston in. Measure how
high the slave piston lifted the small box. slave cylinder
hold the output cylinder
3. Reverse the order, making the larger (output)
against the side of
cylinder the master and the smaller the desk
cylinder the slave. master cylinder piston
4. Measure how high the output force lifts (input)
the box.
Experience force transfer

using pneumatics Figure 3.12 Two syringes of unequal size linked by a tube and held to
1. Make a small hole in the side of the plastic a desk. A small box is attached to the output cylinder piston.
bottle and in the lid of the bottle.
small tube inserted into lid
2. Place a length of tubing in each hole.
Seal the tubes into the holes with glue. bicycle pump
3. Connect the tube from the lid to a pump.
4. Connect the tube from the bottle to
a syringe.
5. Use the pump to force air into the bottle.
6. Watch how the piston in the syringe moves.
4. Results empty 2ℓ bottle

Observe the results of your hydraulic tests.
Record your results in a table. small tube inserted
into bottle
5. Conclude and evaluate syringe

Answer the following questions in your workbook.
1. Use your results table. Write down your
conclusions from observing the hydraulic
experiment used to transfer: Figure 3.13 A syringe connected to a 2ℓ bottle that is
a) distance multiplication (2) connected to a bicycle pump
b) force multiplication. (2)
2. What happened when you performed the pneumatic force
transfer experiment? (4)
3. Having performed this research, what conclusion can you draw
regarding the compression of gases and liquids used in hydraulic
and pneumatic systems? (2)
[TOTAL: 10]
Action research 1 51

Unit
2 Pascal’s principle
In Unit 1 you saw that when you filled your linked syringes with water and
Key words squeezed the input syringe piston, the output syringe piston moved immediately.
• Pascal’s principle This effect is called Pascal’s principle.
– pressure exerted
on one part of a
hydraulic system Investigate Pascal’s principle
will be transferred Pressure causes movement to occur in a closed hydraulic system. When you
equally, without squeeze an input piston, the build-up of pressure will cause the fluid to push
any loss, in all the output piston out. Pascal’s principle results in pressure being applied evenly
directions to throughout the liquid in all directions in a closed system.
other parts of
the system Pressure transferred through a liquid
• pressure – the Using the pressure equation
amount of force triangle (see Figure 3.14),
that is applied over pressure is defined as the
the surface area force applied per unit area:
of an object pressure = force
• closed system – area
a hydraulic system We can reason that
that is closed force = pressure × area.
at both ends; it This means that a smaller area
keeps the fluid will result in a larger pressure.
and maintains a Figure 3.15 shows how a
constant pressure smaller surface area (A1)
exerts more pressure over Figure 3.14 The pressure equation triangle
inside the system
a larger surface area (A2) to
give a greater force.
F1 F2
=
A1 A2 F2
Pascal’s principle states that when a F1
force is applied to a liquid in a closed
system the pressure is applied evenly
throughout the liquid in all directions.
Figure 3.15 shows how the pressure
in a closed hydraulic system is the
piston piston
same in the whole system. If piston
area (A1) Area (A2)
F1 is pushed down, a force is exerted
on the surface area of the liquid.
According to Pascal’s principle hydraulic
this pressure will be transferred fluid
equally in all directions to piston F2. F1 F2
At piston F2 a pressure is applied to
a large area, producing a force. The
force exerted on F2 will be pressure
multiplied by the area of the large
Figure 3.15 Force increases with hydraulics
piston. The force will be multiplied
at piston F2.
52 Term 2

Mechanical advantage transferred through a liquid
Figure 3.15 shows how a small force is applied to a small piston, producing a large
force on a large piston. Since the system has equal volumes of liquid moving
through the system, different-sized pistons in the system will result in different
amounts of movement or extensions. So, if the input piston F1 is pressed down, the
resulting distance that output piston F2 moves will be smaller. However, although
it will move a smaller distance it will result in more force.
When a small piston drives a larger piston, force is multiplied and there is
mechanical advantage of more than 1 (MA > 1).
The reversed operation can also be investigated. If the input piston F2 is pressed
down, the resulting distance that output piston F1 will move will be more.
Although it will move a greater distance, it will result in less force. When a big
piston drives a smaller piston, force is reduced and there is mechanical advantage
of less than 1 (MA < 1).
Enabling Task 2 Investigate Pascal’s principle
You will need: length of tubing, ruler, two unused syringes of unequal sizes
without needles
Work in pairs.
1. Link two water-filled syringes with tubing. Make sure there are no air bubbles
in the system.
a) Use the smaller syringe as the input. Press the piston in by three
different distances. What is the resultant output distance in each case? (2)
b) Complete the experiment again, but using the larger syringe as
the input. (2)
2. Name the type of mechanical advantage that is achieved when a small
syringe drives a larger syringe. (2)
3. Name the type of mechanical advantage that is achieved when a large
syringe drives a smaller syringe. (2)
4. Explain how it is possible for a smaller piston to multiply force when it
transfers pressure to a larger piston. (2)
[TOTAL: 10]

Action research 2
Experience multiplying force
You will need: one large syringe and one small syringe (half the size of the large
syringe), length of tube, container filled with water
Work in groups.
1. Investigate Safety
In a hydraulic system with two different-sized pistons, a force can be greatly Take care when
enlarged. Because of Pascal’s principle, hydraulics are used to change small pressing on the
forces into large, powerful forces. Forces can be multiplied (made bigger) by syringe’s piston as
using output cylinders that are larger than input cylinders. it could cause the
second piston to
pop out.
2. Instructions
master syringe (cylinder)
linking tube slave syringe (cylinder)
Figure 3.16 Two syringes linked in a hydraulic system
1. Immerse the two syringes and tubing completely under the water.
2. Connect the large syringe to the tubing. This will be your master syringe (cylinder).
3. Link the small syringe to the system by connecting it to the other end of the
tubing. This will be your slave syringe (cylinder).
4. Make sure there are no air bubbles in the system.
54 Term 2

3. Method
Experiment with multiplying force
1. Set your master syringe to have its piston out and the slave syringe to have its
piston in.
2. Press the master syringe and observe what movement happens at the
slave syringe.
3. Experiment by pushing the master syringe three different distances.
4. Results
Write the results of your hydraulic experiment in a table in your workbook.
Write down the distance the master syringe’s piston is pushed in and the size of
movement of the slave syringe’s piston for each of the three distance inputs.
5. Conclude and evaluate

1. State how long it took for the slave syringe to move when the master
syringe was pressed. (1)
2. Describe what you noticed about the size of movement of the slave
syringe piston when the master syringe piston was pressed. (1)
3. Draw conclusions from your answers to questions 1 and 2
concerning distance. (2)
4. More force is achieved in systems where the resulting distance is less
than the input distance. In which situation will more force be generated? (1)
5. Less force is achieved in systems where the resulting distance is more
than the input distance. In which situation will less force be obtained? (1)
6. Identify when mechanical advantage of more than 1 (MA > 1)
will be achieved. (2)
7. Identify when mechanical advantage of less than 1 (MA < 1)
will be achieved. (2)
[TOTAL: 10]

Chapter
4 The hydraulic press and jack
Figure 4.1A Machines use hydraulic components to work.
B C
Figure 4.1B Hydraulics are used to move heavy loads of soil. Figure 4.1C Hydraulics are used to compact soil and gravel in
construction projects.
56

Introduction
Hydraulic systems use liquid under pressure as a way
to transmit force and motion in a machine. The liquids
used in hydraulic systems are incompressible. This makes
the pressure in hydraulic machines predictable and also
results in an accurate and immediate output movement.
The system is efficient because there is very little
friction. Hydraulic equipment is used to create definite
and accurate thrust forces and speed of movement.
Hydraulic systems can produce more power than most
other systems and are very effective when a high-force,
straight-line motion is needed for lifting, pressing,
pulling and cutting.
Investigate hydraulic equipment

Work on your own.
1. Name three examples of hydraulic machines used
in everyday life.
2. Why are hydraulic systems used?
3. How is it possible for a hydraulic system to work
with almost no friction?
Figure 4.2 Hydraulics are used to lift heavy loads.
57

Unit
1 The hydraulic press

Hydraulic systems are used to crush or compact objects. Hydraulic components
Key words
such as pumps, valves and plates are combined to apply a crushing power.
• hydraulic presses – In machines they are usually called hydraulic presses.
machines that
consist of different
parts, which help
to multiply force
to do work
• ram – the name
given to a piston
and cylinder
combination; this
unit is used to
change hydraulic
power into
mechanical power
that is used to
do work Figure 4.3 A hydraulic car press crushes a car.
Investigate a hydraulic press

A hydraulic press uses pressurised liquid to create a large amount of force. It is used
for punching, bending and forming metals into different shapes. Hydraulic presses
are commonly used for copying metal parts. The machine consists of a cylinder and
piston combination called a hydraulic ram. The ram in a hydraulic system converts
hydraulic power to mechanical power. It is connected to a separate tank that contains
its hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic
press is based on Pascal’s principle,
which states that pressure is constant
throughout a closed system.
The photo in Figure 4.4 shows a

hydraulic press. A pump, driven by
an electric motor, forces oil at high
pressures into the cylinder. Valves
control the flow of the pressurised
liquid. Pressure is transmitted by
pressing a small piston into an
enclosed tank of fluid. The pressure
is then transmitted through the
fluid to a large piston, which creates
a very large output force. The force
is multiplied because of the larger
area of the output piston. This moves
the press so that it punches a hole
through the metal disc.
Figure 4.4 A hydraulic press is used to punch holes through metal.
58 Term 2

Simple calculations involving the hydraulic press
The amount of force generated in a hydraulic press is based on the diameter of
the piston head. Mechanical advantage of a hydraulic press can be calculated
with this formula:
mechanical advantage = load = output force = pressure × area of output piston

effort input force pressure × area of input piston
Piston A has a radius of A

10 cm. Piston B has a radius R = 10 cm R = 40 cm
of 40 cm. The formula shows
that mechanical advantage B
is calculated using the area
of the piston.
Using the formula:

area of a circle = πr2 ; the area
of Piston A = 314 cm2 and the
area of Piston B = 5 024 cm2.
Since pressure is constant

throughout the system, it
is ignored in this formula.
Mechanical advantage of
the above system can therefore Figure 4.5 A simple hydraulic system
be calculated as follows:
mechanical advantage = area of output piston = 5 024

area of input piston 314
=16 (Mechanical advantage is 16 or 1 : 16).
Enabling Task 1 Make simple hydraulic press calculations

Work on your own.
Complete the following calculations in your workbook.
1. What mechanical advantage does a hydraulic press have when punching
holes in a metal sheet with a force of 800 N using only 200 N? Provide your
answer as a ratio. (3)
2. A hydraulic press has an input piston radius of 0,5 mm. It is linked to
an output piston that is three times that size. What mechanical advantage
does this press have? (9)
3. A hydraulic lift has a mechanical advantage of 5. If the load weighs 350 N,
what effort is required to lift the weight? Provide your answer in newtons. (4)
4. Your deodorant sprays with a force of 15 N. What mechanical advantage is
achieved if your finger presses the deodorant nozzle with a force of 60 N?
Explain your answer. (4)
[TOTAL: 20]

Unit
2 The hydraulic jack

Most hydraulic machines have large working parts and big cylinders that contain
Key words
oil. But it is not always possible to use a machine with such large parts.
• hydraulic jack –
a machine with Investigate a
a closed hydraulic hydraulic jack
system that is It is hard to believe that
used to lift a small hydraulic jack
heavy objects can lift up and keep an
• pump – a entire car in position when
hydraulic pump a flat tyre needs to be
is a power source replaced (Figure 4.6). The
that provides components of a hydraulic
pressure to the jack are designed to work
system together to multiply a small
input force.
• reservoir –
storage area for
the hydraulic fluid; Components of
when activated, it a hydraulic jack
transfers the fluid The hydraulic jack (Figure 4.7)
to the cylinder is a very simple machine. Its
• one-way valve – design includes a pump,
type of a valve that a reservoir, a cylinder and
ensures that the a one-way valve. It works
pressure builds with hydraulic fluid and
up to the required has a vertical arm that
level in a system lifts the load.
by allowing fluid • Pump – Power source
to pass through in of the hydraulic jack.
only one direction It is usually hand-
powered by a person Figure 4.6 A hydraulic jack holding up a car
pushing the lever up and
down. The lever is attached to the pump.
• Reservoir – Contains the hydraulic fluid. When the jack’s pump is activated,
it applies pressure on the hydraulic fluid and fills the cylinder.
• Cylinder – Hydraulic fluid is pumped into the cylinder through a one-way
valve, which applies pressure on the lifting arm.
• A one-way valve – Allows hydraulic fluid through to the cylinder, but does not
allow it to pass back.
• Lifting arm – The build-up of fluid causes pressure in the cylinder and pushes
the arm to lift out.
The one-way valve is released when the job is done. The weight of the load forces
the hydraulic fluid out of the jack’s cylinder into the reservoir. This releases the
pressure of the jack. Safety valves are often built into hydraulic systems to release
some liquid if the pressure gets too high. This prevents the system from bursting.
60 Term 2

Key words
vertical lifting arm
• aesthetics –
the design of a
lever arm product, taking
into account factors
such as colours,
textures, forms and
styles, to make it
more appealing to
people
pump operated by lever arm
• ergonomics – the
reservoir – filled with hydraulic fluid science or study
cylinder of the efficient
interaction
between people
and machines
Figure 4.7 A diagram of a cross-section of a hydraulic car jack in the work
environment
Evaluate a hydraulic jack
An engineer must design a machine that is good
enough to do the job for which it was intended.
Products are evaluated by asking questions such as:
Who is it for? What is it for? Will it do the job? What
should it be made of? What should it cost? Is it cost-
effective? Does it look good (aesthetics)? Is it safe and
easy for the end user to use (ergonomics)?
The hydraulic car jack shown in the photo in Figure 4.8
is manufactured to be able to lift heavy loads with the
least amount of effort. Smaller jacks can lift up to three
tons of weight, which makes them very fit-for-purpose.
For this jack to last and remain sturdy, strong materials
like metal were used for its casing. The cost of this jack
must compare well with its competitors to make it as
cost-effective as possible.
Aesthetics is about how good a product looks.
The hydraulic jack in Figure 4.8 has bright yellow and
black colours to make it look attractive. These jacks
are generally very reliable and easy to use.
Ergonomics deals with the way a product was
designed to increase its productivity while reducing
the operator’s discomfort. On the car jack we are
evaluating, the operating lever is a long pole with
a rubber handle to protect the operator’s hand.
Wheels have been added to speed up movement,
and the jack’s assembly is neat.
Figure 4.8 A hydraulic car jack

Unit 2 (continued)
Systems diagram of a hydraulic jack

Systems diagrams are graphic representations of what machines do through
various stages. A systems diagram clearly lays out what happens to make a
machine do its work. It is similar to a flow chart, but is much simpler and more
precise. Think about the process you went through this morning when you
brushed your teeth, made a cup of coffee or came to school on your bicycle,
for example. Each one of these processes can be arranged in a systems diagram.
Look at the photo in Figure 4.9 of a man using a hydraulic jack to keep the car in
position so that he can change its flat tyre.
Figure 4.9 A car jack used in automobile repair
This process can also be represented with a systems diagram. The systems diagram
has three sections: input, process and output. Figure 4.10 shows a systems diagram
of the situation shown in the photo.
The input section asks what makes the system work such as the press of a switch,
a movement, or an electrical button. The process section asks how the machine
responds when the input is done. What happens exactly at each step in the process
as the machine does its work? The output section asks what the machine produces.
The lever pumps hydraulic fluid

The build-up of
Person operates lever from the reservoir into the cylinder.
pressure pushes the
The cylinder contains a one-way
arm to lift the car.
valve, which builds pressure.
Figure 4.10 A systems diagram showing the use of a car jack
62 Term 2

Enabling Task 2 Evaluate the design of hydraulic jacks
Work in pairs.
There are many different designs of hydraulic jacks that are used for different
purposes (see Figure 4.11A–C). The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) is
the national standardisation institution in South Africa. All tools and machinery
have to be approved by this body before they can be made or sold to the public.
Answer the questions below in your workbook.
A B C
Figure 4.11A–C Three different types of hydraulic jacks
1. Copy and complete the table below. Compare the three hydraulic jacks shown
in Figure 4.11A–C above. You need to evaluate at least four design aspects of
each product. (4 × 3)
Jack A Jack B Jack C
Who is it for?
What is it for?
Will it do the job?
What should it be made of?
Is it cost effective?
Is it attractive (aesthetics)?
Is it safe/easy for the end user to
use (ergonomics)?
2. Draw a systems diagram to describe the way a hydraulic jack works. (3) Did you know?
3. The hydraulic jack has different components that work together. A machine called
Explain what each of the following components does: the ‘Jaws-of-Life’
a) pump d) one-way valve uses hydraulic
power to pry open
b) reservoir e) lifting arm.
vehicles involved
c) cylinder (5) in accidents when
[TOTAL: 20] a victim is trapped.

Chapter
5 Pulley systems
Figure 5.1 A crane lifts huge weights using large pulleys.
64

Introduction
Gravity exerts a downwards force of 10 newtons/per
kilogram, making heavy loads difficult to lift. Pulleys help
to lift heavy loads and are often used in lifts and cranes.
Pulleys, like all machines, make physical work easier by
taking the effort needed to complete a task and using
the effort in a more efficient way.
A pulley is used for lifting

heavy loads
A pulley is a grooved wheel with either a rope, or a
chain, and a steel cable or belt which lies in the groove.
See Figure 5.2A. The load is attached to the rope, which
passes around one or more pulleys. When the other end
of the rope is pulled, the load is lifted. Pulleys let you use
your weight to help lift the load.
Pulleys can be combined

A fixed pulley can be combined with a single or with
many moveable pulleys. These are called compound
pulleys. The more pulleys there are in a system, the
greater the lifting force (or mechanical advantage)
that is available to lift heavy weights, as the weight
of the load is spread out over more rope.
Figure 5.2A Pulley system on a boat There are three classes of pulleys, as shown in Figure 5.2B.
List functions of pulleys

Work in groups.
Write the answers in your workbook.
1. What is a pulley?
2. What is a compound pulley?
3. List five useful functions for a pulley at school,
at home and at work.
Figure 5.2B The three classes of pulleys
65

Action research 1
The single wheel fixed pulley Key word
The most basic pulley is a single wheel fixed pulley, which has one wheel and one
• single wheel
rope (Figure 5.3). A fixed pulley is attached to a support above the load to be moved.
fixed pulley –
a single wheel
with a groove
in its rim for
a belt to run
in; pulley
changes the
direction of
force needed
and multiplies
force
Safety
Take care when
working with
bricks, a craft
knife, or knocking
nails with a
hammer, as you
can hurt yourself.
Figure 5.3 A single wheel fixed pulley
Use a suitable
ladder to climb to
the desired height
Enabling Task 1 Use a single wheel fixed pulley to pull up when attaching
a weight the pulley wheel.
Someone should
You will need: pair of compasses, brick or similar heavy weight, four-metre keep the ladder
length of rope, corrugated cardboard box, craft knife, strong steady.
contact glue, long thick nail
Work in teams of three. Construct a single wheel fixed pulley to lift a weight.
Refer to Figure 5.4.
1. Using compasses, draw six circles with a diameter of 15 cm on a corrugated
box.
2. Cut them out and glue three together with strong glue to make two thick discs.
3. Draw four circles 7 cm in diameter, and then cut them out and glue them together.
4. Glue the two larger discs on either side of the smaller disc to make your
pulley wheel.
5. Carefully mark the centre of the pulley wheel and make a hole for the axis.
66 Term 2

pulley wheel
effort
effort
effort
load load load
Figure 5.4 Diagram of the three classic pulley classes
• Your teacher will show you where you can attach your pulley wheel at a height
by knocking the nail into the central hole where the nail will function as the axis.
• Place the rope in the groove and tie the load of one brick to one end.
• Use your pulley to pull up the load.

1. Draw a simple diagram of your pulley. (2)
2. What does a pulling force on one side of the rope do to a weight attached
to the other side? (2)
3. What is helping you to lift the load? (2)
4. How far must you pull the rope to raise the load 1,5 m? (2)
5. What advantage does the pulley wheel give you? (2)
[TOTAL: 10]
The mechanical advantage of a single wheel fixed pulley

A single wheel fixed pulley makes it easier to lift a load by changing the direction
of force and effort, but it does not decrease the amount of work you have to
do because:
• the force you must pull with is the same as the weight of the object
• the distance you must pull the rope down to raise a weight up to the same
height is the same.
There is no mechanical advantage achieved from using the single wheel fixed
pulley. This means that the mechanical advantage is equal to zero (MA = 0).

Action research 2
The single wheel moveable pulley Key word
Sometimes a load needs to be lifted and moved from one place to another.
• moveable
This is when a moveable pulley is used. See Figure 5.5 below.
pulley –
With a single wheel moveable pulley, one end of the pulley rope is anchored to a a pulley that
higher point, but the pulley itself is attached to the load being moved. The pulley is not fixed
rope then continues to where you are pulling it. Both the load and the pulley can in place but
move. Each length of supporting rope from the moveable pulley is called a fall. supports a load;
a moveable
pulley reduces
the amount of
effort needed
to lift and
move a load
fall fall Safety

Take care that
people don’t get
hurt by the
moveable pulley
that is attached
to a high point.
Figure 5.5 A moveable pulley system
68 Term 2

Enabling Task 2 Make a single wheel moveable pulley
You will need: pulley wheel from Enabling Task 1, four-metre length of rope,
flexible wire, brick or similar heavy weight
Work in teams of three.
Using the pulley wheel you made in the previous task, make a single wheel
moveable pulley.
1. Loop a length of wire through the hole in the centre of the pulley wheel
to make a hook on which you can hang a weight.
2. Secure one end of the rope to a high point.
3. Loop the rope through the grooves of the pulley wheel and then lead it up
again to where you can hold it. Use another piece of rope to tie one brick to
the hook.
Answer the following questions in your workbook:

1. What is making it easier to lift the weight? (2)
2. How far must you pull the rope to lift the load? (1)
3. How can you move the load faster from one point to another? (2)
4. Make two sketches with labels to show how you changed the system
to move. (5)
[TOTAL: 10]
The mechanical advantage of a single wheel

moveable pulley
A single wheel moveable pulley does not change the direction of the force
(unlike the fixed pulley), but it does have a mechanical advantage.
The same weight is now being shared by two falls of rope. Each fall supports half
the weight of the load. The mechanical advantage is greater than 0 (MA > 0).

Action research 3
Pulley block system (block and tackle) Key word
Multiplying force in a pulley system • block and
A fixed pulley can be combined with a moveable pulley to lift and move a tackle –
heavy load with less force. The pulley rope is wound around both pulley wheels, a system
increasing the number of falls. The number of times the rope supports the load is of multiple
called the number of ‘falls’. A fall is a rope section between pulley wheels, but not pulleys;
the rope section being pulled by the person. This halves the pulling effort needed because the
to lift the load. Because the rope is twice as long, you have to pull twice as far. pulley rope
This combination is called a block and tackle. winds around
• The block is the fixed pulley that is fixed to a structure. them many
• The tackle is the moveable pulley. times, the
number of falls
reduces the
block
effort needed
to lift heavy
fall 1 loads
fall 2
Safety
tackle
Take care when
doing this
practical. Use
appropriate
equipment to
bend the wire
Figure 5.6 A double pulley system
frames and be
careful not to drop
the weight on your
A block and tackle is used to lift heavy fellow learners.
loads using the mechanical advantage
gained by adding multiple pulleys to the
system.
fall 2
Doubling the number of pulleys halves

the amount of force, because two pulleys
fall 1 fall 3
each share the weight. But the distance
you need to pull is twice as far as the
distance the load is lifted. The mechanical
advantage is equal to 2 (MA = 2).
Figure 5.7 A three pulley system
70 Term 2

Enabling Task 3 Investigate the relationship between the
number of falls on moveable pulley wheels
and mechanical advantage
You will need: two lengths of thick wire, six empty cotton reels, two building
bricks or bags of sand, four metres of ribbon or rope
Work in teams.
Find out how mechanical advantage can be increased in
a block and tackle by using multiple load-bearing ropes
and pulley wheels.
1. Thread three cotton reels onto each piece of wire.
2. Loop the wire to form a triangle and twist the wire
to make a strong hook at the top.
These are the pulley wheels, arranged along
two axles. The upper axle is the block and will
be attached to the support.
Figure 5.8 A block and tackle simulation
The lower axle is the tackle and is attached to the load.
3. Hook the block to a high point. Tie the rope to this point
as well. Now loop it through the tackle, as shown in Figure 5.8 above.
4. Tie the load to the hook at the bottom of the tackle.
Perform the following tests and record your findings in your workbook.
1. With each loop of the rope, test how easy it is to lift the load.
2. What is making it easier to lift the weight? (2)
[TOTAL: 2]
The mechanical advantage

of a block and tackle
One rope can be wound around a number of pulleys.
For each extra pulley used, the effort is halved. This
happens because the distance that the rope must
be pulled is doubled. The more pulleys you use, the
greater the number of falls and the less effort you
need to lift the load. The MA or magnification of force
is equal to the number of pulleys used.
When distance is increased, force is decreased.
Pulleys can magnify force very effectively. However,

with each pulley added, there is additional friction,
making the system less efficient. Because of this,
Figure 5.9 Compound pulleys allow us to use a small
the number of pulleys that can be used is limited.
effort to lift a large load, as is done in shipyards.

Chapter
6 Mechanical control systems
Figure 6.1 A rollercoaster uses a system of ratchets to prevent backward motion.
72

A Introduction
When machines and mechanical devices are used, it
must be possible for the people who use them to control
them easily and use them safely. For example, fairground
rides such as those shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2 A–D,
need to be safe for the children, teenagers and adults
who use these rides.
For example:
• A bicycle must have a control system that stops it
from going too fast.
B
• On yachts, control devices are needed to hold the
sail ropes securely.
• A rollercoaster needs to use a control system to keep
the rollercoaster from moving backwards.
These are called mechanical control systems.
Investigate fairground rides

Work in groups. Write your answer in your workbook.
C Fairgrounds are favourite places for people to visit and

have fun. But sometimes, accidents can happen because
control systems fail.
1. What mechanical device is used to control these
machines?
2. Choose two machines and explain how each works.
Compare your answers in a classroom discussion.
Figure 6.2A–D Various fairground rides.
73

Unit
1 The ratchet and pawl
Key words
• ratchet and
pawl – a gear
mechanism that
can lock to prevent
a load from
rolling backwards
• winch –
a mechanism
that winds up
a rope or cable
Figure 6.3 A simple seatbelt uses a ratchet and pawl, which can help to save lives.
What is the purpose of a ratchet and pawl?

A ratchet and pawl is a device that is used to allow movement in one direction,
while preventing movement in the opposite direction. Look at the example in
Figure 6.3. The ratchet is a gear wheel with specially slanted teeth, curved on one
side and straight on the other. The pawl is a spring-loaded lever that hooks into
the teeth openings.
• When the ratchet is rotated in one direction by the axle, the pawl slides up or
‘climbs’ the curved edge of the teeth.
• As the pawl passes over the tip of each tooth, it falls down the flat edge of the
tooth into the dip and a spring clicks it into a locking position.
• The gear cannot slip backwards as the straight edge and the spring-loaded
pawl block the motion of the gear, allowing rotation to occur only once the
ratchet axle turns in the correct way again. Study Figure 6.4.
catch
pawl
ratchet
Figure 6.4 A ratchet and pawl mechanism
74 Term 2

Ratchets are used in machines that lift or pull, to lock the motion
A
and prevent reverse rotation when the input force is removed.
Look at Figure 6.5 and Figure 6.6A–D.
Rachets are very useful in devices such as:

• mechanical jacks used to lift vehicles for tyre changes
• a winch in a water well
• tightening mechanisms used in mountain climbing
• fairground rollercoasters.
A ratchet mechanism pulls the rollercoaster cars to
the top of the ride.
A ratchet adjusts the

mechanical jack.
The ratchet in a winch is used

Figure 6.5 A ratchet on a winch mechanism prevents the reel from unwinding. to collect water from the well.
Enabling Task 1 Investigate the ratchet and pawl D
Work in pairs. This is a homework activity.

In your neighbourhood, find a car that has a seat belt that ‘locks’.
Carefully examine the mechanism that locks and answer the following questions
in your workbook.
1. How big is the mechanism? (2)
2. State the material from which it is made. (2)
3. Draw a simple diagram of how the mechanism does its job. (4) A ratchet mechanism is used
4. Generate a list of sports or safety activities that in mountain-climbing gear.
use a ratchet and pawl mechanism. (2)
[TOTAL: 10] Figure 6.6A–D Various uses
of ratchets

Unit
2 The disc brake

The fastest car in the world can achieve a top speed of over 400 kilometres an
hour! On our national roads, the top speed limit is between 60 and 120 kilometres
an hour, which is also very fast. This makes a braking system one of the most
important safety items in a car, and this system should be checked regularly.
Disc brakes in cars

Nowadays, most cars have brakes on all four wheels to stop the vehicle more
effectively. The most common type of brake system is a disc brake system, where
the car is slowed down by applying friction to a disc or rotor in the wheel of the car.
Let’s investigate how this works.
Look at Figure 6.7. A disc brake system of a car is a combination of mechanical,

electrical and hydraulic systems:
• The brake pedal is a lever connected to a piston.
• The piston is connected to a master cylinder filled with brake fluid.
• The master cylinder is connected by pipes filled with brake fluid to slave
cylinders with pistons on all four wheels.
• The pistons are attached to callipers, which are gripping mechanisms of two
levers mounted over each wheel of the car.
• Brake pads made of metal covered with a friction material are attached to the
end of each piston.
• A cast iron or carbon composite brake disc is attached to the wheel of the car.
slave cylinder
piston
piston brake pedal
master cylinder filled

with brake fluid
brake pad
Figure 6.7 Cross-section of a disc brake system of a car
76 Term 2

Refer to Figure 6.8. This is how a disc brake system works:
1. When the driver presses on the brake pedal, the small input on the brake pedal
exerts pressure on the brake fluid in the whole system.
2. The brake fluid from the master cylinder forces an equal pressure through the
whole system into the pistons on each wheel.
3. The piston in turn squeezes two brake pads mounted on the callipers against
the disc, which is mounted on the wheel.
4. Friction between the pads and the disc slows the car, causing the wheels to
slow down, and the car eventually stops.
drum brakes
master cylinder
wheel cylinder
disc brakes
inner brake pad

brake shoes
outer brake pad brake disc
Figure 6.8 A top cross-section of a car, showing the four wheels and brakes
So, each time the car is stopped, the disc brakes convert motion to heat generated
by the friction between the pads and the discs. If brakes get too hot, they don’t
work as well, which is why most brakes have a cooling system of air vents.
Enabling Task 2 Investigate the disc brake system in a car

Work on your own. Answer the following questions in your workbook.
1. Draw a simple flow diagram explaining how a disc brake system works
in a car. (3)
2. Use arrows to show the sequence of actions and events. (2)
[TOTAL: 5]

Unit
3 Bicycle brakes
Bicycle brakes are used
Key word
to slow down or stop a
• rim brakes – bicycle. A bicycle brake
brakes that use system is easy to see and
brake blocks or understand because it
brake shoes made is not hidden under a
of rubber, cork or hood or bonnet. Look at
leather to apply Figures 6.9 and 6.10.
friction to the rim
of a bicycle wheel, Most bicycles use rim
causing it to slow brakes, where a braking
down and come force is applied to
to a stop the rim of the wheel.
calliper
Rim brakes are cheap,
easy to maintain and
mechanically simple, but
are nevertheless a very
effective control system.
Bicycle brakes
are a system
The brake system on a
bicycle uses a number of
sub-systems:
• The rider operates
the brakes from a Figure 6.9 Two callipers joined with metal cabling to the
brake lever mounted brake lever
on the bicycle’s
handlebars.
• As the rider applies pressure, forcing
the brake lever down towards the
handlebars, a metal cable inside the
brake handle is pulled tighter.
• The cable is linked to two callipers
mounted on the bicycle frame above
the rim of each wheel.
• The callipers are two curved bars
pivoted by a single bolt above the
tyre; they are long enough to reach
the rim of the wheel.
• Rubber brake blocks are attached to
the ends of a pair of callipers on the
frame of the bicycle.
Figure 6.10 The brake lever
78 Term 2

1. When the rider operates the brake handle, a pull action on the cable causes
the callipers to pull together.
2. This causes the brake blocks to apply pressure against the rim of the wheel.
3. The rubber creates friction, which converts kinetic energy into thermal energy
(heat), causing the bicycle to slow down and eventually stop.
Look at Figure 6.11A and B.
A B
Figure 6.11A and B Thermal energy causes bicycle brake blocks to wear down.
Enabling Task 3 Investigate a bicycle brake system

1. Draw a diagram showing how a bicycle brake system works. (5)
2. Label the following parts in the brake system diagram:
a) brake handle
b) brake lever
c) brake cable
d) calliper
e) brake block. (5)
[TOTAL: 10]

Unit
4 Cleats
Key word What is a cleat?

A cleat is a safety device used to control the movement of the rope used in a
• cleat – a simple
pulley. A cleat secures a rope by pinching it between or locking it around two
device used to
pieces of metal or plastic.
clamp and hold
a rope securely
Look at Figures 6.12 to 6.14, which show different designs of cleats:
• A jam cleat is the simplest type of cleat. It is a wooden or metal projection with
two arms, or horns, around which you wrap a rope to fasten it. When wrapped
around the horns, the rope is pinched in the V-shaped slot between them. The
cleat will release quickly and easily when the rope is flicked out of the fitting.
• A cam cleat has two spring-loaded cams that pinch the rope. Ridges or teeth
on the cams stop the rope from slipping backwards. When the rope is given a
quick tug, the cams release the rope.
• A clam cleat has two curved halves, which look like the two halves of a clam.
The rope is pinched between the two grooved pieces and held in place by
ridges or teeth.
Figure 6.12 A jam cleat
Figure 6.13 A cam cleat
80 Term 2

Figure 6.14 A clam cleat
Cleats are used to secure ropes on blinds, on sailing ships and on mountain-
climbing equipment. Look at the examples in Figures 6.15–6.17.
Figure 6.15 A jam cleat is used Figure 6.16 A cam cleat pinches the Figure 6.17 A clam cleat
to tie boats to the dock. rope to stop it moving backwards. keeps the rope in place.
Enabling Task 4 Safety in the home

Many homes use blinds as window coverings. However, animals and small children
can become entangled in the blind cords and suffer death or injury as a result.
Design a one-page guide for homeowners on safety in the home where cords
or pulleys are used.
1. Draw simple diagrams or sketches of the three types of cleats. (3 × 3)
2. Explain how each type of cleat can be used to help prevent injury
in the home. (3 × 3)
3. Make sure that your guide uses headings and an effective layout. (2)
[TOTAL: 20]

Chapter
7 Gear systems
Figure 7.1 Gears enable the inside working of many of the tools we use.
82

Introduction
Gears are wheels with evenly-spaced teeth on their
outer rim. They are attached to an axle that is turned
by a power source that can be human, mechanical or
electrical.
Gears are used to change speed in many different

complex machines, from cars to clocks. They do this by
changing the size and direction of a turning force.
Some machines need complicated movements to work,

and they need gears to change direction, speed and
force many times as they do their work. They use gear
Figure 7.2A A music box trains in which many gears are connected together to
create gear systems that have more than one output.
When gears mesh with each other, they cause transfer

of movement, force and speed. There are different types
of gears that are used to change the direction of motion
from axis to axis.
Each gear type has a different effect according to:

• how the teeth are arranged
• the angle at which the meshing occurs
• the direction of the axles.
Technology has advanced so much that gears nowadays

are made of specially engineered materials that reduce
Figure 7.2B A guitar’s tuning pegs friction and wear and tear.
Revise how gears work

Work in pairs.
Explain to your partner how the gear systems in each
of the machines in the photos in Figure 7.1 to 7.2A–C
alongside function to make the machine work.
1. Identify the input of each gear system.
2. Explain the direction in which each gear moves.
3. Discuss how the gear meshes with other gears
in the system.
4. Identify the output of the system.
Figure 7.2C The winding mechanism of a watch
83

Unit
1 Revise spur gears

You should remember that gears:
Key words
• increase or decrease speed
• spur gear – • change the direction of motion
a wheel with teeth
• multiply or increase turning forces.
around its edge
• in-line systems –
when gears act in Spur gears
the same plane A spur gear is the most common type of gear. It has teeth on the outer rim that are
and direction similar to the spurs that some horse riders wear on their boots. This shape creates
• gearing down – very effective meshing on in-line systems of gearing. In-line gearing is when gears
when the output act in the same plane and direction.
gear rotates more
slowly than the The gear causing the movement (the input) is called the driver gear. The gear being
input gear moved (output gear) is called the driven gear (also called a pinion). See Figure 7.3.
• torque –
a turning force
Spur gears of equal driven gear
• gear ratio –
size counter-rotating (output gear)
When the axle of a driver gear
the ratio of the
is turned by a power source
speed of the
and two spur gears touch,
driven gear relative
the teeth mesh and cause the
to the speed of driver gear
gears to rotate in opposite
the driver gear (input gear)
directions and move in
• gear trains – counter-rotation.
sets of gears that
transmit when two Each gear in a series reverses Figure 7.3 The driver gear causes the driven gear
or more gears are the direction of rotation of the to move.
meshed together previous gear.
Spur gears of unequal size counter-rotating

If two gear wheels are the same size, they turn at the same speed or rpm (rotations
per minute). When two spur gears of different sizes mesh, they counter-rotate at
different speeds. The smaller gear turns faster than the bigger gear. The difference
in the speed of the two gears depends on the number of teeth on each gear wheel.
Big gears have more teeth than small gears. We call the relationship between the
speeds of the two gears the velocity ratio (see Figure 7.4). You can work out velocity
ratio as follows:
velocity ratio = number of teeth on driven gear

number of teeth on driver gear
84 Term 2

For example, if the smaller driven gear has 12 teeth and the larger driver gear
has 24 teeth, we calculate the velocity ratio as follows:

= 12
24
= 1:2
This means that the driven gear turns twice for
each time the driver gear turns. This is called
gearing down.
The turning speed of a gear will affect how much

force it can transmit. The faster the gear turns, the Figure 7.4 Gears with a change in velocity ratio
less force it transmits. The turning force or torque can
be increased when the driven gear is larger. It turns more
slowly than the driver but with greater force. The greater
the distance from the axle to the circumference of the wheel,
the greater the torque or turning speed of the gear. We call
this the gear ratio. This is called gearing up.
spur gear
Spur gears use an idler gear to
synchronise rotation
An idler gear is a third gear wheel that is placed between idler gear
two spur gears to synchronise the rotation of the two outer
spur gear
gears. See Figure 7.5. By using an idler gear the direction of
the output driven gear will move in the same direction as the
input driver gear.
Figure 7.5 An idler gear between two spur gears
Compound gears
Gears can be linked so that a few gears appear to be ‘fixed’ together. These are
called compound gears. Compound gears take up less space. They are also called
gear trains. Look at Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6 A compound gear train

Unit
2 Bevel gear systems
Key word Bevel gears of equal size

Bevel gears are cone-shaped, with teeth cut at a 45-degree angle. Look at
• bevel gears –
Figure 7.7. The gears are mounted at an angle of 90 degrees to one another.
gears used to
One bevel gear turns vertically on an axis and meshes with another gear that
change rotational
turns horizontally. In this way, the movement changes through 90 degrees from
movement through
horizontal to vertical. The axis of rotation is 90 degrees.
90 degrees
Bevel gears of unequal size
In bevel gears of unequal size, the smaller gear turns quicker than the larger gear.
The velocity ratio of the gears gives mechanical advantage in that one turn of the
larger gear results in more than one turn of the
smaller gear. But the smaller gear transmits
less force as it turns faster. The force can be
increased when the driven gear is larger.
It turns more slowly than the driver gear
but with greater force.
A crown and pinion

A crown and pinion gear is a type of bevel gear
where the teeth project at 90 degrees to the
plane of the wheel. A crown gear can mesh
with a bevel or spur gear.
Many hand-driven tools, such as hand beaters

(Figure 7.8) and hand-drills (Figure 7.9), use a
crown and pinion gear. In the hand-drill below,
you can see how these two gears mesh.
Figure 7.7 A bevel gear
Figure 7.8 The bevel gear changes the direction of movement Figure 7.9 The crown and
through 90 degrees. pinion gear changes the
direction of movement.
86 Term 2

Enabling Task 1 Revise gears
Work in pairs.
1. Look at Figure 7.10. In which direction will Gear B move? Explain your answer. (2)
driver gear
Figure 7.10 A gear system
2. Look at Figure 7.11, and then answer the questions:

a) Calculate the velocity ratio. (2)
b) State whether this gear system is gearing up or gearing down.
Explain your answer. (3)
c) What is the speed of Gear B? (2)
d) What is Gear B called? (1)
B 30 teeth
driven gear 10 teeth; 60 rpm A
Figure 7.11 Meshed spur gears

[TOTAL: 10]
Enabling Task 2 Analyse a hand-drill

Work in pairs.
Refer to the photo of the hand-drill in Figure 7.9. Answer the following questions
in your workbook.
1. What is the input for this machine? (2)
2. Which gear is the driver gear? (2)
3. In this hand-drill, there is one driver gear and two driven gears. Explain why. (3)
4. What is the velocity ratio of this machine if the driver gear has 80 teeth
and the driven gear has 16 teeth? (3)
[TOTAL: 10]

Unit
3 Rack and pinion gear systems
Key word Rack and pinion gears

Rack and pinion gears change rotational
• rack and pinion
movement into linear movement. A rack and
gears – gears that linear movement
pinion gear system consists of a gear, called on rack
change rotational
a pinion, which meshes with a strip of metal pinion
movement into
with corresponding teeth on the top, called
linear movement
a rack. See Figure 7.2. The rack is just like
rack
a gear, but in one long strip. As the pinion
turns, the rack moves sideways in a straight
line. Either the rack or the pinion can be
fixed, allowing the other to move freely.
If the rack is mounted in a sliding carriage circular movement

on pinion
to allow it to move freely in one direction
and then back again, the output movement Figure 7.12 A rack and pinion gear
is linear.
Some machines need to convert rotational movement into linear movement.

For example, in an automatic gate (Figure 7.13A–C):
• The gate is powered by a motor, which has a rotating axle.
• The axle is attached to a spur or pinion gear.
• The pinion meshes with a flat strip of gear teeth, called a rack.
• The rack changes rotary motion into linear motion.
Figure 7.13A–C Different views of the mechanism of an automatic gate
88 Term 2

The steering system on some cars uses a rack and pinion system (see Figure 7.14).
It is sometimes called a steering rack.
A double-headed corkscrew also has a rack and pinion. The rack and pinion is also
used in microscopes, pillar drills and camera tripods.
pinion
rack
Figure 7.14 In the steering mechanism of most cars, the pinion rotates in a fixed position
and the rack is free to move.
Enabling Task 3 Analyse a drill press

Work in pairs.
Refer to the photo of the drill press in
Figure 7.15, and then answer the
following questions in your workbook.
1. Explain the type of movement in
a drill press. (2)
2. Draw a systems diagram of this
machine. (3)
[TOTAL: 5]
Figure 7.15 In a drill press, the rack is

fixed and the pinion rotates and moves
up and down the rack.

Unit
4 Worm gear systems
Key word Worm gears reduce output speed and

• worm gear – increase force
a gear that produces Many toys are driven with small electric motors that spin at very fast speeds, like
a 90-degree those used in model trains or cars. The speed must be reduced to provide increased
change in rotational force for the toy to move. This is when worm gears are used, as they provide a
movement and large reduction in speed and an increase in force (see Figure 7.16).
slows down the
speed of movement
Figure 7.16 Worm gears are often used to drive children’s toys that have a small motor.
The worm and spur

The worm is a gear with one
continuous tooth in the form of a
screw thread. The worm meshes with a
spur gear called a worm wheel, which
transmits a turning force, torque, and
rotary motion through a right angle.
The worm is the driver gear. It slows

down the worm wheel, which is the
driven gear. The slowing down creates
a large turning force or torque in the
driven gear. Worm gears are used to
achieve a high torque and to slow
down movement. This is possible
because the worm has only one tooth.
Look at Figure 7.17. Figure 7.17 A worm gear is considered to have
one tooth. So, if a work wheel has 30 teeth, then
the worm wheel will spin 30 times slower.
90 Term 2

Look at the worm gears in Figure 7.18A–C. The worm always drives the worm wheel
and never the other way round. This is because it is difficult for the worm wheel to
have enough strength to turn all the way through the one long thread.
As worm gears wear and tear, they can start sliding or slipping, leading to low
efficiency.
The shape of the screw thread or tooth of the worm can be changed to achieve
better contact. Some worms partially encase each other.
A C
Figure 7.18A–C Worm gears

Chapter
8 Mechanisms found in modern homes
Figure 8.1 The mechanism of a pop-up toaster
92

A Introduction
Many of the machines we use every day at home use a
combination of systems. Look at Figures 8.1 and 8.2A-C.
Such machines are called integrated systems.
For instance, a toaster is a machine that makes use of

mechanical and electrical systems.
• As a slice of bread is put in the toaster, a spring-
loaded handle pushes the bread rack downwards.
• Pushing the handle down also activates a switch
that allows electrical current to flow through the
toasting elements.
• The handle is held down by a lever and a catch.
• A heat sensor is timed to switch off the elements
when the bread has toasted.
B
• The catch that holds the rack down is released as
soon as the element switches off.
Identify integrated systems

Work on your own. Complete the following questions in
your workbook.
1. List three machines that use integrated systems and
that you might find in each of the following rooms
of your home:
• Kitchen – for example, an electric beater
• Study – for example, a printer
• Living room – for example, a DVD player
• Garage – for example, a lawnmower
C • Bedroom – for example, a hairdryer.
2. Choose one of the machines and list all the
main working parts of the machine.
3. Draw a systems diagram showing how the
machine works.
4. Explain how the machine solves a problem
or meets a need.
Figure 8.2A–C Examples of machines that are integrated systems
93

Unit
1 Evaluate fitness-for-purpose
Many machines in our homes and offices work well and help us to do our work
Key words faster and more easily. Sometimes, however, a machine does not work well
• systems – because it has been badly designed. Designers and engineers must make sure that
collections of they consider all parts of a machine’s job when they design the machine.
interconnected
parts that use a
process to change Anthropometrics and ergonomics
an input of energy Anthropometrics looks at the average measurement of people to find the best height
or information into and size for a handle, the correct angle for a lever, or the best depth of a seat.
an output
• anthropometrics –
the study of the
measurements of
the human body
Figure 8.3 Working at home
Ergonomics takes anthropometric data into account. Ergonomics is the

study of how to make machines and environments work with the human
body, so that they create the best situation for effective work to be done.
Ergonomics also makes sure that any person does not get any repetitive
strain injury while using a machine.
In the workshop, ergonomics is very important because it protects users

of machines against injury and it improves the performance of machines.
Many machines in our homes are designed using ergonomics,

for example:
• all handles, switches and dials on devices
• the heights, depth and edges of shelving
• computer keyboards and mouse devices.
Look at Figure 8.3 and 8.4.
Figure 8.4 Ergonomics helps to improve the
design of machines such as computer equipment.
94 Term 2

Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the study of what machines look like. It takes into account factors such
as colours, textures, forms and styles. Their appearance affects how we react to
them psychologically. These factors are also important when designing machines.
Look at Figures 8.5 and 8.6 below.
Figure 8.6 A hairdryer with a two-

toned purple casing. To whom do
Figure 8.5 This food processor was designed to you think this machine is designed
look attractive, as well as to do certain tasks. to appeal?
Enabling Task 1 Evaluate mechanisms in the home

Work on your own.
Choose one machine from home that you identified in the previous activity.
Draw a simple line drawing of the machine.
Write a report in your workbook on how well the machine has been designed by
looking at the following factors:
1. Decide who the intended user of the machine is.
How has the machine taken into account the user? Have ergonomics been
considered? Is it comfortable to use? (2)
2. Describe the function of the machine.
Does it do its job properly? Does the machine have all the necessary parts?
How does it work? (2)
3. Name the material from which it is made. Is the material non-toxic and safe?
Is it durable? Can it be recycled after use? (2)
4. Decide if the material is suited to the function.
Does the material have properties that support the use of the tool,
for example, in the grip? (2)
5. State the approximate cost of the machine. Is the tool useful enough
to justify its cost? Can most people afford the tool? (3)
6. Evaluate the machine and decide if it is attractive.
Consider aesthetic factors such as colour, surface texture and styling details.
Is there a good finish on the tool around the joins? (2)
7. Discuss whether it is safe to use.
Does it have safety features? Are any parts dangerous? (2)
[TOTAL: 15]

Skills Focus 1: Communication skills
Vanishing point Key words

perspective • vanishing point
Vanishing point perspective is perspective –
a way of drawing an object on a flat a 2D drawing
surface (such as paper), to give the that gives an
effect of perspective. In Grades 7 and 8 impression of
you learned to draw single and double space by using
vanishing point perspective using only the illusion that
one vanishing point. The front view two parallel lines
of the object is drawn head on. Lines will meet on the
are then drawn to the vanishing point horizon in a single
on the horizontal line. The vanishing vanishing point
point(s) is (are) positioned on the
horizontal line. All lines apart from the
vertical and horizontal lines meet at
this point(s), as shown by Figure 8.7. Figure 8.7 Single vanishing point perspective
Practical activity Draw an object in vanishing point

perspective
Work in pairs.
Find a wooden spoon, bowl or block at home or at school.
Position the object on a table in front of you.
A
1. Draw the front view of your object.
2. Decide on a horizon line and mark a vanishing point.
3. Draw light lines from the front of your object so that they join to the vanishing
point. These lines are called orthogonals.
4. Complete the sides of your object as each side gets narrower towards the
horizon line.
5. Enhance the drawing by showing the texture of the material from which it is
made (for example, wood), using colours and shadows.
B
Pencil techniques
How to show texture for wood
• Look at Figure 8.8A and B closely. One way to show wood grain texture is
to study the wood closely. Notice the details of the wood grain such as the
directional lines that vary in thickness, and try to copy these on your drawing.
• Another way you can show wooden texture is to do a rubbing from a piece of
wood. Place a sheet of thin paper over a flat piece of grainy wood. Rub a pencil
gently on the paper, and the texture of the wood will come through.
• A third way is to dent the paper with a blunt edge such as the back of a pencil,
scoring in the directional lines without making a mark. Go over the dents with a Figure 8.8A and B Types of wood
6B pencil; notice how the lines stand out in white, looking just like wood grain. texturing
96 Term 2

How to shade
Shading is a process used in drawing for showing 3D form
by filling in areas with varying levels of darkness (see
Figures 8.9 and 8.10). You can use different techniques to
do this:
• Use the side of your pencil lead to create a smooth
shaded surface, leaving the highlights white and
making the shadows dark. This contrasting technique
is known as (chiaroscuro).
• Hatching is the technique of drawing closely spaced
parallel lines to give a sense of texture or shadow.
When the lines are placed at an angle to one another
in a crisscross pattern, it is called cross-hatching.
Figure 8.9 A drawing showing shading techniques
Figure 8.10 Drawings showing shading and hatching techniques
Enabling Task 2 Draw a perspective view

Work on your own.
You will need: sheet of A3 paper, ruler, HB pencil, 3B pencil

Draw an inside view of your classroom using single vanishing point perspective.
1. Make a point in the middle of a horizontal format page. This is your vanishing
point, which will be on the back wall of the class in your drawing.
2. Draw in the back wall.
3. Now, lightly draw in the ceiling and floor lines.
4. From this stage, start filling in the lines
of desks, chairs and other details.
5. Make sure that you draw each
object using a single vanishing point
perspective, like the practical activity
that you did on the previous page.
6. Finalise all the details.
7. Identify the direction of the incoming
light source. On all objects, shade
the sides that are away from the
light source.
[TOTAL: 20]
Figure 8.11 A perspective drawing of a room
Skills Focus: Communication skills 97

Term
2 Problem solving: Mechanical advantage
Figure 1 A two-tonne black rhino being taken by helicopter to an area of safety. Note the tying of the feet using an arrangement of the
rope that will not come undone.
Figure 2 A whale being hoisted out of the water for scientific research
98

Mini-PAT: Problem solving: Mechanical advantage
Content: Integrated systems (mechanical and electrical)

and mechanical advantage
Context: Integrated system used to rescue wild animals
Introduction
Mechanical, electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic systems
can be combined to create integrated systems. These
make work easier and quicker. Integrated systems are
often housed in a structure.
Scenario
Rescuing animals using integrated
systems
South Africa has a wide variety of wild animals.
Sometimes these animals have to be relocated.
See Figures 1 and 2. The black rhino is on the critically-
endangered list of the IUCN (International Union for
Conservation of Nature). This is because the animals
have become regular victims of poaching. Nineteen
rhinos were moved to a new area in the hope of
protecting them from poachers. The two-tonne rhinos
were sedated, blindfolded, and then hoisted up by their
ankles and moved by helicopter to their new game park.
Figure 3 A racehorse stuck in mud, with the tide rising.
A winch system was used to lift the horse out of the mud
Sometimes wild animals or expensive livestock are
and to safety, but only after it was sedated by a veterinarian.
rescued because of rising flood waters or because
they have fallen into or become stuck in mud holes.
(see Figures 3 and 4).
Marine animals such as sharks are captured, tagged,

and fitted with sensors so that scientists can learn more
about their feeding habits and swimming patterns.
You and your team are required to design and make an

integrated system that can be used to lift or pull a large
animal such as an elephant, horse, small whale or shark.
The system must include a control device. The type of
integrated system that your group designs will depend on
the particular situation your group decides to work within.
Work on your own.

1. Name two of South Africa’s wild animals.
2. Why are integrated systems useful in the
context of rescuing wildlife?
3. Identify the main mechanisms used in
hoisting animals.
Figure 4 The horse, safely out of the mud
99

Unit
1 Investigate combined systems
Modern developments in materials and machinery can be especially beneficial

when they are combined into a rescue system – for humans or animals. In this unit,
all the combined systems that we investigate are used to rescue large animals,
but they could also be used to rescue people.
Investigate mechanisms in
combined systems
Read the information about the mechanisms
described on the next two pages to help
you formulate ideas for your own integrated
rescue system that will lift or pull a large
animal.
Look at the storage facility bolted to the roof Figure 5 Rigging a 4x4 for heavy rescue
of the 4x4 in Figure 5. Note the shackles and
the winch system mounted to the metal
bumper, which is made from special fabricated
steel (see Figure 6). Four very powerful electric
lights (see Figure 7) are placed at the top of
the windscreen. The roof storage contains
poles that are fitted to the front bumper.
The winch system (see Figure 8) can be used
as a pulley. By changing the winch into a hoist,
this vehicle can lift and pull a large animal.
Figure 6 Setting up the pulley system
The pulley is mounted to a screw jack system.
These footings provide anchorage and
stability. The pulley poles are mounted to
a joint system. The power cables in the black
plastic raise and lower the pulley. The poles for
the pulley system slot into each other and are
bolted at the join. The cross pole acts as a cross
brace and is also bolted.
Figure 7 Look closely at the anchor

system and powerful lights.
Figure 8 shows a close up view of a

winch system mounted on a vehicle’s
bumper. Note the wire rope and the
electric motor to drive the winch
wires. The motor is sealed to make it
waterproof. The motor’s on/off switch
could be a remote switch. Note the
Figure 8 A close up view of a winch system guide for the metal rope and the
mounted onto a 4x4 vehicle. strong bolts for mounting.
100 Term 2

In Grade 7, we learnt that advances in materials
technology mean improved safety clothing for
firefighters. Fire-fighting and rescue vehicles have
become more sophisticated. Look at Figure 9.
This vehicle is used to rescue large livestock. The

animal will be rescued using the winch that is
attached to the bumper of the truck. The animal will
be led into the box, secured using the tie downs,
and the crane system will lift it onto the truck.
Figure 10 shows an example of a hydraulic hoist

system that would be attached to the outside of
a helicopter. Also look at Figure 11. Figure 9 Specially modified fire-rescue truck to rescue large livestock
All of the hoist systems described above will have

a braking system built into the mechanism.
Figure 10 Hoist system that is attached to the outside of Figure 11 Helicopter slide
a helicopter lock hook
Farmers also use pulley and winch systems to weigh sheep and goats (see Figure 12).
There is no electric motor to operate the system as the animals are small. Notice that
the cables run over a pulley that is attached to a winch system.
Figure 13 shows a shark that has been hoisted out of the sea to tag for scientific
research purposes. Look at the strong chains and shackles attached to the two poles.
Also notice the strapping and the mattress system that the shark is floated onto.
Figure 12 Farmer using a pulley system Figure 13 Shark being tagged for scientific
and hanging scale to weigh a sheep research purposes

Unit Investigate possible mechanisms and controls
2 for the integrated system
In this unit you will revise some of the mechanisms and
control devices that you learnt about in Grades 7 and 8, as
shown in Figures 14–19. You will choose from these systems
to develop your integrated system and control device.
Pulleys revisited
A pulley uses a wheel with a groove in it and a rope or
belt that moves in the groove. As you pull the rope on the
side of the wheel, the wheel turns, pulling the rope on the
other side of the wheel in the opposite direction. Pulleys
are used to lift weights safely and efficiently and to change
the direction of the force. Greater mechanical advantage is
Figure 14 A belt pulley system: two pulleys connected by a belt gained by increasing the number of pulleys in the system.
Gears revisited
A gear is a wheel with evenly
spaced teeth around it. When
two gears are put together,
the teeth mesh. Gears are used
to change the direction of
motion, to change speed or to
change force. It is important to
remember that if the larger gear
is double the size of the smaller
gear, the larger gear will turn at
Figure 15 The spur gear is on its own axle and
half the speed but with double connected to the worm gear on the motor’s axle.
the force. The two gears mesh together.
Hydraulics revisited
Hydraulics use a liquid in a system to create a desired output of distance and force.
Placing a fluid under pressure is called hydraulic power. Syringes filled with water
and connected by plastic piping are an excellent way of simulating hydraulics in
the classroom. If you press the plunger of one cylinder,
force is transmitted through the pipe, moving the other
cylinder. The input cylinder is called the master cylinder
and the output cylinder is called the slave cylinder.
Cranks revisited
A crank is a handle that is at a right angle and is used
to turn an axle or shaft. Winches that are not driven by
an electric motor will have a crank, which is used to
turn the winch drum by hand.
A winch
Figure 16 The crank handle is the input device for the winch. Note A winch is a mechanism used to wind up rope or cable
the meshing gears. This gear ratio will provide additional force. that is used to pull or lift heavy objects.
102 Term 2

Devices that could electric motor
be used to control
the system
You will need a device that can control the
starting and stopping or braking of the wind drum
mechanical system.
driver
An electric motor pulley
An electric motor can be used to drive the
shaft in your system. The electric motor could winch rope
drive a belt pulley system or a gear train to driven
turn the winch to lift the load. You will need pulley
a switch to act as the on/off control device.
Figure 17 The motor is connected to the winch’s axle by a pulley system.
A cleat
A cleat can be used to secure rope. In the
traditional design, the cleat is attached to
a flat surface, and features two horns around
which the rope is secured. The rope is first
wound around the cleat and then in a figure
of eight.
A ratchet and pawl

A ratchet is a good choice to use as a brake
system for a winch. It consists of a toothed
wheel that is engaged with a pawl. The pawl
allows the toothed wheel to move in one
direction only. The pawl follows the wheel
as it turns and falls into the ‘dip’ between
the teeth. The pawl can be secured, thereby
stopping the movement of the ratchet wheel. Figure 18 The cleat has two horns.
pawl
pawl axle
ratchet axle
crank handle
ratchet
Figure 19 A rachet and pawl

Unit
3 Write the design brief and draw sketches
In this unit you will form teams, do two initial sketches (see example in Figure 20) and
write the design brief, carefully listing the specifications and constraints for the rescue
system that your team wishes to develop. Each design will be evaluated by the team.
Task 1 Form teams

Your teacher will divide your class into groups of four to form teams. Each team will
evaluate the individual sketches, design a group solution and build the model of
your integrated rescue system.
Task 2 Review the scenario and investigation

Work in your team and on your own. This task is for formal assessment.
1. Read through the scenario on page 99.
2. Decide on the situation for which your team is going to
develop a solution.
3. Look at the different types of rescue devices in the
introductory and investigation pages (pages 98 to 101).
4. Decide which rescue device will best suit the scenario
that your team has decided on.
5. Decide which combination of mechanisms will be used
together to make a machine that either lifts or pulls.
6. Look at the different control systems. Decide whether you
would like to use a mechanical or an electrical control system.
7. Decide which type of structure will house these systems.
8. On your own, record the scenario your team has chosen
Figure 20 Initial sketches of an integrated rescue system
and the reasons for the choice. (3)
9. On your own, record the choices that have been made by the group for
the integrated system that is to be designed to lift or pull. Some of the
aspects listed would be the mechanisms involved, the control and the
type of structure. (7)
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 3 Write a design brief with specifications and constraints

Work on your own. This task is for assessment.
1. In your own words, compile a design brief for the integrated rescue system
that your team wishes to develop. Use these questions to help you.
a) What is the problem? (2)
b) Who will benefit when you solve the problem? (2)
c) How will the solution benefit the people involved in these types
of rescues? (1)
2. List the specifications for the rescue system. Use these questions to help you.
a) What must the rescue system be able to do? (3)
b) What safety factors must be considered? (3)
104 Term 2

3. List the constraints for the rescue system. Use these questions to help you.
a) What materials will be used to make the rescue system? (3)
b) What materials will be used to make the structure that houses
the rescue system? (3)
c) What method of control will the system use? (2)
d) Within what time constraints do you have to work? (1)
[TOTAL: 20]
Task 4 Sketch two viable designs

1. Sketch two initial ideas for two possible solutions to the scenario. (10)
Remember to draw your designs in proportion and to include the
following considerations:
stability; safety; fixing and joining; type of movement; type of structure.
2. Label each drawing carefully. The labels must include materials that you
will use and notes on the method of making. (10)
[TOTAL: 20]
Task 5 Evaluate the sketches in the groups

Work in your team. This task is not for formal assessment.
1. Share your initial ideas with the team.
a) Explain your thinking for your designs. (5)
b) Ask the team to suggest ways in which the designs can be
modified or improved. (5)
c) Do this for each person in the group.
[TOTAL: 10]

Work in your team. This task is not for assessment.
Decide which design the team prefers. You may prefer to use a combination of
ideas in order to adapt the design.
At this point, draw a sketch of the group decision where all details can be
incorporated and included in the drawing. Record the ideas that the team has
on the making method, materials, tools and possible pitfalls as notes at the side
of the drawing.
Task 7 Design decision

Work in your team. This task is not for formal assessment.
1. a) Describe valid reasons for your choice of an integrated rescue system.
b) Identify any additional features that you may wish to include in
the system.
c) You will show your design decision at the presentation, which will be
done in Unit 5.

Unit
4 Plan working drawings
In this unit you will complete your planning and working drawings.

Work in your team. This task is not for assessment.
Refer to your initial ideas where you specified materials and tools (see
Figure 2.1) and wrote notes on the making method. Use this information
to decide on materials and tools to brainstorm an order of work.
Typical materials that could be used for this model besides those
listed for Mini-PAT 1 are: different-sized pieces of wood; plastic
pill containers; different-sized boxes; elastic; cotton reels; plastic
lids; plastic bottles; electrical components such as batteries, and
small motors; dowel pins, skewer sticks or metal rods; pieces of
polystyrene; sand; cotton fabric tape; fabric.
Typical tools that will be required for this model besides those
Figure 21 Tools you might use listed for Mini-PAT 1 are: a star screwdriver and a flat screwdriver; a
polystyrene cutter.
Task 9 Draw up an order of work

Based on your discussions, each team member develops a work plan for the
integrated rescue system. These can be written up as a flow chart or step-by-step
process, as shown in the example in Figure 22. Include the tools and materials that
you will use at each stage. Include this in your presentation.
Figure 22 A step-by-step process could be presented in this format.
106 Term 2

Make: A 2D working drawing
This task is for assessment and is to be done on your own.
Working drawings
A working drawing provides all the important information needed to make the
product. It should list the dimensions, components and materials.
First angle orthographic drawings as working drawings or plans

In Task 10, you are required to draw all three views of each aspect of the design. If
the integrated rescue system is very complex, the team can collaborate to produce
the plans for the various systems. However, each team member must prove their
competency in this drawing technique.
Task 10 Draw the plans of the integrated rescue system in

first angle orthographic projection
You will need: ruler, sharp pencil, blank paper or first angle orthographic graph
paper, drawing equipment

Refer back to the adapted sketch that was drawn in Task 6. Each team member
draws the entire model, or you can share out the systems among the team.
Revise the step-by-step process for producing first angle orthographic projection
drawings on page 9 in Chapter 1.
1. Make sure that each person uses the same scale (1 : 50).
2. Remember to use South African conventions to dimension correctly. (3)
3. Complete the drawing. (5)
4. Provide a heading for the plan. (2)
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 11 Communicate using double vanishing point

perspective
Collaborate as a team to develop drawings in double vanishing point perspective
that is rendered. Create two drawings, one of the structure and one of the
mechanical systems. Two team members draw the basic shape; two team
members add realism by shading and colouring.
Use the same scale as you did in Task 10.
Review this method in the first Mini-PAT 1 on page 37 if you need to remind
yourself of how to proceed.
[TOTAL: 10]

Unit
5 Make a working model, evaluate and present it
In this unit you will build the model using safe working practices.
Planning for making

Refer back to the order of work. Use this information to develop the list of materials
and tools for the model.
Task 12 Materials list

Develop a comprehensive list of materials.
1. Include the materials for the mechanisms and structure.
2. Include any electrical components.
3. Include the materials on which to mount the model.
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 13 Tools list

Use the information from the order of work and from the materials list developed
in Task 12 to develop a list of tools.
[TOTAL: 5]
Task 14 Safety
Work as a group. This task is not for assessment.
Look again at the list of safety features in the first Mini-PAT (see page 40). Use the
list as a guide to develop safety rules for the group based on your materials and
tools lists.
Task 15 Make the model of the integrated rescue system

1. Complete the model in two hours.
2. Every team member must play a part in the building process.
3. Collect the tools and materials.
Safety 4. Use the available materials thriftily and intelligently.
Take care when 5. Work neatly and safely to build the model. (8)
making your model. 6. Make sure you work to scale.
Use the tools safely,
7. Make sure the control device is easily accessible.
as shown by your
teacher. 8. Pay close attention to joins, joints and bracing.
9. Mount the model onto a platform, if necessary. (2)
[TOTAL: 10]
108 Term 2

Task 16 Evaluate whether the model is a viable solution
Work on your own. This task is for assessment.
Refer back to the design brief, constraints and specifications.
1. Evaluate the model in terms of whether it meets these criteria or not. (1)
2. Decide whether the model is a viable solution. (3)
3. Identify three things that you could improve on the model. Explain why it
should be improved and how you will improve it. For example, you may notice
that the control device is not fastened securely and is difficult to access. (3 × 2)
The following is an example of how your response could read:
a) The cleat (control) that we made and glued to the winch is not fastened
firmly enough. (What is wrong?)
b) This means that the cleat does not do its job well, as it is awkward to
access. (Why is it wrong?)
c) I would mount the cleat on a block of wood by screwing it down and then
I would glue or screw the block to the structure. (How can it be improved?)
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 17 Cost the model

Keep a record of the costs of your model. Materials that you find do not cost
anything. If you are using pre-made pulleys, gears and electrical components,
your teacher should be able to tell you the exact prices, or you could find these
out yourself. Gather this information and present it in a logical and clear manner.
Include the information in your presentation.
Task 18 Presentation of the model

Each team is given five minutes to present their solution.
Every team member must present some aspect of the project.
Decide prior to the presentation which aspect each member will present.


Write the answers in your workbook.
1. Different options are provided for the following questions. Choose the most correct answer.
Write the question number and the letter of the correct answer only, for example, 1.5c.
1.1 Pascal’s principal states that ... (1)
a. pressure exerted on all parts of a hydraulic system will be transferred at the same
time to some parts of the system
b. pressure exerted on one part of a hydraulic system will be transferred unequally,
with loss, in all directions to other parts of the system
c. pressure exerted on one part of a hydraulic system will be transferred equally,
without any loss, in all directions to other parts of the system
d. pressure exerted on one part of a hydraulic system will be transferred unequally
to some parts of the system
1.2 In the relationship between velocity and force when working with gears ... (1)
a. the faster the turning speed (velocity) of a gear, the less turning force (torque) it transmits
b. the slower the turning speed (velocity) of a gear, the less turning force (torque) it transmits
c. the turning speed (velocity) of a gear affects the weight the turning force (torque) transmits
d. the turning speed (velocity) of a gear does not transmit force
1.3 The following are examples of mechanical control systems: (1)
a. cleat, hydraulics, pawl and disc brake
b. bicycle brake, disc brake, ratchet and pawl, cleat
c. disc brake, ratchet, bicycle brake, pulley
d. cleat, disc brake, gear
1.4 The mechanical advantage of a single wheel fixed pulley is ... (1)
a. MA > 0 c. MA ≠ 0
b. MA < 0 d. MA = 0
2. Match the coloumns. Match the picture of the gear to the correct gear’s name, for example, 2.5C. (4)
Column A Column B
2.1 Spur gear A
2.2 Bevel gear B
2.3 Rack and pinion gear C
2.4 Worm gear D
110 Term 2

3. Complete the following calculations:
3.1 Rewrite the information and calculate the velocity if the smaller, driven gear has six teeth
and the larger, driver gear has 24 teeth. We calculate the velocity ratio as follows:
= (1)
Ratio = (1)
3.2 Write a sentence to explain what your velocity ratio answer means. (3)
4. Apply information about a mechanical control system.

4.1 Draw a cam cleat neatly, and add labels. (2)
4.2 Give one example of how a cam cleat could be used. (2)
5. Investigate Figure 1. Figure 1

5.1 Explain what type of gearing system would be used to move
this gate. (2)
5.2 Explain in detail how the chosen gear system works,
enabling the gate to open and close smoothly. (2)
6. Identify and interpret Figure 2 by answering the questions below.

6.1 Name the main mechanism used in this illustration. (1)
6.2 State what this type of compound system is called. (1)
6.3 Give two examples of where this type of system
could be used. (2)
6.4 Describe how mechanical advantage works when
using this type of compound system. (2) Figure 2
7. Complete the following information by interpreting

the diagram in Figure 3.
7.1 Write a one-word answer. In a hydraulic system, what is
pressurised to achieve mechanical advantage? (1)
7.2 Arrange the following information in the correct
order, to explain the given system. Just record
the letters, for example, 7.2 abcde. (2)
a. force is transferred
b. force is multiplied ...
c. force is applied ...
d. ... to the driver (master) cylinder
e. ... to the follower (slave) cylinder
[TOTAL: 30]
Figure 3
Term test 111

Chapter
9 Simple circuits
A B
Figure 9.1A A simple circuit Figure 9.1B A switched-on table lamp
Figure 9.1C A ceiling fan
112

Electrical/electronic systems
Introduction
You have previously learnt that an electrical current is a
flow of charge in a conductor, and that a current flows
only when there is a complete pathway (circuit) without
any gaps. The best conductors are metals. A current can
also be carried in certain liquids.
In this chapter you will:

• revise circuits with cells, lamps and switches in series
and parallel
• learn about current in a circuit
• practise using Ohm’s Law
• do research to test Ohm’s Law.
Figure 9.2A Two lamps positioned to provide better light.
The understanding that you gain in this chapter will
prepare you for subjects like Physical Science and
Electrical Technology in Grade 10, or at an FET college.
Examine series and parallel circuits

Work in pairs. Answer the questions in your workbook.
1. Think about the electric circuits in the things you
use at home or at school:
a) Do any of the electric circuits have two
switches? Write down the name of the circuit
and how the switches affect the circuit.
b) Do any of the circuits have cells or batteries
in series or parallel? Write down the name of
the circuit and how the cells/batteries affect
Figure 9.2B A fiveway multi-plug
the circuit.
c) Do any of the circuits have two or more lamps?
How do they work?
2. Look at the photos in Figures 9.1A–C and 9.2A–C:
a) How are the five power points of a multi-plug
connected – in series or parallel?
b) Do both the wall switch and the table lamp
switch have to be on in order for the lamp to
work? So, are the switches in series or in parallel?
c) When one car is jump-started by another, are
the batteries connected in series or parallel?
Figure 9.2C A car battery is used to jump-start another car.
113

Unit
1 Component symbols
If you design an electrical product, you need to be able to draw a circuit diagram
with the correct symbols for the electrical components. Look at the components
and their symbols in the table below.
Component symbols
Component name Picture Symbol Main task in the circuit
Cell Is a source of energy for a circuit
Battery (series) Is a source of energy with a bigger voltage
Opens or closes to allow electrical energy to

Switch
flow in a circuit
Conductor Carries electrical energy around a circuit
Converts electrical energy in a circuit into

Lamp or light bulb
light energy
Light-emitting diode Control device that allows current to flow in

(LED) one direction only, and emits light
In this unit, when we draw circuit diagrams, we will show the cell/battery on the
left, with the positive terminal ‘on top’. Output devices will be positioned on the
right of the circuit and switches at the top.
Enabling Task 1 Drawing electrical components

Work on your own. Answer the questions in your workbook.
1. Draw and label the symbols in the above table. (6)
2. Look at Figure 9.3 and draw its circuit diagram. (5)
3. Draw the circuit diagram again, but replace the cell
with a 9 V battery. (3)
4. Use a table and list all the components you used to answer questions
2 and 3. Describe the component’s main task in the circuit. (6)
[TOTAL: 20]
Figure 9.3 A simple circuit
114 Term 3

Cells in series and parallel
We say that the cells are connected in series if :
• the positive pole of one cell is connected to the negative pole of
another cell
• there is only one path for the current.
The cells are in parallel if :

Figure 9.4 A circuit with a lamp,
• the positive pole of each cell is connected to the positive pole of the next cell a switch and one cell
• there are as many paths for the current as there are cells.
The pictures alongside show cells connected in series and parallel:

1. a circuit with a lamp, a switch and one cell (Figure 9.4)
2. a circuit with a lamp, a switch and two cells in series (Figure 9.5)
3. a circuit with a lamp, a switch and two cells in parallel (Figure 9.6).
Effects on the brightness of the lamps:
Figure 9.5 A circuit with a lamp,
• The lamp in the circuit with one cell is about as bright as the lamp with
a switch and two cells in series
two cells connected in parallel.
• The lamp in the circuit with two cells in series is much brighter.
Note: It is unusual to find cells used in parallel in products that you buy. If the
voltages of cells connected in parallel are not the same, current flows from cells
with higher voltage to cells with lower voltage, which causes energy losses.
However, if the voltages of cells connected in parallel are identical, the cells will
last much longer than in a circuit with a single cell of the same voltage. Why do
you think this is so? Figure 9.6 A circuit with a lamp,
a switch and two cells in parallel
Lamps in series and parallel Key words

The diagrams below show: • series – a circuit
1. a circuit with one cell, a switch and a lamp (Figure 9.7) where the current
2. a circuit with one cell, a switch and two lamps in series (Figure 9.8) passes through the
components one
3. a circuit with one cell, a switch and two lamps in parallel (Figure 9.9). after another
Effects on the brightness of the lamps: • parallel – a circuit

that has more
• The lamp in the circuit with one cell is about as bright as the lamps in the than one path
circuit with two lamps in parallel. for the current
• The lamps in the circuit with two lamps in series are the dullest.
Figure 9.7 A circuit with one cell, Figure 9.8 A circuit with one cell, Figure 9.9 A circuit with one cell,
a switch and a lamp a switch and two lamps in series a switch and two lamps in parallel

Unit
2 Switches in series and parallel

In a simple circuit, a switch is closed to allow
Key word
current to flow through it or opened to stop A
• current – flow of the flow of current. We say a closed switch is
energy carrying ‘on’ and an open switch is ‘off’. See Figure 9.10. B
charges through
a circuit The diagrams below show: Figure 9.10 The symbol for an open
switch (A) and a closed switch (B) in
1. a circuit with one cell, a lamp and
a circuit diagram
one switch
2. a circuit with one cell, a lamp, and two switches in series, as in AND switches
3. a circuit with one cell, a lamp, and two switches in parallel, as in OR switches.
Notice how the switches work:
Figure 9.11 A circuit with Figure 9.12 A circuit with Figure 9.13 A circuit with
one cell, a lamp and one cell, a lamp and one cell, a lamp and
one switch two switches in series two switches in parallel
• In Figure 9.11, the lamp shines when the switch is on.

• In Figure 9.12, the lamp shines when both switches are on.
• In Figure 9.13, the lamp shines when either switch or both switches are on.
The circuit diagrams for the above circuits are shown in Figure 9.14.
Enabling Task 2 Drawing circuit diagrams

Work on your own. Answer the questions in your workbook.
1. Draw a circuit diagram for each of the following circuits:
a) a circuit with a lamp and two cells in series (4)
b) a circuit with one cell and two lamps in parallel (3)
c) a circuit with one cell, a lamp, and two switches in parallel. (4)
2. Why are lamps not connected in series in products that you buy? (2)
Figure 9.14 Circuit diagrams
3. Why are lamps usually connected in parallel? (2)
of Figures 9.11–9.13 [TOTAL: 15]
116 Term 3

Current in the circuit
An electric circuit consists of an electric energy
source and electric components that are
connected to one another by wires to allow
electric current to flow through the circuit.
Electric current is a stream of energy-carrying
charges that flow through an electric circuit.
Current flows from positive to

negative
A source of energy is needed in every electric circuit.
A cell or battery is the usual source of energy for
circuits we make in Technology classrooms.
The source of energy pushes electric charges Figure 9.15 A circuit diagram showing electrical current flowing
around the circuit. The electric charges carry through a circuit
electric energy from the source to output devices
such as lightbulbs or buzzers.
Current is the flow of charges through the circuit. Scientists say that current flows
from the positive pole of the source of energy through the circuit and back to the
negative pole. This direction of flow of charge from positive to negative is called
conventional current.
Simple circuits
The diagrams below show:
1. a circuit with one cell, a switch, and two lamps in series
2. a circuit with two cells in series, a switch, and two lamps in series.
Effects the brightness of the lamps:
• In Figure 9.16, both lamps shine weakly.
• In Figure 9.17, both lamps shine more brightly.
Figure 9.16 A circuit with one cell, a switch, Figure 9.17 A circuit with two cells in series, a
and two lamps in series switch, and two lamps in series

Unit
3 Ohm’s Law
Key words Calculate current with Ohm’s Law

We have learnt Ohm’s Law: For a given resistance, the current in the circuit is
• Ohm’s Law –
directly proportional to the voltage across the circuit. For example, if you double
a scientific law
the voltage, the current will also double.
that uses resistance
and voltage to V
The equation for Ohm’s Law is: I = where
calculate current R
• I is the current in amps (A)
• analog ammeter – • V is the voltage across the circuit in volts (V)
a meter that has
a needle to point • R is the resistance of the circuit in ohms (Ω).
to the value
• digital ammeter – Enabling Task 3 Practise using Ohm’s Law to calculate current
a meter that
gives you a value You will need: calculator
in numbers
Work on your own. Voltage Resistance Current
Circuit
In the table alongside, (V) (Ω) (A)
use Ohm’s Law to 1 10 2
calculate the value 2 12 12
of the current. (4 × 2)
3 6 50
[TOTAL: 8]
4 1,5 100
A B
How to measure the current in
a circuit
Ammeters are used to measure current. The unit in
which electric current is measured is the amp (A).
Most schools use analog ammeters, not digital

ammeters. Some schools use digital multimeters.
The principles for using the two types of meters are
Figure 9.18 An analog ammeter (A) and a digital multimeter (B) the same. Figure 9.18 shows an analog ammeter and
a digital multimeter.
All the current flowing in the circuit (or in the part of the circuit
being measured) must pass through the ammeter. The ammeter is
connected in series in the circuit (see Figure 9.19). Ammeters must
not alter the flow of current in circuits, so their resistance is very low.
Figure 9.19 The ammeter is connected in series in

a circuit.
118 Term 3

Current must flow in the correct direction through an ammeter:
• Connect the positive side (red) towards the positive pole of
the cell.
• Connect the negative side (black) towards the negative
pole of the cell (see Figure 9.19).
How to read an analog ammeter

Many ammeters used in schools have scales with small lines
at 1-amp intervals, thick lines at 5-amp intervals and numbers
every 10 amps. You have to estimate the reading if the needle
A
falls between two lines.
Figure 9.20 A circuit diagram showing an ammeter
Examine the readings on the two ammeters shown in Figure 9.21.
connected in series.
How to measure the voltage

A B
across a circuit
Voltage is measured using a voltmeter.
The unit in which voltage is measured
is the volt (V). Most schools use analog
(not digital) voltmeters. Some schools
use digital multimeters. The principles
for using the two types of meters are
the same.
To measure the voltage between two

points in a circuit, the voltmeter is
connected in parallel to the circuit at the
two points (see Figure 9.22). The circuit
is not broken. Figure 9.21 The readings on the ammeters are A1,5A and B4,0A.
The voltmeter should not alter the flow

of current in a circuit. It must not provide
an easy path for the current to flow through,
so the resistance of a voltmeter must be high.
Voltmeters are polar; they must be connected the right

way around:
• Connect the positive side (red) of the voltmeter towards
the positive pole of the cell.
• Connect the negative side (black) towards the negative pole
of the cell. Figure 9.22 Voltmeter connected in parallel
How to read an analog voltmeter

Most voltmeters have scales with small lines at 1-volt
intervals, thick lines at 5-volt intervals and numbers
every 10 volts, as in Figure 9.23. Examine these readings.
You need to estimate the last figure to get an accurate
reading. The readings on the two voltmeters are 6,0 V
and 9,1 V.
Figure 9.23 Readings on two analog voltmeters

Action research
Ohm’s Law
When we do scientific research, we follow a scientific process such as:
1. Formulate a question to be investigated (ask a question).
2. Formulate a hypothesis (make an intelligent guess about the answer).
3. Plan the investigation.
4. Do the investigation and record the results.
5. Draw a conclusion that relates to the question that you asked at the start of
the investigation.
Test Ohm’s Law

Work in pairs.
You are going to follow a scientific process to test Ohm’s Law practically. You will set
up a number of different circuits using lamps as 20 ohm (Ω) resistors and measure the
current and voltage for each one:
• Use the three different circuits shown in Figures 9.24–9.26 below.
• Take readings of voltage and current for each circuit and plot the readings
on a graph. See Figure 9.27 on the next page.
• Determine, from the graph, the relationship between voltage and current in
a circuit when the resistance does not change.
You will need: ammeter that measures up to 0,5 A (500 MA) voltmeter that
measures up to 5 V, calculator
Figure 9.24 A circuit with one cell Figure 9.25 A circuit with two cells Figure 9.26 A circuit with
and a 20 Ω resistor (lamp) in series and a 20 Ω resistor (lamp) three cells in series and
a 20 Ω resistor (lamp)
1. If the resistance in a circuit stays the same, what happens to the current as the
voltage increases?
Describe what you expect to discover as follows:
I think that if the voltage increases
and if the voltage decreases . (2)
2. Plan how you will conduct the scientific process. Carefully list all the
equipment you need and write down, in order, all the things that you plan
to do. Use the following headings:
• Equipment needed (2)
• Method. (2)
120 Term 3

3. Do the investigation and record the results in a table like this: (6)
Voltage in volts Current in amps

Circuit no. Circuit description
(V) (A)
1 One cell and a 20 Ω resistor (lamp)
2 Two cells and a 20 Ω resistor (lamp)
3 Three cells and a 20 Ω resistor (lamp)
4. Plot the readings on a
graph or squared paper.
Plot voltage on the horizontal 1.0
axis and current on the
vertical axis. (5) 0.8
5. Draw the best straight line

Amps (A)
that you can through the 1
three points. (1)

6. Look at what you wrote 0.1
down in Question 1. Do the

results of your investigation 0.2
support the statement that

you wrote down? Write a
conclusion by completing Volts (V)
the following sentence:
‘If the resistance in a circuit Figure 9.27 Plot the readings on a graph such as this one.
does not change . . . ’. (2)
[TOTAL: 20]
Enabling Task 4 Check the current using Ohm’s Law
You will need: a calculator

Work on your own.
A Grade 9 student studying Electrical Technology designed a complicated circuit. She
tested various sections of the circuit and wrote down the values in the table below.
1. Use Ohm’s Law to calculate the missing values in the table. (8)
Section of Voltage measured (V) Resistance of the Current calculated (A)
the circuit section of the circuit (Ω)
1 300 0,03
2 3 0,003
3 4,5 1 000
4 500 0,09
[TOTAL: 8]
Action research 121

Chapter
10 Resistor colour codes
Figure 10.1 Close up of an integrated circuit board with resistors and chips
122

Introduction
The resistors we use in Technology look like tiny,
colourfully painted cylinders with wires coming out of
the ends, and they feel like little bits of glazed pottery.
Look at the resistors in Figures 10.1 and 10.2.
Hidden inside a resistor is a long, thin coil of graphite,

a substance that conducts electricity. The graphite is
the heart of the resistor. It is the size of the piece of
graphite that determines the resistance of the resistor.
The painted lines are a form of code that indicates the
resistance of the resistor.
There are many different types and sizes of resistors.

Some don’t look at all like the resistors we use in
Technology.
Find resistors
Everyday electrical and electronic appliances and
devices like hairdryers, drills, printers and radios
all contain resistors.
1. Find a broken electrical or electronic appliance or
device and take it apart to find the resistors inside.
Bring all the resistors you can find to school.
2. Sketch three different resistors in your workbook.
3. Write down next to the sketches any information
that you can get off the resistors to identify their
type and size.
4. Find out what component symbol is used to
represent a resistor in a circuit diagram.
5. a) Sketch a resistor, using the correct colours.
b) Find out the meaning of the colours on the
resistor you have sketched. Use labels on your
sketch to describe each line and its meaning.
Figure 10.2 Resistors in use
123

Unit
1 Resistors and resistance
Key words What is resistance?

Resistance is a measure of the ability of a substance to reduce the flow of electric
• resistance –
current. It is measured in ohms (Ω). An ohm is equal to one volt per ampere (from
the ability of
Ohm’s Law).
a substance to
reduce the flow All the parts in an electric circuit have a certain amount of resistance, and this
of electric current reduces the amount of current that is able to flow around the circuit within a
• resistors – certain time. When a substance resists an electric current, it converts some of the
small electronic electrical energy into heat or light.
components that
are used to reduce When we revised lamps in series and in parallel in Chapter 9, Unit 1 at the
the flow of current beginning of this term, we studied three circuits. Here, we look at two of them
in electrical circuits again. Refer to Figure 10.3 and the following text.
1. a circuit with one cell, a switch and a lamp
2. a circuit with one cell, a switch and two lamps in series.
Circuit A Circuit B
Figure 10.3 The single lamp in Circuit A offers less resistance to the current than Circuit B, so more current flows and the lamp glows brighter.
In Circuit A, the lamp’s filament, the little wire in the lamp, offered resistance
(opposition) to the current flowing through it, so it heated up and glowed brightly.
In Circuit B, the two lamps offered twice the amount of resistance to the flow of
current as the single lamp, so less current flowed through the circuit and the lamps
glowed less brightly.
A variable resistor, or rheostat, can be adjusted to give different amounts of

resistance. The volume control on a radio uses a variable resistor to change the
amount of current. This varies the amount of electrical energy that is converted
into sound energy.
A thermistor is a heat-sensitive resistor. Its resistance falls as the temperature rises,

and rises as the temperature falls. Thermistors are used in some fire alarms to sense
an increase in temperature.
124 Term 3

What is a resistor?
Resistors are electronic components that
oppose the flow of current. Resistors have three
or four colour-coded stripes painted on them
that show how much resistance they give.
See Figure 10.4
However, resistors are not the only things that

resist current in a circuit. A lamp does not look
like a resistor, but it offers resistance, so it can
be called a resistor. Even though a buzzer in a
circuit offers only very little resistance, it is also
a resistor in a circuit.
How do resistors work? Figure 10.4 Various types of resistors

Resistors oppose the flow of current in circuits.
When current flows and resistors oppose the
current, the resistors get warm. If a resistor heats up, it is doing work.
If we replace the lamps in the circuits shown in Figure 10.3 with resistors that have
the same resistance as the lamps, we will get similar readings on an ammeter.
But, instead of the lamps glowing, the resistors will get hot. Look at Figure 10.5.
Circuit A Circuit B
Figure 10.5 In Circuit A and Circuit B, the single resistor offers less resistance to the circuit,
so more current flows and the resistor gets hotter.
How do we use resistors?

We use resistors to control the current in a circuit.
Resistors also protect other components in circuits from the effects of large currents.
In Grade 9 we do not design circuits, we only build them. So, you don’t have to
decide which resistors to use in your circuits.
You do, however, have to use the correct resistors that have been specified for
circuits. So, for example, you have to know how to select a specific resistor from
a pile of resistors lying on your desk.

Unit
2 High value and low value resistors
Resistor values
A resistor has three or four colour-coded bands or stripes on it that show how
much resistance the resistor gives. The first two bands stand for numbers.
The third tells how many zeros to put on the end. The fourth band tells you the
accuracy (as a percentage) of the resistor. A resistor with a gold band is more
accurate (and slightly more expensive) than a resistor with a silver band. In
Technology, we usually use resistors with gold bands. Look at Figure 10.6.
When a resistor’s fourth band is red, it means that the resistor is the most expensive
and most accurate resistor. It is rated as 2%. A gold band means that the resistor
is less expensive and accurate (rated 5%). A silver band is the cheapest resistor
available and is rated as 10%.
Colours of Value High value resistors

the three of band The resistors we use in Technology have four colour-coded stripes – three coloured
bands bands close together at one end and a single red, gold or silver band at the other
Black 0 end. These are classified as high value resistors.
Brown 1
Red 2 Low value resistors
Orange 3 Low value resistors are used in some highly sensitive circuits. The resistance is
Yellow 4 printed on the resistor in a code with numbers and letters.
Green 5
Blue 6 Example: How to read resistor values
Violet 7 1. Start by identifying the colour of each band on the resistor. For example,
Grey 8 the colours of the three bands shown in Figure 10.6 are as follows:
White 9 • Band 1 is yellow.
• Band 2 is violet.
• Band 3 is brown.
2. Then, study the resistor colour-code chart and write down the number value
band 3
of each band:
• Band 1 is yellow, with a value of 4.
band 2
• Band 2 is violet, with a value of 7.
band 1 • Band 3 is brown, with a value of 1. This is the ‘multiplier’ – the number 1
means you must write down one zero. If the number had a number 3,
you would write down three zeroes.
3. Put the three numbers together: the resistance of the resistor shown in
Figure 10.6 A resistor with
Figure 10.6 is 470 ohms.
colour bands. Band 1 is the
outermost of the group of
three, band 2 is second from
the end and band 3 is third
from the end.
126 Term 3

A
Enabling Task 1 Calculate the resistance of resistors
Work on your own. Complete the following question in your workbook.
Calculate the resistance of the resistors shown in Figure 10.7. Show your working. (8) B
[TOTAL: 8]
C
Use Ohm’s Law to calculate voltage and resistance
V
We have already used Ohm’s Law to calculate current as follows: I = where:
R
• voltage (V) is measured in volts (V) D
• current is measured in amps (A)
• resistance (R) is measured in ohms (Ω).
As you do in Algebra, you can change the subject of this formula to calculate
voltage and resistance as well.
To calculate voltage
If you know the current and resistance you can calculate the voltage:
V=I×R Figure 10.7A–D Different
resistors
To calculate resistance
If you know the current and voltage you can calculate the resistance:
V
R=
I
Enabling Task 2 Calculate current, voltage and resistance
You will need: calculator

Work on your own. Copy and complete the following table in your workbook.
1. Use Ohm’s Law to calculate the missing values for current, voltage and
resistance in the table below. (6 × 2)
Number Current Voltage (V) Resistance (Ω)
1 12 3
2 1,5 50
3 12 6 0,5
4 2 2
5 0,5 10
6 3 9
7 15 3
2. What does the fourth band on a resistor indicate? (3)

[TOTAL: 15]

Chapter
11 Electronic systems and control

A B
Figure 11.1A–D Examples of electronic systems and control devices
128

Introduction
In Grade 8, when you learnt about electrical components
and simple circuits, you categorised the components as
input, control and output devices.
This year, we will work with more complicated electrical

and electronic circuits that (see Figures 11.1A–D and 11.2):
• sense their environment (the INPUT into the circuit)
• take decisions based on what they have sensed
(the CONTROL in the circuit)
• take action based on the decision (the OUTPUT
of the circuit).
You will, for example, assemble circuits in which:

• a lamp will glow when a rain-sensing switch
detects water
• light-emitting diodes stay on for a while, even after
the circuits are switched off.
Electronic systems that respond to

their environment
Work in pairs.
Answer the question in your workbook.
1. Think about electronic systems or devices such as
burglar alarms, traffic lights and air conditioners.
They respond to something in their environment and
take some action. Think about electronic systems
used at home, at school, in transport or in sport.
2. List at least 10 electronic systems and describe
them in a table like the table below. Share your
list with the class.
Name of the What does it How does it
electrical or respond to? respond?
electronic
system
Burglar alarm A window that The alarm goes
is broken off
Figure 11.2 A light-emitting diode (LED)
129

Unit
1 Switches, diodes and transistors

Nothing will happen in an electrical circuit
Key words
until you switch it on manually using a switch.
• diodes – electronic
devices that are
used to control the Switches
flow of current in We say that a circuit is closed if the switch is
electrical circuits on and open if the switch is off.
• Light-emitting Figure 11.3 A push switch and a toggle switch
We will work with two types of switches:
diodes or LEDs –
types of diodes that • push switches
emit light • toggle switches.
You press a push switch to close a circuit. The circuit is closed as long as you press
the switch. When you are not pressing the switch, the circuit is open.
You toggle, or flick, a toggle switch to make it work. If you flick a toggle switch on,
it will stay on until you flick it off.
Toggle switches are classified as single-pole-single-throw (SPST), single-pole-

double-throw (SPDT) and double-pole-double-throw (DPDT) (See Figure 11.4):
• A SPST switch is a simple on/off switch. You will often use these.
• A SPDT switch can be on in two
positions. It could, for example, turn a
green lamp on in one position and a
red lamp on in another position.
• A DPDT switch is a double SPDT switch.
Two circuits are controlled with the one
switch. You will not use DPDT switches
in the Technology course. Figure 11.4 SPDT and DPDT switches
Enabling Task 1 Make your own push/SPST switch
You will need: empty matchbox and masking tape, two small self-tapping
screws, piece of bendable plastic about 1 mm thick (the top of a custard or milk
powder container), two pieces of connecting wire, scissors, small screwdriver,
bradawl, piece of ceiling board or very thick card
Work on your own. Make a switch
from materials found around
the home. (10)
What to do:
1. Use scissors to cut two strips
of plastic 8 cm × 2 cm.
Figure 11.5 A homemade push/SPST switch
130 Term 3

2. Hold the strips 3. Screw the screw 4. Position the plastic 5. Wrap the bared end
together. Use the halfway into strips on the match- of a piece of connecting
bradawl to prick each hole. box as shown in the wire tightly around
a hole through picture and tape them each screw.
both strips about firmly into place.
1 cm from the end.
Press the point
through the plastic
into the ceiling board.
[TOTAL: 10]
How your switch works:

• As a push switch: Squeeze the two screws together gently. The
switch will be on and the circuit will be closed. As soon as you
stop squeezing, the circuit will be open and the switch will be off.
• As an SPST switch: If you squeeze hard and the threads of the
screws catch on each other, the switch will stay on. The switch will
stay on until you flick it open again.
Diodes and LEDs

Diodes are electronic devices that are used to control the flow of
current in electrical circuits. A diode allows the current to flow in one
direction only. Diodes are control devices.
Diodes are used in two different ways:

• As rectifiers: They allow electricity in a circuit to flow in one
direction only (like a one-way street or a turnstile at a stadium).
• As lights: Some diodes emit light. They are called light-emitting
diodes or LEDs. They are often used to indicate that a circuit is
on or on standby. More powerful LEDs are used in torches and
as small spotlights. Look at Figure 11.6.
All diodes are polar, so they must be inserted the correct way in a
circuit, with the negative pole of the diode to the negative pole of
the battery. The negative pole of the diode is identified as follows:
• Ordinary diodes are marked with a painted ring at the
negative end.
• LEDs have two legs. The shorter leg is the negative leg.
• The casing of the LED’s negative end is flat and the positive
end is rounded. Figure 11.6 Different uses for LEDs

Unit 1 (continued)
Enabling Task 2 Connect a simple LED circuit
You will need: 4,5 V battery, 470 Ω resistor, LED, toggle switch
Work in groups of four.

Construct a simple circuit with an LED. (10)
What to do:
4,5 V 1. Remove the battery from the battery connector.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram (Figure 11.7).
3. Ask your teacher to check your connections.
4. Connect the battery.
Figure 11.7 LED circuit diagram 5. Close the circuit with the switch. The LED should light up.
If the circuit does not work, perform the following checks:

1. Check that all the connections are tight.
2. Check that the LED is the right way around.
3. Check that the battery can deliver 4,5 V.
4. Check that the LED still works.
[TOTAL: 10]
Key word Transistors

Transistors are electronic devices that are used to control the flow of current in
• transistors – electrical circuits (Figure 11.8).
electronic devices
that are used to Transistors can be used in two different ways:
control the flow
• As switches: The output is either on or off depending on the input current,
of current in
which usually comes from a sensor. Transistors used in this way are called
electrical circuits
NPN transistors. We will use these transistors in Grade 9.
• As amplifiers: The output current is an enlarged version of the input current.
Such transistors are called PNP transistors.
We will not use PNP transistors in Grade 9.
Note: There is no easy way of telling the

difference between NPN and PNP transistors,
so take care not to mix up these transistors.
All transistors have three legs. The three legs

of an NPN transistor each have a name and
symbol that describes the task they do:
• base (b)
• collector (c)
• emitter (e).
Figure 11.8 Different types of transistors
132 Term 3

The three legs have to be connected in a special way: emitter (e)
• The base receives the signal from the input of the circuit.
base (b)
• The collector is connected to the part of the circuit that must
collector (c)
be switched on (the positive side of the circuit).
• The emitter is connected to the negative side of the circuit
Figure 11.9 An NPN transistor
(to the negative pole of the battery).
We will first make a moisture-detecting switch, and then we will

use this to make a circuit that includes a moisture-detecting
switch and a transistor.
Enabling Task 3a Make a moisture-detecting switch
You will need: block of soft wood about 12 cm × 12 cm, sheet of heavy-duty
aluminium foil 12 cm × 12 cm, eight drawing pins, 12 cm × 12 cm piece of
plastic cut from a shopping bag, two crocodile connectors
Work in pairs.
Make a moisture-detecting switch. (10)
What to do:
Look closely at Figure 11.10
and make the switch
as follows:
1. Pin the piece of plastic
onto the wood block
at the corners.
2. Cut the aluminium sheet
in half. Fold each piece
of aluminium neatly in
half, and in half again.
Press them very flat
Figure 11.10 A moisture-detecting switch
(they should be about
12 cm × 1,5 cm).
3. Pin the two pieces down, about 3 mm apart in the middle of the block.
4. Clip a crocodile connector to the end of each strip of foil.
5. Connect a circuit with a lamp and two cells with crocodile connectors to the
switch. Carefully pour water between the two strips to examine whether the
switch works.
[TOTAL: 10]
How the switch works:

When rain falls in the gap between the two pieces of aluminium foil, the circuit will
be closed because current will flow ‘through the water’ from the one piece of foil to
the other piece.

Unit 1 (continued)
Enabling Task 3b Modify the moisture-detecting switch

To make the moisture detecting switch, you used a block of wood, aluminium foil,
drawing pins, a sheet of plastic and crocodile connectors. But sometimes we cannot
obtain all the materials we need for a project, so we have to substitute other materials.
Work in groups.
1. Suggest other ways of making the switch. (2)
2. List the materials you could use. (2)
3. Make a different switch. (6)
[TOTAL: 10]
Enabling Task 4 Make and draw a rain sensor
You will need: 9 V battery, 9 V battery connector, 6 V 0,06 A MES lamp, MES
lamp holder, BC 108 transistor, 1 kΩ resistor, 10 kΩ variable resistor, about
12 crocodile connectors, moisture-detecting switch made in the previous task,
toggle switch, atomiser (water spray)
Work in groups of four. Make a rain sensor, as shown in Figure 11.11 below, using
the moisture-detecting switch.
(10)
Figure 11.11 A rain sensor
134 Term 3

9V
Figure 11.12 Circuit diagram of a rain sensor
What to do:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram (Figure 11.11) and in the circuit
diagram (Figure 11.12).
3. Connect the battery.
4. Use an atomiser to spray water onto the rain sensor; the lamp
should light up.
5. Adjust the variable resistor so that the circuit is ‘just on’
(the glow of the light is just visible).
6. Remove the battery when you have finished the task.
7. Draw a circuit diagram of your circuit.

2. Turn the variable resistor fully clockwise and fully anti-clockwise.
3. Check that the battery can deliver 9 V.
4. Check that the lamp has not blown.
5. Replace the transistor.
[TOTAL: 10]

Unit
2 Sensors and capacitors
Light-dependent resistors
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is an electronic device that senses the
amount of light falling on its surface. It is an input device. See Figure 11.13.
The electrical resistance of an LDR in a circuit

decreases as the light falling on it gets
brighter. This allows the current flowing
through the circuit to increase. In the same
way, if the light gets duller, the resistance in
the circuit increases and the current flowing Figure 11.15 Circuit symbol
through the circuit decreases. for a buzzer
Figure 11.13 Different LDRs
An LDR can be inserted any way around into a circuit, so it is a non-polar device.
LDR circuits are usually used in two different ways:

• to amplify the LDR signal to an output device (such as a loudspeaker, motor)
• to switch an output device (such as a lamp, buzzer or motor) on or off.
Figure 11.14 Circuit symbol
for an LDR Enabling Task 5 Construct a simple circuit with an LDR
and draw the circuit
Key word You will need: LDR, two 1,5 V AA cells, one 1,5 V AA cell holder with connecting
wires, buzzer, three crocodile connectors, toggle switch
• light-dependent
resistor (LDR) – Work in groups of four. Refer to Figures 11.14 and 11.15 and make a simple circuit
an electronic device with an LDR. (10)
that senses the
amount of light What to do:
falling on its surface 1. Remove the cells from the cell holder.
3. Ask your teacher to check your connections and insert the cells.
4. Point the LDR to face the light and then to face away from the light.
The buzzer should buzz when the LDR is pointed towards the light.
If the circuit does not work, perform the
following checks:
2. Hold the LDR in a brighter light or a dimmer light.
4. Check that the buzzer can buzz.
5. Check that the LDR works.
[TOTAL: 10]
Figure 11.16 Circuit diagram of the circuit with an LDR
136 Term 3

Enabling Task 6 Make a sensitive LDR circuit and draw
the circuit
12 crocodile connectors, LDR, toggle switch
Construct a sensitive LDR circuit. (10)
9V
Figure 11.17 Circuit diagram of the circuit with a sensitive LDR
What to do:
1. Remove the battery from the battery connector.
4. Reconnect the battery.
5. Adjust the variable resistor so that the lamp is ‘just off’.
6. Point the LDR towards the light and then away from the light. The lamp should
switch on when the LDR is pointed towards the light and switch off when the
LDR is pointed away from the light.
How the circuit works:

When light falls on the LDR its resistance decreases. As its resistance decreases
current begins to flow through it and into the base of the transistor. The transistor
switches on and the lamp glows.

2. Hold the LDR in a brighter light or a dimmer light.
4. Check that the lamp has not blown.
5. Check that the LDR works.
[TOTAL: 10]

Unit 2 (continued)
Thermistors
A thermistor is an electronic device that can sense the temperature of its
environment. It is a sensor, so it is an input device.
Two types of thermistors are made:

• The resistance of + t thermistors increases with temperature.
for a thermistor
These are rarely used in Technology classes.
• The resistance of – t thermistors decreases with temperature.
Key word We will use this type.
• thermistor – an When a – t thermistor in a circuit gets warm, its resistance decreases.

electronic device As its resistance decreases, more and more current flows through it.
that can sense the
temperature of its Thermistors are used in two different ways:
environment • to amplify the signal (make the signal stronger) to an output device such as
a lamp, loudspeaker or motor
• to switch an output device such as a lamp, loudspeaker or motor, on or off.
The thermistors we use can be inserted any way around into a circuit, so they are
non-polar devices. Look at Figure 11.18, which shows the circuit symbol.
Enabling Task 7 Connect a thermistor into a circuit and draw

the circuit
12 crocodile connectors, 20 kΩ thermistor, toggle switch, candle and matches
or lighter
Connect a thermistor into a circuit. (10)
What to do:
5. Adjust the variable resistor so that the lamp is
‘just off’ at room temperature.
6. Heat the thermistor with a burning candle.
When the thermistor heats up the lamp will turn on.
9V
How the circuit works:

When it gets warm, the thermistor’s resistance decreases
and current begins to flow through it into the base of the
transistor. The transistor switches on and the lamp glows.
Figure 11.19 A diagram of a sensitive thermistor circuit
138 Term 3

If the circuit does not work, perform the following checks: Key word
2. Heat the thermistor more or less than you already have. • capacitor – an
electronic device
3. Check that the battery can deliver 9 V. that can store and
4. Check that the lamp has not blown. release energy
5. Check that the thermistor works.
[TOTAL: 10]
Capacitors
A capacitor is an electronic device that can store and release energy. Capacitors are
used to smooth the flow of current in circuits. They are classified as control devices.
When a circuit that includes a capacitor is switched on, the capacitor gets charged
up with electrical energy from the circuit. When the source of energy is cut off,
the capacitor slowly discharges its energy back into the circuit.
Capacitance is the measure of the energy a capacitor can store. If a capacitor can
store a lot of energy, we say it has a high capacitance.
Enabling Task 8 Use a capacitor in a circuit and draw the circuit
You will need: four 1,5 V AA cells, cell holder for four 1,5 V AA cells with
connector leads, LED, 470 Ω resistor, 1 000 µF capacitor, about six crocodile
connectors, toggle switch
Work in groups of four. Use a capacitor in a circuit. Refer to Figure 11.20. (10) for a capacitor
What to do:
2. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 11.21.
5. Switch the circuit on for a few seconds and watch the LED.
6. Keep watching the LED and switch the switch off. The LED should Figure 11.21 Circuit with capacitor and LED
stay on for a few seconds.
3. Check that the LED has not blown.
4. Check that the capacitor works.
[TOTAL: 10]

Unit
3 More simple electronic circuits

In Units 1 and 2 of this chapter you built a number of different circuits and you
drew the circuit diagrams.
In this unit you are going to draw circuit diagrams of the same circuits, but with
some variations (changes).
Enabling Task 9 Draw variations on four circuits you have

already made and drawn
You will need: circuit diagrams you drew in Enabling Tasks 2, 5, 6 and 8
Work on your own.
Circuit 1
Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit
you made in Enabling Task 2
(Connect a simple LED circuit),
4,5 V but with the following changes:
• Remove the 4,5 V battery.
• Insert a 6 V battery.
Figure 11.22 Circuit 1
Circuit 2
Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit you made in Enabling Task 5 (Construct a simple
circuit with an LDR and draw the circuit), but with the following changes:
• Remove the buzzer.
• Insert a lamp.
9V
140 Term 3

Circuit 3
Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit you made in Enabling Task 6 (Make a sensitive
LDR circuit and draw the circuit), but with the following changes:
• Remove the LDR.
• Insert a thermistor.
9V
Circuit 4
Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit you made in Enabling Task 8 (Use a capacitor in
a circuit and draw the circuit), but with the following changes:
• Remove the LED and the resistor.
• Insert a buzzer.
9V

Term
Assemble and design an application
3 for a circuit
Figure 1 The outside lights of the house switch on automatically once the correct level of darkness has been reached.
Figure 2 These light fittings all use LEDs instead of globes.
142

Mini-PAT: Electronic systems and control
Content: Electronic systems and control

Context: Innovation using electronic systems
Introduction
In this practical assessment task, you will investigate the
scenario and the nature of a particular need. With this
information, you can choose a suitable electronic circuit
that will best solve the problem.
Scenario
It is frightening, and even dangerous, to come back to a
dark house at the end of a working day. There are many
different types of outdoor lights on the market. Emily
wants the outdoor lights at her home to be on in the
evenings when she comes from work. She does not want
to leave the lights on all day as this will be a waste of
electricity and unnecessarily expensive. She needs some
type of device that detects the fading daylight. This will
cause her outside house lights to switch on automatically
once the correct level of darkness has been reached.
Clarify the need

Figure 2 Traffic lights use LEDs instead of globes. Work on your own.
Read the scenario again and then answer the following
questions.
1. Identify Emily’s problem.
2. Give two reasons why Emily wants a light that
switches on by itself when it is dark.
3. How does Emily want to solve the problem?
4. Do you think her suggestion of an electronic system
that is sensitive to changes in light levels is suitable?
Give a reason for your answer.
You will be required to compile a record of your

individual contributions to the task. This will be
reflected in your workbook.
Figure 3 LED lights on a circuit board
143

Unit
1 Investigate the problem and the need
In the scenario it was explained that

coming home in the dark can be
scary, and even risky. Lights would
solve the problem, but to leave them
on all day could be very costly. A light-
dependent resistor (LDR) is a sensor
that detects when light is fading. LDRs
change their resistance when light
falls on them. The resistance of an LDR
increases as the light fades.
Investigate the circuit

with an LDR
Look at the photo of the circuit on the
circuit board with all the components
attached (see Figure 3 on page 143).
This circuit detects light fading by means Figure 4 Circuit layout of an automatic
darkness-detector sensor
of the LDR; the light-dependent resistor
(LDR) is a light sensor. The light-emitting diode
(LED) will switch on when the light fades.
Task 1 Draw the electronic circuit diagram and

list the components
Work on your own and with group members. This task is for
formal assessment. Refer to the examples of components
on the opposite page.
1. Draw the circuit diagram in your workbook using
the correct symbols. (8)
2. Look carefully at the circuit layout and the circuit
diagram (Figures 4 and 5).
3. Discuss and identify the various components with
your group members.
4. Record a list of all the components in the circuit.
Give each component’s name, a drawing of the
symbol and a brief explanation of the component’s
function in the circuit. (5 × 3)
5. What type of structure would house the circuit
most effectively? Explain the structure. (2)
[TOTAL: 25]
Figure 5 Circuit diagram of circuit with an automatic

darkness-detector sensor
144 Term 3

Description Component Symbol
Power supply
Supplies electrical energy so the
circuit can work. A battery is more
than one cell. In this circuit we are
using four 1,5 V cells.
NPN transistor
A transistor amplifies current.
Remember to connect the legs
of the transistor to the correct
components in the circuit, otherwise
your circuit will not work and you
may damage the transistor.
Resistor
A resistor is a special component
made to resist the flow of electricity
to protect other components. We
place resistors before components
that may be damaged by the extra
current such as LEDs. There are
two resistors in the circuit (370 Ω
and 100 kΩ).
Light-dependent resistor – LDR

An LDR is an input device, and is
a sensor. The light sensor is an LDR
(light-dependent resistor); this has
a low resistance in bright light and
a high resistance in dim light.
Light-emitting diode – LED

An LED is an output device designed
to emit light when a current flows
through it. LEDs come in various
colours such as green, red, yellow
and white. An LED allows the
current to flow in only one
direction; it is polarity sensitive.

Unit
2 Write a design brief and draw sketches
The circuit detects light fading on the light sensor, and then the LED lights up.
You will make a model of the system. The LED will represent an outside light.
Write a design brief with specifications and

constraints for an electronic circuit housed
in a structure
You need to build an electronic circuit with a light sensor, housed in a structure
where the light can be seen.
Consider the following before writing the design brief and specifications:
1. How will the sensor be positioned so that it will work effectively?
2. Where will the LED be housed so that it can be seen when it switches on?
3. What type of structure will house the circuit, so that the sensor can detect
the fading daylight and enable the LED to shine effectively?
4. The model building and garden, for example, the size and shape.
5. Where will the circuit be positioned in relation to the model building?
For example, will it be placed on the ‘ground’ or on the ‘wall’?
Task 2 Write a design brief with specifications

and constraints
Remember, specifications tell you what you must do and what must be included.
Constraints tell you what you may and may not use.
1. In your own words, compile a design brief for the task that has been set:
c) How will the solution benefit the community at large? (2)
2. Identify and list the specifications for the:
a) structure that houses the electronic system (4)
b) electronic system within the structure mentioned in (a) (4)
c) model house structure. (4)
3. Identify and list the constraints for the:
a) structure that houses the electronic system (4)
b) electronic system. (4)
[TOTAL: 25]
146 Term 3

Task 3 Make sketches
Work on your own. This task is for formal
assessment.
1. Draw the circuit diagram using the correct
symbols. (Refer to pages 114 and 145 if you
need reminding of the symbols.)
2. Create a freehand sketch of the model
house structure. (10)
3. Draw a 3D sketch showing the device
that will house the electronic circuit.
Remember to position the LDR and LED
where they will be most effective for
the intended purpose. (10) Figure 6 Create a light
[TOTAL: 20] structure to house your circuit
and for the LDR to work
effectively, and for the LED to
Task 4 Form teams be seen when it switches on.
Be creative!
1. Your teacher will divide your class into groups of four to form teams. This task
is not for formal assessment. The teams need to do the following:
• Examine the different designs and make a design decision.
• Make the solution: the electronic system, the structure that houses the
system and the model on which the system is placed.
• Each team will get five minutes to present their sketches, artistic
impressions, plans, costing and model to the class.
Task 5 Work as a team

Work in your group. This task is not for formal assessment.
1. Each person must share his or her initial ideas with the team.
a) Explain your thinking for your design.
b) Ask the team to suggest ways in which the design can be modified
to improve it.

1. Decide which design the group prefers. This will be what the team builds
and presents. The group may prefer to use a combination of ideas. (5)
2. At this point, it is advisable for a team member to draw rough sketches of the
designs and list notes on additional ideas, tools and materials decided by the
group. As a team: (5)
a) Write down valid reasons to explain the choice that you made.
b) Identify any additional features that you may wish to include.
This information will be included as part of your presentation.
[TOTAL: 10]

Unit
3 Plan: Make working drawings
Key words Working drawings

You must produce plans for a model structure to house the device that will use
• exploded view
the circuit. Your plans must be drawn using first angle orthographic projection.
drawing – a
The plans should include a 3D ‘assembly’ drawing in exploded view showing
drawing showing
how the model fits together. Each team member must make a working drawing
how the different
of the design OR of an aspect of the design.
parts of an object
fit together
Before you can finalise your design work, your team needs to decide on the
materials that will be used to make the structure to house the circuit. Refer to
the previous task, where you brainstormed ideas and wrote notes on possible
materials and tools.
Typical materials that could be used for this model are: boxes of a variety of sizes,
cereal box card, polystyrene off-cuts, corrugated card, modelling clay, paper-mâché
and wood. Tools that you will require will depend on the materials chosen, but could
include: craft knife, cutting mat, safety ruler, coping saw, awl, scissors and hot-glue gun.
Working drawings
You must produce plans for a structure that will house the electronic device.
Your plans must be drawn using first angle orthographic projection:
• Each team member will make a working drawing of the design OR of an aspect
of the design.
• Additional plans include a 3D ‘assembly’ drawing in exploded view,
showing how the structure fits together.
• The team completes a drawing to provide an artistic impression of the solution.
Task 8 Make working drawings
You will need: drawing tools – ruler, pencil, eraser, pair of compasses, A4 paper

1. Each team member must produce his or her own first angle orthographic
drawings of the structure that houses the electronic circuit. (10)
These drawings need to:
• list all the components and materials needed
• give the dimensions for each aspect of the design
• be drawn at full size or to a scale that has been decided upon by the group.
[TOTAL: 10]
148 Term 3

Task 9 Materials and tools list
1. Draw up a list of materials that you will use to make the model house
and model structure that houses the electronic circuit. (5 × 2)
2. Use the materials list to develop a list of tools that will be needed for the
model house and electronic structure, as well as tools needed to complete
the electronic circuit. (5 × 2)
[TOTAL: 20]
Exploded views
An exploded view drawing shows us how
the different parts of an object fit together.
It helps if you have drawn an isometric
drawing of your object before producing
an exploded view of the object.
When you make an exploded view diagram,

you will draw each individual component
or part of the object and separate them
(project them) along diagonal grid plane
lines on the grid paper. This drawing is to be
used to assist you when you assemble your
product because you can see how the parts
fit together.
Figure 7 Example of an exploded view of a container, showing all the
Once the drawings of the individual parts separate sections.
have been drawn separately on the isometric
grid paper, you can add connection lines between the parts to illustrate
how the various parts are to be assembled.
Task 10 Make an exploded view 3D drawing

to demonstrate assembly
You will need: drawing tools – ruler, pencil, eraser, pair of compasses, grid paper
Work on your own. This task is not for formal

assessment.
1. Make a 3D isometric drawing of the planned
final product on grid paper. (10)
2. Use the isometric drawing to make an
exploded view of the product. You may use
the isometric grid paper to help you space
the parts and keep the proportions and
angles correct. (10)
3. Label the different parts of the drawing.
[TOTAL: 20]
Figure 8 Space the parts and keep the proportions correct.

Unit
4 Make a working model and communicate
Make the model

You have two hours to make your model structure. The model should be to scale
and neat and show intelligent use of available materials.
Safety Task 11 Make the model

Take care when
making your model. Work as a team. This task is not for assessment.
Use the tools safely, Make your model structure. (10)
as shown by your 1. Each member must play a part in the building process.
teacher.
2. Collect the tools and materials that you will be using.
3. Make sure that you work to scale. Use the dimensions that the team
specified in the working drawings.
4. Make sure that you work neatly and safely.
5. Mount the model house onto a platform, if necessary.
[TOTAL: 10]
Communicate: Team presentation

Your team must give a five-minute presentation of their solution.
Remember that when you give a presentation you must:
• Speak clearly and make sure that you show a knowledgeable attitude.
Task 12 Cost the models

Work as a team. This task is not for formal assessment.
Keep a record of the costs of your models. Found materials do not cost anything.
Your teacher should have the prices of the electronic components. Estimate the
costs of all the other materials. Remember that you have probably used only
a small percentage of the total product. Gather this information and include
this in your presentation.
Task 13 Evaluate whether the model is a viable solution

1. Evaluate the model in terms of whether you met these or not. (3)
2. Decide whether the model is a viable solution and give a reason. (2)
3. Identify two aspects that you could improve on the model. Remember
to add why it should be improved and how you would improve it. (5)
[TOTAL: 10]
150 Term 3

Task 14 Make an artistic impression of the solution
You will need: blank sheet of paper, drawing tools, pencil crayon for rendering
Work as a team. This task is for not for formal assessment.

Collaborate as a team to develop artistic impressions of the solution in single or double
vanishing point perspective. Create two drawings, one for the model house and one
for the structure that houses the electronic system. Two team members must draw the
basic shape; two team members must add realism through shading and colour. (10)
1. Use the same scale or dimensions as you did for Task 8.
2. Review this task in the Term 2 Mini-PAT.
[TOTAL: 10]
Communicate: Team presentation

Each team must give a five-minute presentation of their solution.
Task 15 Communicate: Give a team presentation

Work as a group. This task is for formal assessment. Your teacher will assess each
member’s contribution to the presentation and the task. (10)
1. Each team member must present an aspect of the project.
2. Decide prior to the presentation which aspect each member will present.
3. Your team must compile the following information and present it to the rest
of the class:
• Sketches
• Artistic impressions of the solution
• First angle orthographic drawings
• Exploded view, showing assembly and costing
• Completed working model of the product.
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 16 Record your role within the project

Work on your own. Tasks to include:
This task is for formal assessment. 
1. Contents page
You will need: workbook, pen
2. Initial ideas
Compile a record of your a) Freehand sketch of model house
individual contribution to the b) 3D sketch of the structure of the electronic device
project. You may present it in a 3. Design decision
format that you are comfortable 4. First angle orthographic projection
with. Use the checklist on the
5. Exploded view
right to help you. (45)
6. Paragraph detailing your role
[TOTAL: 45]
7. Evaluation


Complete the answers in your workbook.
Number the questions carefully. You will need a calculator, pen, pencil and a ruler.
1. Complete the sentences below. Write the question number and the word only.
The conventional current in a circuit flows from 1.1 to 1.2 . (1)
1.3 What do the letters LED represent? (1)
1.4 What does a resistor do in a circuit? (2)
2. 2.1 Write down the formula for Ohm’s Law to calculate current. (2)
2.2 Calculate the current values using Ohm’s Law.
Write the question number and the correct answer only, for example, 2.2.1 [answer].
Circuit Voltage Resistance Current (answer)
1 8 2 2.2.1 (1)
2 1,5 100 2.2.2 (1)
3. Identify the following component and state how it is used:
Figure 1
3.1 Component (1)

3.2 Use (2)
4. Relate three points of how to measure current in a circuit (to relate something about an item
or idea means to describe significant information about that item or idea). (3)
5. Differentiate between the following three devices by explaining how each is used in a circuit:
5.1 Thermistor (2)
5.2 Moisture detector (2)
5.3 LDR (2)
152 Term 3

6. Which device would be best suited in a circuit used to check whether a stove plate is getting
too hot and so needs to be turned off. (2)
7. Study the circuit diagram shown in Figure 2.
7.1 Identify and name each of the components labelled a to d. (4)
7.2 Design and draw a freehand sketch demonstrating how this circuit could be used
in a model toy car. Label the different parts of the car, showing the lights,
motor and switches. (4)
Figure 2 Circuit diagram

[TOTAL: 30]
Term test 153

Chapter
12 Preserving metals
Gusset
Figure 12.1 The gusset plate below the bridge is almost rusted through.
154

Processing
Introduction
More than 70 different metals are used in industry.
Some metals can be used in their pure state, but often
metals are mixed with other metals or non-metals to
form an alloy. Alloys have different properties from the
pure metals. This allows metals to be adapted to be used
in a particular way.
Metals can be divided into two main groups: ferrous

metals (metals that contain iron) and non-ferrous
metals (metals that do not contain iron).
Pure iron is too soft to use in industry. Adding carbon to

the iron produces an alloy called steel. The properties and
uses of steel depend on the amount of carbon added.
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of metals and alloys

by a chemical reaction with oxygen and water. Corrosion
gradually damages (degrades) the useful properties of
materials and structures including strength, appearance
and permeability to liquids and gases.
Ferric oxide (rust) is the most common form of

Figure 12.2 The characteristic red colour of rust when iron corrosion. Ferrous metals rust easily, forming a reddish-
combines with oxygen to form iron oxide brown coating called iron oxide (Fe2O3) when the metal
reacts with oxygen and water in the air. The process
is speeded up by sodium chloride (salt). Non-ferrous
Key words metals can also corrode, but do not form rust.
• alloy – a metal combined with other materials; Metals can be preserved in different ways. In this chapter
the properties of the metal are changed; we examine three techniques that are used to improve
different combinations are created to suit the lifespan of metals and alloys: painting, galvanising
particular purposes and needs and electroplating.
• ferrous metals – metals that contain iron
• non-ferrous metals – metals that do not Discuss preserving metals
contain iron Complete the following questions in your workbook.
• ferric oxide (rust) – the reddish-brown 1. Why is it important to preserve metals?
substance found on ferrous metals, formed 2. What causes corrosion in metals?
when metals containing iron come into contact 3. List practical methods to preserve metals.
with oxygen in the presence of water
In this term you are required to produce a portfolio
of certain tasks. See page 191 for the checklist.
155

Unit
1 Painting and galvanising

Rust is caused by the corrosion of iron and iron alloys through oxidation. Oxidation
Key words
is the reaction of a metal with oxygen. The reaction is speeded up by the addition of
• oxidation – salt, or sodium chloride (NaCl). Painting is a cheap way of preserving ferrous metals.
a chemical
reaction in which Painting
a substance The most common method used to prevent rust forming on metal is to paint the
combines with exposed surface. The problem with this protective technique is that any small
oxygen, or loses area where the paint may chip off becomes exposed to air containing oxygen and
hydrogen or water, and rust will form. Paint forms a barrier between air and the inner metal.
electrons For this method to work well, the metal must be prepared correctly. It is important
to choose the correct paint to suit the purpose of the metal.
• galvanising –
the term used
when a protective How to prepare metals for painting
layer of zinc is 1. Thoroughly clean the metal surface. Remove all grease and grime by washing
applied to iron or it in hot water with a highly concentrated cleaning agent.
steel to prevent it 2. Work in a dust-free area. Before painting, ensure that you have a place set aside
from rusting for drying.
• electroplating – 3. For maximum protection, three coats should be applied: a primer, an
a method of undercoat and a topcoat.
galvanising in 4. The primer is the first coat, and its function is to form a very strong bond
which a coating between the metal and the undercoat.
of zinc is applied 5. The undercoat is applied to the primer. Its function is to provide a base that
to a metal by the topcoat will stick to and to help waterproof the metal.
electrolysis
6. The topcoat provides resistance to ultraviolet light and weathering, and gives
• electrolysis – the desired finish to the metal.
a method of 7. Always paint awkward areas first. Allow these to dry thoroughly before starting
splitting the the next stage.
elements in a
8. Two thin coats of topcoat are better than one thick coat.
compound by
passing an electric 9. Keep brushes clean and make sure the paint tin lids are properly sealed.
current through
the compound
when it is in a
solution
• electrolyte –
a solution that
can conduct an
electric current
Figure 12.3 Metal requires three coats of paint: a primer, an undercoat and a topcoat.
156 Term 4

Galvanising
Galvanising is a method used to protect iron or steel by covering it with a layer of Did you know?
zinc. Zinc is used because it is resistant to corrosion.
The term ‘galvanised’
The most cost-effective way of galvanising is to immerse the iron or steel in a is named after the
bath of liquid zinc at a temperature of 460 °C. This is called hot-dip galvanising Italian scientist Luigi
(see Figure 12.4). This process produces a thick, durable (hard wearing), dull grey Galvani. Galvani did
coating that makes the metal very suitable for outdoor use. many experiments
involving electric
A second method of galvanising is by electroplating. In this process, a coating charges and
of zinc is applied to the metal by electrolysis. Electrolysis is a process where an animal muscles.
electric current is passed through an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution
that can conduct electricity because it has positive and negative charges in it.
Electroplated coatings are usually thin and reflect brightly in the same way as a
mirror. This means that they are more suitable for use indoors.
When iron and steel have been galvanised, they will resist corrosion, even when
exposed to air and moisture.
Figure 12.4 Galvanising metal in a hot dip
Enabling Task 1 Preserving metals

Work on your own.
1. Define the following terms:
a) alloy (3)
b) hot-dip galvanising. (3)
2. Suggest why rust is a bigger problem at the coast than it is inland. (2)
3. You live at the coast and need a new metal gate for your property.
You investigate the costs and find that the prices are very different,
with a galvanised gate being much more expensive than an untreated gate.
Decide which gate to buy. Motivate your answer in full. (7)
[TOTAL: 15]

Practical investigation
Preserving metals by electroplating
Electroplating
Electroplating uses electrolysis to cover objects with a thin
layer of metal. In industry, electroplating is used to protect
cheap but reactive metals with a less reactive metal.
For example, steel is plated with tin or chromium to
prevent the steel from rusting.
The electroplating process

Look at the photo of an electroplating bath in Figure 12.5.
The electroplating bath is made up of an ionic compound
called the electrolyte, an electrical circuit, and two electrodes.
When an electric current flows through the circuit, it splits the
compound into positively and negatively charged ions. An ion
Figure 12.5 An electroplating bath used in industry
is a particle that has a charge. Metals always form positive ions.
The negative electrode is attached to the object to be plated. During electrolysis

the positively charged metal ions in the electrolyte are attracted to the negative
electrode, because opposite charges attract each other, and the object becomes
coated with metal. The negatively charged ions move to the positive electrode.
Protective action
Plating protects a metal in one of two ways:
• Zinc protects the underlying ferrous metal by sacrificial plating. This means
that the outer zinc coating will corrode instead of the base metal, even if
the plating has been scratched, exposing the base metal. However, zinc has
no resistance to acid and if the metal is used in an acidic environment, this
method will not protect the metal at all.
• Copper, nickel and chromium protect the base metal mechanically by forming
a protective coat over the base metal. This forms a barrier separating the
underlying metal from oxygen and water, thereby protecting it from corrosion.
1. Investigate
Work on your own and write your answers in your workbook.
1. Read through the process below, which describes setting up an electroplating
bath to investigate how increased voltage affects electroplating.
2. Write down the hypothesis for the investigation.
3. Write down the aim of the investigation.
2. Make
Set up an electroplating bath to investigate how increased voltage in an electrical
circuit affects the electroplating action.
Work in a group to carry out the Practical investigation, but record the results and
conclusions yourself in your workbook.
158 Term 4

You will need: copper sulfate crystals, water, three AA cells, two crocodile
clips, connecting wire, three AA battery holders, switch, fine
sandpaper, stopwatch, piece of copper pipe, four identical keys
solution of copper
1. Clean the copper pipe piece and the keys by sanding them lightly battery sulphate crystals
with fine sandpaper.
2. Wash the copper pipe and keys in soapy water, and then rinse and
dry them thoroughly.
3. Use a triple beam balance to record the mass of one key at the start. key
This will be the control. Observe what it looks like. Copy the table
below, and then write your observations in the table.
4. Mix 10 ml of copper sulfate crystals in 200 ml water.
copper pipe
5. Set up the electroplating bath equipment with one 1,5 V cell,
Figure 12.6 The electroplating bath
as shown in Figure 12.6.
6. Close the switch when everything is in place.
7. Start the stopwatch as you close the switch and time for one minute.
8. After one minute, open the switch and disconnect the key.
9. Label the key as follows: key – one cell.
Safety
10. Repeat Steps 5 to 8 with two cells connected in series, and then with
three cells connected in series. Copper sulfate is
poisonous if swallowed!
11. Remember to label each key correctly.
12. Use a triple beam balance to determine the mass of each key.
Record the information in the table.
13. Look closely at each key and record your observations in the table.
Mass of key (g) Visual observation (a lot of copper/some copper/
a little bit of copper/no copper)
Control key
Key using one cell:
Key using two cells:
Key using three cells:
3. Design
Work on your own.
Draw a diagram to show the set-up of the apparatus. You may use symbols
for some parts of the circuit.
4. Evaluate
Work on your own. Look at the three keys closely. Decide which key has been
coated the most evenly.
Draw a conclusion from your results. Remember to refer to the

hypothesis and aim you wrote down in the investigation step.
Practical investigation 159

Chapter
13 Preserving food
Figure 13.1 Grain storage hut near Lake Kariba, eastern Zambia
Figure 13.2 Maize silos in North West Province, which will be used by many farmers in the area
160

Processing
Introduction
People started to preserve food when they had a lot, to
keep for times when there was little food available. The
idea behind food preservation is to slow down or kill the
bacteria, yeasts or fungi that make food go bad. This can
be done by heating, cooling, or salting and drying.
All food contains bacteria. Food without bacteria is called

sterile. Heating food to a high temperature makes it sterile.
The cold temperatures in a refrigerator (3–7 °C) slow down
bacterial growth. The very cold temperatures in a freezer
(–15 °C to –19 °C) cause bacteria to become inactive and
food is preserved for many months. Salting and drying
food also prevents bacterial growth.
Sometimes a preservation technique destroys the enzymes

in food that make the food ripen, spoil or discolour.
An enzyme is a heat-sensitive protein found in living cells.
Preservation methods
Work on your own.
Figure 13.3 Heating destroys bacteria.
1. Copy and complete the table below in your workbook.
2. Unscramble the word to match the description of
the preservation method. The first one has been
done for you.
Description of Scrambled Unscrambled
preservation name name
method
Partial heating sapairsteution pasteurisation
of milk to reduce
bacterial growth
An old method that ydrgni
uses the sun or an
oven
Food is preserved in klipngci
a liquid like brine or
vinegar
Moisture is removed drhytaieodn
from the food
Salt is added, which islgnta
prevents bacterial
growth
Figure 13.4 A West Coast speciality, bokkoms, hanging to dry
161

Unit
1 Storing grain and pickling
Key words Storing grain

Grains are a staple food for many people. A staple food is one that makes up the
• sterile (food) –
main portion of the diet of a group of people. Grains are grown during certain
food that contains
seasons, but sometimes a harvest fails. Grains are stored to make sure that there is
no bacteria
a constant supply of food.
• enzymes – heat-
sensitive proteins Machines used to handle grain
that speed up a When subsistence farmers harvest their crop, the grain is placed into small
chemical reaction containers. Subsistence farmers produce only enough food for themselves and
in living things their families. In intensive farming, where large quantities of grain are processed,
• staple food – the grain-handling machinery is used (Figure 13.5).
main food eaten
by a population Storage conditions
• subsistence Grain is stored under
farmers – farmers controlled conditions
who grow crops to limit spoilage:
for their own and • The moisture content
their family’s use; of the grain needs to be
they produce small restricted. This is done by
amounts of food blowing cool air through
for themselves the grain. This is called
or they will sell aeration.
it to buy other • Aeration keeps the
products temperature constant.
• germination – A cool temperature
the point in a limits the growth of
seed’s growth into fungi and insects. Most Figure 13.5 In intensive farming, large machines are used to
a seedling when insect species do not harvest grains.
its first shoot and breed below 15 °C.
root break out of • The low temperature
the seed case also reduces
germination of
the grains.
Storage equipment
Storage equipment for
large volumes of grain
has become technical and
expensive. Therefore, large
storage containers are kept
in one place (centralised)
and used by many farmers
Figure 13.6 Grain storage equipment is sophisticated
in an area (Figure 13.6).
and expensive.
162 Term 4

Pickling
Pickling began 4 000 years ago in India, to preserve food
when certain vegetables were out of season. Today, pickles
are eaten for enjoyment. Most pickled food is preserved in a
mixture of brine (a saltwater solution) and vinegar. Pickling
preserves food because the acid content of the vinegar kills
organisms such as Clostridium botulinum, a bacterium that
causes food poisoning, and even death.
Types of pickles
White vinegar, herbs, and spices such as curry and mustard
provide flavour in pickles (Figure 13.7). Two well known
pickles in South Africa are piccalilli and atjar. Piccalilli is made
of vegetables mixed with curry, turmeric and mustard. Figure 13.7 Typical ingredients used for pickling
Atjar was introduced to South Africa from Indonesia.
It contains vegetables and fruit mixed with curry and chilli.
Tips for pickling Did you know?

1. Choose fresh, firm vegetables that are not bruised. It can take 18–36
hours before the
2. Only use tried and tested recipes.
effects of poisoning
3. Always sterilise the jars and lids to be used for pickling. by Clostridium
4. Put the cut vegetables and fruit in the jars. botulinum become
5. Pour the hot pickling mixture over the vegetables and fruit, then close the lids noticeable. The
of the jars. symptoms include
severe stomach
6. Place the jars on a false bottom in a pot, pour in enough water to cover, and
cramps, vomiting
then boil for 10 minutes.
and diarrhoea. If
The false bottom is used to prevent the jars from cracking when they are in medical help is not
contact with a direct source of heat. obtained, paralysis
Pickles should be stored for three months prior to use to develop the flavours. and even death
may occur.
Enabling Task 1 Investigate ingredients used in pickles
Work on your own.
1. Read the information
on pickling. List the
ingredients used in
the pickling process. (4)
2. Examine the label in
Figure 13.8, and then answer
the following questions:
a) Describe how the
product should
be stored. (3)
b) Name the ingredients
the product contains. (3)
[TOTAL: 10]
Figure 13.8 A label on a gherkin jar

Practical investigation
Preserving food by drying and salting
The heat from the Sun
Drying and salting is trapped and drying is
Drying removes moisture from food so speeded up. Note the
that it cannot spoil. Foods can be dried free flow of air around
in sunlight in a homemade solar dryer the drying rack.
(Figure 13.9), or in an oven.
Salting draws out moisture, creating

an environment where bacteria cannot
survive. The salted foods are soaked in
fresh water for two hours before eating,
to stop them from tasting salty.
You will use both methods to preserve

some vegetables. Figure 13.9 Homemade solar dryer
1. Investigate whether drying or salting

produces the better quality vegetable
1. You will preserve some vegetables using the drying and salting techniques.
2. Choose vegetables that are easily available and suitable for preservation.
3. You will evaluate the vegetables in terms of taste and texture to decide
which of the two preservation methods gives the best quality end-product.
Safety
2. Make your preserves Take care when
You will need: vegetables that are in season, knife, chopping board, potato cutting vegetables
peeler, sterilised glass jars with lids, salt, oven or drying rack, with a sharp knife.
cotton cloth Do not cut yourself.

1. Select fresh, firm vegetables. Prepare them by washing,
and peeling them, and trimming off any bruised sections.
Slice the vegetables into evenly-sized pieces (Figure 13.10).
2. Place the vegetables to be dried on trays made of wooden
dowels and a fine net. Place the trays on blocks to enable
free air movement. If possible, place the trays on a concrete
slab. Cover the trays with a cotton cloth such as cheesecloth.
This keeps insects and birds away. Bring in the vegetables at
night as the night air will delay the drying process.
3. Mix the vegetables to be salted with about 250 g of salt for
Figure 13.10 Vegetables being sliced into evenly-
every 1 kg of vegetables. Place these salted vegetables in
sized pieces
jars. Top up the vegetables with a brine solution of 250 g
of salt to 1 litre of water.
4. Leave the vegetables preserved with both methods for
approximately three weeks before testing for quality.
164 Term 4

3. Design a rubric to test the preserves
1. Decide which characteristics of the preserves you want to compare and test.
Two suggestions are the colour and the texture of the vegetables.
2. Draw a table in your workbook of what you will compare and test. You could
use a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 indicating ‘dislike intensely’ to 5 indicating ‘like
strongly’.
4. Evaluate your vegetables

You will need: rubric, two small plates, sharp knife, two labels for the plates
Work on your own.
1. Before you evaluate the vegetables, soak the salted food in fresh water for
two hours.
2. Place one sample from each method on a plate and label each plate with
the preserving method used.
3. Use the rubric to evaluate the vegetables.
4. Decide which method you prefer. Motivate your answer by giving reasons for
your decision. Refer to things such as ease of technique, cost-effectiveness and
the taste of the final product.
Figure 13.11 Salted vegetables, ready to eat
Practical investigation 165

Chapter
14 Types of plastics and their uses

A B
C D
Figure 14.1A–D Plastic products are all around us. We should try to recycle as many products as possible to save energy and reduce pollution.
166

Processing
Introduction
We use plastics for many things, including plastic bags,
kitchen utensils, toys, CDs and DVDs, components in
vehicles and electronic products, and for packaging.
Plastics are suitable materials for a variety of products
because they are easy to mould into different shapes,
do not corrode and can be dyed different colours.
Plastics are made up of long chains of molecules from

natural fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, coal or other
chemicals. New bioplastics are now also being created
from corn instead of oil. Plastics do not occur naturally,
they are manufactured. Synthetic plastics are often made
to copy the molecular properties of natural materials
such as wood.
Talk about plastics

Look at the photos in Figures 14.1A–D and 14.2,
and then discuss the following questions:
1. List 20 plastic products you use at home
and at school.
2. Give reasons why plastic is a popular material
to use when manufacturing a product.
3. a) What does ‘recycling’ mean?
b) Suggest why it is important to recycle
plastic products.
How to identify plastics for

sorting and recycling
Plastic must be sorted for recycling because there
are many different types of plastic, and each type has
different properties and melts at different temperatures.
Different types of plastics are difficult to tell apart just by
looking at them, so a worldwide system of codes is used
to identify them. You will learn more about these codes
on page 169. This information is used for sorting plastic
waste for reusing and recycling.
Figure 14.2 A diving mask and snorkel made of plastic
167

Unit
1 Types of plastics
Key words What are plastics?

The term ‘plastics’ refers to materials composed of
• thermoplastic –
carbon atoms arranged in long chains, which are
a type of plastic
connected to other atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen,
that becomes
hydrogen, sulfur and chlorine.
soft when heated
and hardens Most plastics can be divided into two types:
when cooled thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic or
• thermosetting thermoset. The main characteristic of thermoplastics is
Figure 14.3 Thermoplastic
plastic or that their molecules become soft when they are exposed
materials are available as
thermoset – a to heat, and harden when cooled to room temperature sheets, thin films, tubing and
type of plastic (see Figure 14.4). This allows thermoplastics to be solid sections, or as granules
that when reshaped by moulding. Thermoplastics are used to create and powder.
heated becomes a wide range of products such as food packaging, milk
permanently rigid jugs, toys, and electrical insulation.
and hard
Thermosetting plastic hardens or ‘sets’ permanently when high temperature and
• epoxy – pressure are applied to it. Thermosetting plastic can also be ‘set’ by a chemical
a thermosetting reaction between a resin and a ‘hardener’ in a two-part epoxy. A thermosetting
plastic formed plastic can’t be softened once it has ‘set’. Thermosets are valued for their durability,
from the chemical strength and heat resistance. Thermosets are most commonly used for vehicle and
reaction of a resin truck tyres, handles of cooking pots, and electrical plugs and fittings. See Figure 14.3.
with a ‘hardener’
Plastics are made from non-renewable materials and do not decompose easily,
so we must consider recycling as much plastic as possible. Thermoplastics are
more easily recycled than thermosets.
Enabling Task 1 Properties of plastics
You will need: workbook or A4 paper, pen and pencil, four plastic products
that have recycling symbols on them
Work in pairs.
Look at the plastic properties described above. Discuss how the properties help to
make the products shown in Figures 14.5 and 14.6 useful.
Figure 14.4 Plastic school chairs Figure 14.5 Plastic drinking mugs for children
168 Term 4

Investigation of types of plastic codes
Read through this table for the names, abbreviations, identification symbols and
uses of the different types of plastics.
Name of plastic Abbreviation Identification symbol Uses

Polyethylene PET or PETE Packaging of various foodstuffs and liquids,
terephthalate such as cooldrink bottles, preserved fruit
containers, peanut butter bottles, cooking oil
bottles, and dishwashing liquid bottles
High-density HDPE Milk bottles, motor oil containers, buckets,
polyethylene crates and bags
Polyvinyl chloride PVC Clear trays for food and toiletries, clear bottles,
pipes, blood transfusion bags, credit cards and
cling film
Low-density LDPE Frozen vegetable bags, rubbish bags, building
polyethylene film, soft squeezable bottles, milk sachets,
consumer bags
Polypropylene PP Bottle caps, automotive battery cases, cups
and plates, carpeting
Polystyrene is PS Crystal polystyrene: Food packaging (yoghurt
divided into three tubs, salad containers, egg trays)
groups: High impact polystyrene (HIPS): computers,
• crystal television housing, printers, keyboards,
polystyrene refrigerators, toothbrush handles
• high impact Expandable polystyrene: food packaging, meat
polystyrene trays, take-away food clamshells, cooler box
insulation, protective packaging corners for
• expandable
TVs and electronic goods
polystyrene
Other Other plastics are used for engineering or
multi-layer materials in specialised packaging
Enabling Task 2 Sorting plastics for recycling
You will need: workbook or A4 paper, pen and pencil, examples of different
plastic products such as containers
1. Examine the table of types of plastic codes and your
examples of plastic products.
a) List your products. For each product find the
identifying code. (7 × 1)
b) Examine Figures 14.7 to 14.9 and then use
the table to decide which plastic code
Figure 14.6 Figure 14.7 Plastic Figure 14.8 Plastic
group each product belongs to. (3 × 1)
Polystyrene food peanut butter jar 2 ℓ milk bottle
[TOTAL: 10] container

Unit
2 Properties of plastics
The properties of a plastic depend on the materials that are used to make the
plastic. The main property of thermoplastics is that they can be reheated and
moulded. Thermoplastics can also be recycled.
The main properties of thermosets are durability, strength, and being able to
withstand high temperatures. These are useful properties for pot handles.
Figure 14.9 Thermosetting

plastics are used for products
Physical properties of plastics
that need to be heat resistant, Plastics have some very useful properties. These are listed below:
such as handles of cooking pots, • Plastic can be moulded into many different shapes for many different uses.
plugs and electrical fittings.
• Plastic can be flexible; it can bend easily without breaking.
• Plastic can be elastic; it can stretch, bend and return to its original shape.
• Plastic is durable and degrades very slowly.
• Plastic can be transparent, which allows light to pass through it, so you can
see clearly inside the container.
• Plastic can be coloured.
• Plastic can be heat resistant and have electrical resistance – it stops or resists
the flow of electrical current.
• Plastic is water resistant or waterproof; it stops or resists water penetration.
Figure 14.10 Plastic can be flexible. Figure 14.11 Plastic is durable.
Figure 14.12 Plastic Figure 14.13 Plastic Figure 14.14 Plastic can be heat
can be transparent. products such as toys can resistant and have electrical
be coloured. resistance. It is also water resistant.
170 Term 4

Enabling Task 3 Investigate properties of plastics
You will need: two plastic products with recycling symbols on them
Work in pairs.
1. Look at the physical properties
of plastics on page 170. Discuss
how these properties help to
[AW14.15a
make the products shown in
Figures 14.10–14.14 useful. (5)
2. Choose two of the plastic
products that you brought
to school.
a) Copy the table below in Figure 14.15 Example of plastics that
to your workbook. are used to make plastic products
Plastic Plastic Results

name ID code
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
Product 1 Key word
Product 2
• biodegrade –
b) Carry out the following tests on each product and record your to decay or
observations in the table: decompose into
• Test 1: Can you pull and stretch the product? natural elements
• Test 2: Can you bend or fold the product? that are absorbed
by the environment
• Test 3: Can you twist the product? (10 × 2)
[TOTAL: 25]
Reduce, reuse, recycle

Reducing, reusing and recycling of plastics is essential to help to conserve
our environment.
There are some things that every individual can do:
• Reduce by buying less and using less plastic shopping bags such as using
a shopping basket or box for groceries.
• Reuse plastic shopping bags and carry your own water bottle.
• Recycle by placing your waste plastics into recycle bins.
Plastic that is not recycled goes to our rubbish dumps, which increases landfill Figure 14.16 We must reduce,
areas. About 11% of the content of landfills is plastic. Plastics take between five reuse and recycle our waste
and 100 years to biodegrade, depending on the type of plastic, which leaves plastic.
a landfill problem for future generations. Biodegrade means to decompose into
natural elements that are absorbed by the environment.
Recycling plastic saves energy. For example, recycling a single plastic bottle will
save enough energy to power a single 60-watt globe for six hours.

Unit
Remanufacturing waste plastic into pellets
3 for reuse
bottles sorted into bottles squashed into
Key words different types bales – easier to transport
• pollutants –
any substances
that pollute
• extruded – forced
or pressed out cut into small
flakes
• die – a specialised
tool to shape or
form products
or components plastic bottle
such as moulds plastic bottle recycling
or templates collection
washed to
remove dirt
and labels
reprocessed flakes
melted down at
plastic factory
new products
made from plastic
Figure 14.17 The plastics recycling process
How recycling takes place

Look at the recycling process diagram in Figure 14.17:
1. Plastics are sorted by type, using the identification codes.
2. Different types are squashed into bales and delivered to the recycler.
3. The plastic is shredded into smaller pieces that are washed to remove labels
and pollutants.
4. After drying, the granules are fed into an extruder machine, where they are
melted. The melted plastic is extruded or pushed through a multi-hole die, or
template, which makes it into continuous strings. The strings are water-cooled
and chopped into pellets by a revolving cutter. The pellets are bagged and
sold to make new plastic products.
172 Term 4

Enabling Task 4 Systems diagram describing a plastics
recycling project
You will need: workbook or A4 paper, pen, pencil, ruler

Work in groups of five, as a class, and on your own.
1. In your group, discuss a plastic recycling project at your school and how
it could work. Record the group’s decisions in your own workbook. (6)
2. In your group, discuss the types of plastic products that could be reused
in meaningful ways at school. Record the group’s decisions in your own
workbook. (4)
3. Set up a recyling area in your classroom where different containers are used
for different recyclable items, including plastic.
4. Design a poster to educate people about plastic recycling. (5)
5. As a class, vote for the best poster and discuss the results.
6. We use a systems diagram to describe a system. Your recycling project is
a system. It has an input, one or more processes, and an output. On your own,
draw a systems diagram describing your class plastics recycling project. (10)
Figure 14.18 shows an example of a systems diagram of creating plastic pellets
for reuse.
[TOTAL: 25]
Shredded
Sorted Plastic shredded Clean plastic
plastic washed
plastics into small pieces melted
and cleaned
Plastic Plastic pushed through

Strings cut into Strings of plastic
pellets die in extruder to be made
pieces water cooled
for reuse into long strings
Figure 14.18 Systems diagram of creating plastic pellets

Unit 3 (continued)
Case Study: Moulding recycled plastic pellets into products

There are three methods of using pellets to make plastic Injection moulding is used to make products such
products: extrusion moulding, injection moulding and as food tubs, yogurt containers, car panels, computer
blow moulding. monitors and bottle caps.
Methods of moulding plastic pellets plastic pellets go

into hopper cold water pumped around
Extrusion moulding is a continuous process that is used mould to cool product
to make products such as rods, tubes, pipes, electrical
wire, and thin films such as food wrappers. heater die (mould)
• The plastic pellets are loaded into a hopper, which

has a long, heated chamber and a continuous
rotating screw.
• The plastic is melted and then forced through a melted plastic motor and hopper injection
small opening, known as a die, to form the desired pushed into hydraulic pump moulding
die (mould of machine
shape.
plastic seat)
• The plastic is fed onto a conveyer belt, onto rollers,
or into a water tank to cool. The cooled product can
Figure 14.20 Injection moulding
be cut into the desired shape or length.
Blow moulding is used to make products such
as cooldrink bottles and milk jugs. It is used in
plastic pellets
combination with the extrusion or injection moulding
process. The blow moulding process allows a hollow
heater cold water in plastic product to be made without having to mould
hopper
two or more parts together to form the finished product.
die
Methods of processing plastic pellets
The processing method that is used to convert the
motor and cold water out
plastic pellets into finished products is determined by
hydraulic pump
extruded
the type of product that is being produced. There are
solid shape
many types of processes the pellets could go through
to become new products. Different plastic products are
Figure 14.19 Extrusion moulding process to make, for example,
a curtain rail.
manufactured from recycled plastics (see Figure 14.21).
174 Term 4

Recovered plastics recycled into products
PET plastics are recycled into products such as:
• Fibre for polyester LDPE plastics are
carpet, fabric for recycled into products
T-shirts, filling for such as:
winter jackets • Irrigation hoses
• Plastic ‘wood’
HDPE plastics are PP plastics are recycled

recycled into products into products such as:
such as: • Bottles, buckets
• Refuse bins, and ropes
refuse bags and
shopping bags
• Garden furniture
PVC plastics are PS plastics are recycled

recycled into products into products such as:
such as: • Picture frames and
• Shoe soles and seedling trays
doormats
Figure 14.21 Products made from recycled plastics
Enabling Task 5 Moulding recycled plastic pellets

into products
You will need: workbook or A4 paper, pen, pencil, ruler

Work on your own.
1. Draw an accurate systems diagram explaining a moulding process
of plastic pellets into products. (6)
2. Choose three types of recycled plastics and list two products
made from plastic pellets for each. (3 × 2)
3. Describe why recycling as much plastic as possible would
benefit society as a whole. (8)
[TOTAL: 20]

Term
4 Reduce, reuse, recycle
Figure 1 A plastic bottle reused as a pot plant holder
Figure 2 Reuse plastic bags by cutting them into strips and Figure 3 Plastic being knitted to make a bag
crocheting them into products such as bags.
176

Mini-PAT: Reduce, reuse, recycle
Content: Working with plastics

Context: Setting the scene
Introduction
We use so much plastic in everyday life. Instead of
throwing away plastic, waste plastic products can be
reused or recycled and made into useful products.
Scenario
Sally does not have many electric lights at home, but she
and her family do drink cooldrinks. ‘The empty plastic
cooldrink bottles around the house could be reused,’
Sally thought. She looked at the shape of the bottles.
She designed and made her own plastic candleholders
by cutting the bottles into pieces and glueing the pieces
together. She also bent the plastic to make decorative
shapes to use as ornaments.
Identify ways to reuse plastics

Work on your own.
1. Describe how Sally reused the plastic bottles to
solve the problem she had at home.
2. Suggest other possible situations where used plastic
products could be reused to solve an everyday
problem.
You will be working with plastic by cutting it, joining pieces
of plastic together, and moulding it to make a product to
satisfy a need.
You will investigate, draw, design, make and present

a useful plastic product made by reusing and
recycling plastic.
Figure 4 A dress made from plastic bags
177

Unit
1 Plastics used in modern cars
Case Study: Plastic products used in modern motor cars

Modern cars are made with much more plastic than Vehicle manufacturers use plastic in vehicles, as it
older cars, which were made mostly of steel. A car from makes the vehicles lighter, so the vehicles use less fuel.
the 1950s had almost no plastic included in the design. The use of plastic components in a vehicle increases the
About 272 kg of plastic parts made from petro-chemicals number of parts that could be recycled. For example,
are found in the average vehicle. These include the seats, the plastics used to make cars can be recycled into petrol
dashboard, bumpers, and engine components. This is (vehicle fuel) for use by other vehicles.
about 15% of the total weight of a vehicle.
seatbelts petrol tanks
instrument panels
covering of wires and cables
gear housing
seating cushions and padding
bumpers interior and external panels
tyres
Figure 5 Examples of plastic products used when building a vehicle
Task 1 Investigate plastics used in vehicles

Read the information in the Case Study above and look carefully at Figure 5.
1. List four parts of the vehicle that are made from plastic. (4)
2. Give two reasons why the vehicle manufacturers are using more
plastic-based products. (2 × 2)
3. Suggest a third reason why plastic is used in modern cars. (2)
[TOTAL: 10]
178 Term 4

Advantages and disadvantages of using plastics
Plastics reduce the weight of vehicles and help to streamline their shape, thereby
improving the performance of tyres and increasing the safety of windshields and
fuel tanks. Even if plastics being used in a vehicle’s construction can lower the
amount of fuel used, the production of plastics is still very energy intensive and
generates a lot of pollution. However, the production of steel and aluminum also
uses large amounts of energy and creates pollution. Plastic recycling of vehicle
parts is not as fully developed as metal recycling of vehicle parts. Composite
plastics are difficult to separate and this makes them difficult to reuse.
There are ideas for making plastics more sustainable such as using biodegradable
plastics or plastics that come from renewable resources such as corn or sugarcane.
Another idea is to make fuel from discarded plastic parts. The USA company
Agri-Plas, in Oregon, made 37 278 litres of oil in one month from plastic waste.
So the plastic in electric cars and fuel-cell cars may one day be recycled
into oil that could be used as fuel in petrol cars.
Newly developed end-of-life vehicle

bumper recycling process
1 crushing 2 removal of residual materials
crushed
bumper pellets
metals
crushed
large items
bumper
partially
metals
dismantled crusher (processes small automatic metal removal (based
by hand objects and metals together) on grain separator technology)
3 residual paint removal 4 sorting 5 output
pellets
with no pellets
mix with other washer paint with finished
manufacturers’ paint pellets
bumpers sorter
Figure 6 Recycling a car’s bumper
Task 2 Investigate recycling plastic in vehicles
You will need: workbook or A4 paper, pencil, pen, ruler, eraser

1. Name at least four plastic components used in modern vehicles. (4)
2. Suggest two reasons why plastic components in vehicles should be
recycled after they have been used. (2 × 3)
[TOTAL: 10]

Unit
2 Investigate the problem and the need
Case Study: Plastics used around the home

We use many plastic products at home to make our lives easier. We use plastic products in the kitchen,
the bathroom and the garden. We use plastics to make toys and to store things in.
Plastic egg lifter The shell structure of a kettle is Different food containers are Bathroom items are also made
made from plastic. made by moulding plastic. from plastic such as nail brushes,
toothbrushes, shampoo bottles,
and handles of razors.
Various toys Various household items can Plastic garden furniture – We use plastic items in the
be made from plastic such chairs and tables garden, for example, forks and
as various types of storage trowels, rake and watering can.
containers.
We need to reuse and recycle plastic items so that the number of plastic items manufactured can be reduced, and so
that we can reduce the amount of plastic in landfill dumps.
Task 3 Investigate plastic items used in our homes

1. List five plastic items that can be used at home. (5)
2. Explain how each item is used. (5)
3. Suggest three reasons why plastic products should be recycled after
they have been used. (3 × 2)
4. Suggest how a plastic item that you have finished using at home
could be reused so that it becomes useful again. (4)
[TOTAL: 20]
180 Term 4

Task 4 Identify the problem
Identify a need or want that you or someone
you know has that can be satisfied by
making an item using recycled plastic. my new reused
item idea
1. Think about the plastic items that are
thrown away at your home or school:
a) Make a list of five plastic items
that are thrown away at home. (5)
original waste product
b) Look at your list of items.
Next to each item, suggest
a use for that item. (5)
c) Think of ideas for new and
useful products that could be
made from discarded plastic items. another new
The making process must include reused item idea
cutting, joining, bending AND/OR
moulding of the plastic items.
In this way, we would reduce the Figure 7 A spider diagram, to represent possible brainstorming ideas
amount of plastic thrown into
landfill sites. Present your answer
in the form of a mind map or spider diagram (see Figure 7). (5)
2. Think of a situation at home or at school where a product made from
recycled plastic would make life simpler, more comfortable, or even
enhance the environment.
a) Describe the situation at home or at school. (1)
b) Describe how this ‘new’ item satisfies a need or want. (3)
c) Describe the chosen item that you will make. (1)
[TOTAL: 20]
Task 5 Write a design brief with specifications and constraints

1. Compile a design brief for the new plastic product that you will make.
Remember that the product must include cutting, joining, bending
AND/OR moulding.
c) How will the solution benefit the community? (2)
2. List the specifications for the plastic product. To help you, ask yourself
what the plastic product must be able to do. (2)
3. List the constraints for the plastic product. Use these questions to help you:
a) What materials will be used to make the product? (2)
b) What methods of manufacture do you need to include? (4)
[TOTAL: 15]

Unit
3 Design skills: Sketch and plan a chosen product
In this unit you will make initial sketches in an isometric drawing using grid paper,
and design in a first angle orthographic drawing.
Task 6 Sketch two plastic items using isometric projection
You will need: grid paper, pencil, ruler

1. Sketch two initial
ideas for two possible
solutions to solve the
problem you identified
in your design brief.
Use isometric
projection for these
two drawings
(see Figure 8).
Use isometric grid paper
to help you. (2 × 5)
2. Label each drawing
carefully. These labels
must include materials
that you will use,
and notes on the
making method. (2 × 5)
[TOTAL: 20]
Figure 8 Isometric projection of a cube on grid paper
Task 7 Evaluate the sketches and choose a design

1. Look carefully at your two sketches.
2. Choose the design that you are going to make.
3. When making your selection, consider the following:
• The function: What must the product do?
• The materials required: Are they readily available?
• The aesthetics: What must the product look like?
• The construction method: Which one will be simpler to make?
• The solution: Which design solves the need or want most effectively?
4. Write down valid reasons for the choice that you make. (10)
[TOTAL: 10]
182 Term 4

Task 8 Plan using first angle orthographic projection
You will need: grid paper, pencil, ruler
Work on your own. This task

is for formal assessment. Simple building
In this task you are required
to draw all three views of
the solution (see Figure 9).
Refer back to the isometric
sketch that you chose
in Task 7. (20)
1. Remember to use
South African
Front view Left side view
conventions to
dimension correctly.
2. Complete the
drawing. Top view
3. Provide a heading Name: Title: A simple house Scale: 1:1
for the plan.
[TOTAL: 20] Figure 9 You learnt about first angle isometric projection in Chapter 1.
Task 9 Materials list and tools list

Develop a comprehensive list of materials and tools.
1. Include the materials for the basic solution.
2. Include any additional materials that you may need to add to the design,
for example, for strengthening purposes. (5)
3. Use the information from the materials list to develop a comprehensive
list of tools. (5)
[TOTAL: 10]
Task 10 Order of work

1. Read through the next few pages on measuring, marking, cutting,
bending and joining plastic (see pages 184 to 189).
2. Based on this information, think how you will set about making
your plastic product.
3. Draw up an order of work. This can be written as a flow chart or as
a step-by-step process. (10)
4. Include the tools and materials that you will use at each step.

Skills Focus: Practice and making skills
[TOTAL: 10]
Before you can make your product, certain skills need to be practised. In this
Skills Focus feature you will measure, mark out, cut, bend and join different
pieces of plastic.
There are many different types and thicknesses of plastic that are available for
you to work with. However, it is best to practise these skills on the type of plastic
that you will use to make your product. Practising these skills before making your
solution will give you confidence and help to prevent unnecessary wastage.
Task 11 Measure and mark plastics
You will need: 30 cm ruler, pen or permanent marker or felt-tipped pen (pencil
doesn’t mark plastic effectively)
1. Measure and mark cutting lines on a piece of plastic (see Figure 10 and 11).
2. If your solution has an irregular shape, practise cutting this now. (10)
3. For an irregular shape, make a cardboard template. Check that it gives the
desired shape. Now trace around the template onto the plastic.
4. Check your markings carefully before you begin to cut.
[TOTAL: 10]
Figure 10 Trace your template onto the plastic Figure 11 Measure and mark plastic accurately using a ruler and permanent marker
bottle using a permanent marker. or pen.
184 Term 4

Hand tools to use for cutting plastic
Safety
Different tools can be used to cut plastic, depending on the type of plastic.
You need to select the tool that will produce the best result. Take care when
To cut a straight edge on plastics: cutting and using
sharp tools as you
• For soft plastic such as plastic bags, two-litre cooldrink bottles, milk bottles could cut yourself or
and ice cream tubs use a pair of scissors or craft knife. the furniture. Make
• For firm plastic, such as the neck of a two-litre cooldrink bottle, use a hacksaw, sure that you have a
junior hacksaw or a craft knife. suitable surface to
work on and a rubber
Task 12 Cutting different types of plastic mat to protect the
top of the desk.
You will need: plastic bags, plastic bottles, sheet of perspex or other hard
plastic, scissors, craft knife, coping saw
1. Pick up the piece of plastic that you have already marked.
2. Choose the most suitable tool to cut the plastic.
3. Cut the plastic accurately along the markings.
4. Sometimes the back of a pair of scissors provides the best leverage when
cutting thick plastic or difficult angles.
Figure 12 Remove the hacksaw blade and insert it through the pre-made hole. Reattach the blade to
the saw frame. Begin sawing.
Skills Focus: Practice and making skills 185

Skills Focus: Practice and making skills (continued)
Tip
When cutting a plastic
bottle, place masking
tape on a marked line
before you begin
cutting with a craft
knife.
Figure 13 Place tape on the cutting line to assist when cutting plastic bottles.
Machine tool for cutting polystyrene

Using a polystyrene cutter
The polystyrene cutter has a vertical arm with a wire attached to it. The wire heats
up, and then polystyrene of varying thicknesses can be cut.
A pattern should be attached or drawn onto the polystyrene first, in order to

prevent mistakes.
Figure 14 Hot wire polystyrene cutter
186 Term 4

Safety
The wire gets very
hot. Be careful not
to burn yourself. If you
are using knives to cut
the polystyrene, be
careful when heating
it on a stove plate.
Figure 15 Hand-held hot-wire polystyrene cutter
If your school does not have a polystyrene cutter, you can cut the polystyrene
using a knife with a fairly long blade.
Heat the knife on the plate of a stove. Make sure that the plastic handle does not
touch the plate. Use the heated blade to cut the polystyrene. Be careful not to burn
yourself. The blade cools down quickly, so it is best to work with two knives. One
knife is used to cut while the other is being reheated.
Skills Focus: Practice and making skills 187

Skills Focus: Moulding, finishing and joining plastics
Bending plastic
Task 13 Bending plastic
You will need: firm plastic such as sheets of ABS plastic (a common
thermoplastic), sheets of perspex, compact discs (CDs) and long
playing records (LPs); most other types of plastic items would
also be suitable such as rulers, strip heaters, line benders
1. You can bend a thin plastic sheet such as ABS plastic without a line bender.
Use a ruler and scissors to score down the edge to be bent.
2. Now bend the plastic along the scored edge.
You could use your ruler to help to ensure that the line is straight.
Use a strip heater or line bender to bend the plastic. These tools contain a single
wire that heats up. Place the plastic to be bent over the heated wire. It softens
along this line and is then easy to bend.
Moulding plastic
Moulding of plastic can be done on a vacuum moulder, around
a mould of the shape you want. A vacuum moulder is an electric
machine. The mould used can be made from any firm material such
as modelling clay, plasticene, wood, glass or an existing product.
The vacuum moulder consists of two aspects:
• the heater where the plastic is heated so that it can be
moulded around the mould
• the vacuum, which has a motor and a fan that sucks the
heated plastic around the mould to create the new shape.
In this unit you are required to build or make your product. Use the
skills that you acquired in the Skills Focus feature in Unit 3 to use
Figure 16 A vacuum moulder
a safe and efficient working practice. After making your product
you must complete a portfolio that reflects the term’s work.
Task 14 Mould parts

This task can only be completed if you have access to a moulder.
1. Use the cut pieces from Task 13.
2. Place them carefully over the mould.
3. Close and secure the lid of the moulding machine.
4. Remove after the recommended time.
5. Allow to cool.
6. Lift the cooled product from the mould.
188 Term 4

Finishing plastics
You may need to practise the skill of finishing plastics before or after you have
joined the product. This will depend on the type of plastic used and the product
that you are making.
If you use Perspex or other hard plastic, you could finish it off by using sandpaper
or a file. Sanded or file the edges until smooth and neat.
Smooth the rough edges of thin plastic by cutting the uneven edges carefully with
a strong pair of scissors.
If you want to finish your product with paint, a good-quality craft paint or spray
paint works well. When using spray paint always work in a well ventilated area.
You could cut and place a template on the completed plastic product and spray
over if you wish to create a logo or symbol on your final product.
Joining plastics
There are two types of joins that you may need: a permanent join uses a special
glue, or a moving join that includes inserting a hinge.
Permanent joins
If you want to make a permanent join, you could join the plastic parts by using
a specialist glue, a glue gun, stapling or rivet.
Moving joins
You can make a moving join by inserting a hinge using split pins.
Task 15 Making joins
You will need: plastic to make your product, craft knife, epoxy resin (joins metals
and plastics), acrylic cement (joins acrylics and other plastic types),
glue gun, split pins, stapler and staples or rivet gun and rivets
1. Practise each type of joining method with the type of plastic that you think
you are going to use for your product.
2. Once you have made each type of join, you will be able to decide which join
will work best for your product.
3. Use this method when joining your product. (10)
[TOTAL:10]
Skills Focus: Moulding, finishing and joining plastics 189

Unit
4 Finishing plastics
Safety Task 16 Measure, cut, shape, join and finish your product
Be careful when you
mark, cut, finish, You will need: plastic to make your product, ruler, felt-tipped pen, scissors,
bend and mould your craft knife, coping saw, polystyrene cutter, bending machine,
plastic product, using moulding machine, rivet gun and rivets, glue gun, stapler and
the different tools. staples
1. Measure and mark your product on the plastic of your choice.
2. Check for accuracy before you start to cut. For example, if you have used
a template, hold it against your markings and check that you have drawn
them correctly. By double-checking your markings you could save materials,
as you should need to cut only once.
3. Choose the most suitable tool to cut the plastic.
4. Cut the plastic accurately along
the markings.
5. Mark each part of the product as
you cut out, as this will facilitate the
assembly of the various parts to make
your new product.
6. You may need to finish off some rough
edges using a file or sandpaper at this
point.
7. Bend or mould the plastic into the
required shape using the method of
your choice.
8. Join the plastic using the method for
permanent or moving joins, depending
on the need of your product.
9. Finish and neaten your product using
a file or sandpaper.
10. Paint the product if you wish to.
11. The product should look good enough
to sell.
Figure 17 The new moulded shape
Marks are awarded for the following aspects:

• quality and finish of work (6)
• correct use of materials and tools (5)
• neat and safe working practice throughout (5)
• two safety precautions you took while making your product. (2 × 2)
[TOTAL: 20]
190 Term 4

Task 17 Evaluate the product
1. Evaluate whether the product has met these or not. (3)
2. Decide whether the product is a viable solution or not. (1)
3. Identify two things that you could improve on the product. Explain why
they should be improved and how they could be improved. (2 × 3)
Your response could read:

• The joining of the various parts is not neat. (What)
• This makes the final product appear untidy and homemade. (Why)
• I need to spend more time practising my joins until I have perfected
the technique before I start to make my product. (How)
[TOTAL: 10]
Compile a portfolio
In the next task (Task 18), you are required to compile a record of the term’s work.
This record includes all the tasks and activities that you did during the term. Decide
what you are going to use for this record. It could be your workbook or a separate
folder or flip file. Ensure that you present your work neatly.
Task 18 Produce a detailed portfolio of your reused product

Compile a detailed record of the term’s work including:
• the lifespan of metals and tools
• properties and uses of various plastics
• recycling strategy
• the investigation, design, making and evaluation of your new product. (40)
Use the checklist below to ensure that everything that is needed is included
in your portfolio:
Item 
A cover page
A contents page
All tasks and research tasks on improving the lifespan of metals and tools
All tasks and research tasks on the properties and uses of various plastics
The tasks on plastics recycling strategy
The sketches and plans for the product
[TOTAL: 40]

Term 4 practice examination
Read each question carefully before answering. Complete the answers in your workbook.
Number the questions correctly. You will need a pen, pencil and drawing tools.
1. There are different options provided for the following questions. Choose the correct answer.
Write the question number and the letter of the correct answer only, for example, 1.1.1a, b or c.
1.1 In Technology classes you have used various tools. Identify the tool or tools shown in
each picture in the table below. (5)
1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4 1.1.5
a. screwdriver a. junior hacksaw a. nail a. measuring tools a. pinking shears

b. chisel b. coping saw b. spike b. drilling tools b. tullens
c. file c. tenon saw c. bradawl c. drawing tools c. pair of scissors
1.2 A stable structure has . . . (2)

a. a wider base than the top of the structure and a low centre of gravity
b. a narrower base than the top of the structure and a low centre of gravity
c. a wider base than the top of the structure and a high centre of gravity
d. a narrower base than the top of the structure and a high centre of gravity
1.3 Look at the bridge shown in Figure 1.
The technique used to reinforce the
metal structure is . . . (2)
a. squaring
b. metal tubes
c. triangulation
d. squaring and triangulation
1.4 Switches are used in an electrical system
to . . . (2)
a. turn it on
b. turn it off
c. remain open
d. control the system
1.5 A bicycle is an integrated system Figure 1 Beam bridge
using . . . (2)
a. wheels and axles, levers
b. gears, wheel axles, levers
c. pulleys, levers, wheels and axles
d. levers, pulleys, gears, wheels
192 Term 4

1.6 The mechanical arm on the mechanical digger
shown in Figure 2 lifts loads using . . . (2)
a. levers and hydraulics
b. gears, hydraulics and pulleys
c. pulleys, levers, gears
d. winches, hydraulics
1.7 In the mechanical system shown in
Figure 3, if the driver gear is turning
clockwise, the follower gear . . . (2) Figure 2
a. wouldn’t move
b. would turn clockwise
c. would turn anti-clockwise
d. would turn both clockwise
and anti-clockwise
2. List five safety rules to be considered

when working with tools during
a Technology lesson. (5)
3.
3.1 Classify the structure of the water Figure 3
tower shown in Figure 4. (1) wind

3.2 What force would be acting on the legs labelled G to A and H to B? (2)
3.3 Redraw the water tower.
Draw an arrow to show the direction of movement of the force
G H
acting on the tower. (This is the force you named in your answer
to question 3.2). Label the arrow with the name of the force. (2)
3.4 What force would be acting on the cross bars, for example, E to D? (2)
3.5 Draw an arrow on your redrawn tower to show the direction
of movement of the force acting on the cross bars. (This is the E F
force you named in your answer to question 3.4.). Label the force. (1)
3.6 Draw an arrow on the redrawn tower to show the direction
of movement that torsion force would have on the tower structure.
Label the arrow with the name of the force. (1)
3.7 Relate why a wider base is beneficial when building a frame C D
structure. (To ‘relate’ means to describe the importance
of something.) (2)
3.8 Write a paragraph describing the differences between frame and
shell structures. Give one example of each of these structures in
your explanation to support what you are describing. (4) A B
3.9 Use your drawing instruments to draw an isometric projection of a
Figure 4
water tank being supported by a tower, similar to the tower shown in
Figure 4. Use a scale of 1:100. The actual water tank dimensions are:
width = 4 m; breadth = 6 m; height = 8 m. Provide sufficient labels. (10)
Term 4 practice examination 193

Term 4 practice examination (continued)
4. Figure 5 shows a diagram of a person in hospital.

4.1 What type of mechanical system is
being used? (2)
4.2 Generate (write down) five design
specification considerations that would
have needed to be taken into account
when this system was designed. (10)
4.3 Evaluate how this device assists
the patient. Present your answer
as a paragraph. (6)
5. 5.1 Study the gear train shown in Figure 6,

Figure 5
and then answer the questions:
Figure 6
5.1.1 If the gear on the left is the driver gear, in which direction is the driven gear turning?
Select the correct option: (2)
a. clockwise
b. anti-clockwise
c. rotating
5.1.2 Explain why the driven gear would turn in the direction you have stated. (3)
5.1.3 What is the smaller gear in the middle called? (2)
5.1.4 In what direction would this middle gear turn? (2)
194 Term 4

5.2 Velocity ratio is determined by the following formula:
number of teeth on driven gear
5.2.1
Calculate the velocity ratio of the driven gear if the driver gear has 60 teeth;
the middle gear has 15 teeth and the driven gear has 20 teeth. (2)
5.2.2 Draw a conclusion from your answer to question 5.2.1. (3)
5.2.3 A gear system consists of two unequal-sized gears. The velocity ratio of the
gear system is 1:2 and the driver gear has 26 teeth. Calculate how many teeth
the driven gear has. (3)
6. 6.1 Design and draw an initial sketch of a switch from available material, such as
split pins, paper clips and small pieces of cardboard. Include the two wires
to connect to the switch. Label the design, specifying the materials used. (4)
6.2 Sketch a simple circuit that contains a lamp, switch and three-volt power supply.
Label the drawing accurately. Draw pictures of the items, not the symbols.
Draw the switch you drew in question 6.1 as the switch in your circuit. (6)
6.3 Redraw the same circuit as an accurate circuit diagram, using the correct symbols. (6)
7. Read the scenario below, and then answer the questions that follow.
Sipho lives on a farm. He has to carry three buckets full of water home every day.
He would like to have a device that he could push, which would carry his three buckets
or the contents of his three buckets.
Design a model of a possible device that could help Sipho to get the water home easily.
The device should have at least one wheel, a ‘carrying area’ or method of getting the
water home safely, and handles to control the device.
7.1 Write a design brief for this model. Use the questions to help you:
• What is the problem? (1)
• Who will benefit when you solve the problem? (1)
• How will the solution benefit the community at large? (2)
7.2 List two constraints and two specifications.
Include safety for users, the purpose of the design, the environment it
will be used in, and the impact for the people using it. (4)
7.3 Sketch two initial ideas. Add labels and explanations of how they could work. (2 × 4)
7.4 Create an artistic impression of your product with two vanishing points.
Add texture and shading to your artistic drawing. (6)
[TOTAL: 120]
Term 4 practice examination 195

Glossary
corrosion a reaction between a metal and the
A
gases; the metal oxidises to form an oxide layer
aesthetics the design of a product, taking into on the surface.
account factors such as colours, textures, forms
cross-bracing in construction, this is where the
and styles, to make it more appealing to people.
structure is reinforced by beams that cross each
alloy a metal combined with other materials; the other to form an X shape.
properties of the metal are changed, different
cylinder tube that can fill up with liquid or air.
combinations are created to suit particular
purposes and needs.
analog ammeter a meter that has a needle to point D
to the value. density the amount of matter in grams that fills
anthropometrics the study of the measurements a particular volume (cm3). For example, 1 cm3 of
of the human body. water has a mass of 1 gram.
die a specialised tool to shape or form products or
components such as moulds and templates.
B
digital ammeter a meter that gives you a value in
bevel gears gears used to change rotational
numbers.
movement through 90 degrees.
diodes electronic devices that are used to control
biodegrade to decay or decompose into natural
the flow of current in electrical circuits.
elements that are absorbed by the environment.
durability the ability of a material to stand up to
block and tackle a system of multiple pulleys;
wear and tear or deterioration.
because the pulley rope winds around them
many times, the number of falls reduces the effort dynamic forces the forces acting on an object
needed to lift heavy loads. that is moving.
C E
capacitor an electronic device that can store and electrolysis a method of splitting the elements in a
release energy. compound by passing an electric current through
it when it is in a solution.
cleat a simple device used to clamp and hold a
rope securely. electrolyte a solution that can conduct an
electric current.
closed system a hydraulic system that is closed
at both ends; it keeps the fluid and maintains a electroplating a method of galvanising in which a
constant pressure inside the system. coating of zinc is applied to a metal by electrolysis
compressed when something (a gas) can be enzymes heat-sensitive proteins that speed up
squeezed into a smaller space. a chemical reaction in living things.
contact forces the forces that act when a force epoxy a thermosetting plastic, or thermoset,
comes in direct contact with another object. formed from the chemical reaction of a resin
with a ‘hardener’.
196 Glossary

ergonomics the science or study of the efficient
H
interaction between people and machines in the
work environment. hardness the ability of a stiff material to resist
scratches, wear and tear, or denting.
even loads when loads are placed in a way
that means that the load is balanced and no hydraulic jack a machine with a closed hydraulic
movement occurs. system that is used to lift heavy objects.
exploded view drawing a drawing showing how hydraulic presses machines that consist of
the different parts of an object fit together. different parts, which help to multiply force
to do work.
extruded forced or pressed out.
hydraulic system a mechanical system that uses
compressed fluid to do work.
F
ferric oxide (rust) the reddish-brown substance
I
found on ferrous metals, formed when metals
containing iron come into contact with oxygen in in-line systems when gears act in the same plane
the presence of water. and direction
ferrous metals metals that contain iron.
flexibility the property of a material to bend L
and return to its original shape. light-dependent resistor (LDR) an electronic
forces a push or pull action that has size and device that senses the amount of light falling
direction. on its surface.
front view a drawing of an object looking straight light-emitting diodes (LED) diodes that emit light.
at the front of the object.
M
G mass a measurement of the level of density of
galvanising the term used when a protective layer a material.
of zinc is applied to iron or steel to prevent it master cylinder input pressure is applied to
from rusting. this cylinder.
gear ratio the ratio of the speed of the driven gear moveable pulley a pulley that is not fixed in place
relative to the speed of the driver gear. but supports a load; a moveable pulley reduces the
gear trains sets of gears that transmit when two or amount of effort needed to lift and move a load.
more gears are meshed together.
gearing down when the output gear rotates more N
slowly than the input gear.
non-contact forces forces that act across
germination the point in a seed’s growth into a
a distance.
seedling when its first shoot and root break out
of the seed case. non-ferrous metals metals that do not
contain iron.
gum-poles treated timber poles that are weather
resistant, will not rot or be eaten by insects.
Glossary 197

ratchet and pawl a gear mechanism that can lock
O
to prevent a load from rolling backwards.
Ohm’s Law a scientific law that uses resistance and
reservoir storage area for the hydraulic fluid; when
voltage to calculate current.
activated, it transfers the fluid to the cylinder.
one-way valve type of a valve that ensures that
resistance the ability of a substance to reduce the
the pressure builds up to the required level in a
flow of electric current.
system by allowing fluid to pass through in only
one direction. resistant the ability of a material not to be affected
by something like fire and earthquakes.
oxidation a chemical reaction in which a substance
combines with oxygen, or loses hydrogen or resistors small electronic components that are used
electrons. to reduce the flow of current in electrical circuits.
rim brakes brakes that use brake blocks or brake
shoes made of rubber, cork or leather to apply
P friction to the rim of a bicycle wheel, causing it to
parallel a circuit that has more than one path for slow down and come to a stop.
the current.
Pascal’s principle pressure exerted on one part S
of a hydraulic system will be transferred equally,
without any loss, in all directions to other parts of series a circuit where the current passes through
the system. the components one after another.
piston a disc attached to a rod that fits tightly shear force a force that tries to snap or break
inside a cylinder and that moves up and down materials apart.
the cylinder. side view a drawing of an object looking straight at
plan view or top view a drawing of an object the side of the object.
looking directly at the object from above. single wheel fixed pulley a single wheel with
pneumatic system a mechanical system that uses a groove in its rim for a belt to run in; a pulley
compressed air to do work. changes the direction of force needed and
multiplies force.
pollutant any substances that pollute.
slave cylinder a resulting output pressure occurs at
potential energy the energy that is released when
this cylinder, the pressure is equal to the applied
stationary objects move.
input pressure.
pressure the amount of force that is applied over
spur gear a wheel with teeth around its edge.
the surface area of an object.
staple food the main food eaten by a population.
pump a hydraulic pump is a power source that
provides pressure to the system. static forces the forces acting on an object when it
is not moving.
sterile (food) food that contains no bacteria.
R
stiffness the ability of a material not to bend or
rack and pinion gears gears that change rotational lose shape under pressure.
movement into linear movement.
structural member support that is an important
ram the name given to a piston and cylinder part of a building
combination; this unit is used to change hydraulic
power into mechanical power that is used to do work.
198 Glossary

subsistence farmers farmers who grow crops for
their own and their family’s use; they produce
small amounts of food for themselves or they will
sell it to buy other products.
systems collections of interconnected parts that
use a process to change an input of energy or
information into an output.
T
thermistor an electronic device that can sense the
temperature of its environment.
thermoplastic a type of plastic that becomes soft
when heated and hardens when cooled.
thermosetting plastic or thermoset a type of
plastic that when heated becomes permanently
rigid and hard.
torque a turning force.
U
uneven loads when loads are placed in a way that
means that the loads are not balanced and there
is movement.
V
vanishing point perspective a 2D drawing that
gives an impression of space by using the illusion
that two parallel lines will meet on the horizon
in a single vanishing point.
W
winch a mechanism that winds up a rope or cable.
worm gear a gear that produces a 90-degree
change in rotational movement and slows down
the speed of movement.
Glossary 199

Index
Note: Page numbers in corrosion 22–23, 25, 44,
italics indicate that the
C 155–158, 196
words appear in illustrations, capacitor 136, 139, 139, 196 costs 30–31, 38–39
diagrams or photographs. car(s), 19, 24, 46, 76–77, 77, 83, crank handle 102–103
89, 89–90, 113, 153, 178–179 cross-bracing 20, 20, 196
disc brakes in 76 current 113–121, 124–125, 133,
A fastest 75–76 136–139, 145, 196 see also
aesthetics 61, 95, 196 circuits 116, 118, 120, 124–126, parallel and series
alloy(s) 155–157, 196 130, 139 calculate 118, 127, 152, 198
ammeter(s) 118, 118–119, 120, electrical 113, 124, 130–132, see also Ohm’s Law
125 196, 198 see also diodes electric(al) 93, 113, 117,
analog 118–119, 118–119, 196 and resistors 117–118, 124, 156–158, 170,
digital 118, 196 electronic 129, 140 196, 198 see also electrolysis,
animal(s) 81, 99–101, 157 LDR 136 electrolyte and resistance
anthropometrics 94, 196 series and parallel 113 flow of 116, 118–119, 124–
simple 112–113, 117, 129 125, 130–132, 139, 196 see
cleat 103, 103, 109–111, 196 also diodes and resistors
B cam 80–81, 80 cylinder 48–51, 51, 54, 54, 58,
battery(ies) 106, 113–114, 117, clam 80, 81 60, 61–62, 63, 77, 196, 198
131–140, 145, 159, 169 jam 80–81, 80 see also piston, ram and
bevel gears see under gears closed system see under reservoir
bicycle 47–48, 48, 62, 73, system(s)
master 48, 48, 50, 50–51,
78–79, 192 compressed 23, 48–49, 196–
76–77, 76–77, 102, 111, 197
bicycle brakes see under brakes 197 see also hydraulic system slave 48, 48, 50, 50–51, 76,
bicycle pump 48, 50, 51 and pneumatic system 76, 102, 111, 198
bicycle wheel 48, 78, 198 compression 20–21, 20–21,
see also rim brakes 48, 51
biodegrade 171, 196 conductor 25, 113–114 D
block and tackle 70–71, 71, 196 construction 20, 20, 22, 22, 27, density 22–23, 44, 169, 196–197
brakes 76–78 29, 31, 33, 38, 179, 182, 196 see also mass
bicycle 78, 79, 110 see also cross-bracing design brief 39, 42, 109, 150,
disc, in cars 76, 77, 77 civil 30 182
rim 78, 198 construction costs 30 write a 14, 34, 104, 146, 181,
break lines 10, 10 construction industry 24 195
bridge(s) 17, 19, 25, 28–31, 29, construction materials 17, 23, diagram 7, 21, 48, 61, 67,
33, 34, 41, 45, 154, 192 27, 39 115–117, 138
beam 28, 192 cost-effectiveness of 25 circuit 114, 116–117, 116,
concrete 28 properties of 22, 44 119, 123, 132, 135–137, 140,
metal 29 suitability of 24 144, 153
pedestrian 27, 28, 32, 35, types of 22 exploded view 149
36, 38 construction projects 25, 31, 56 recycling process 172
budget 38–39, 43 contact forces see under forces spider 181
200 Index

systems 47, 62, 62, 93, 173 102, 102, 196–197 see also
die 172, 173–174, 174, 196
F bevel gears, gear trains
digital ammeter see under fairground rides 73, 73 and in-line systems
ammeter(s) farmer(s) 101, 101, 160, 162 bevel 86, 86, 110, 196
diode(s) 129–131, 196 see also subsistence farmers compound 85, 85
diode(s), light-emitting 114, ferric oxide (rust) 155, 197 crown and pinion 86, 86
129, 129–130, 144–145, 197 ferrous metals see under metals driven 84, 84–87, 87, 90,
disc brakes see under brakes flexibility 22–23, 197 111, 194–195, 197 see also
drawing(s) 7–8, 97, 149 flow chart 34, 35, 40, 43, 47, 62 gear ratio
2D working 36, 107 food 160–165, 169, 199 see also driver 84, 84–87, 87, 90,
3D 7, 7–8, 148–149 subsistence farmers 111, 193–195, 197 see also
engineering 8 drying 163 gear ratio
first angle orthographic pickled 163 idler 85, 85
36–37, 107, 148, 151, 182 preserving 160, 164–165 rack and pinion 88, 110, 198
front view 8 staple 162, 198 spur 84, 85, 85–86, 87, 90,
isometric 7, 149, 182 sterile 162, 198 102, 110, 198
line 95 food packaging 168–169 worm 90–91, 90–91, 102,
multi-view 8 food poisoning 163 110, 199
oblique 9 footbridge 28, 32–34, 38, 40 gear mechanism see under
orthographic 8–9, 11, 14, metal 29, 29 mechanism(s)
36, 42 suspension 27 gear ratio 84–85, 102, 197
scale 10 wooden 27–28 gear teeth 10, 88
durability 23, 25, 168, 170, 196 force multiplication 51 gear train(s) 83–85, 85, 103,
dynamic forces see under forces forces 17–21, 20–21, 23–24, 49, 194, 197
54, 77, 197 gear wheel 74, 84–85
contact 18, 18, 196 germination 162, 197
E dynamic 18–19, 196 gum-poles 30, 197
electrical circuits see under input 59–60, 75
circuits non-contact 18, 197
electrolysis 156–158, 196 output 51, 58–59 H
see also electroplating shear 17, 20, 20–21, 198 hardness 22–23, 25, 44, 197
electrolyte 156–158, 196 static 18, 18–19, 198 hydraulic jack 49, 60, 60–63,
electroplating 155–159, thrust 57 197
158–159, 196 turning 84 hydraulic press(es) 56, 58,
enzymes 161, 196 force transfer 50–51 58–59, 197 see also ram
epoxy 168, 196 front view see under view(s) hydraulics 49–51, 52, 54, 54,
equipment 30, 36, 70, 81, 120 56–57, 102
computer 94 hydraulic system see under
hydraulic 57 G system(s)
storage 162, 162 galvanising 30, 155–157,
ergonomics 61, 94, 94, 197 157, 196–197 see also
exploded view drawing electroplating I
see under drawings hot-dip 157 in-line systems 84, 197
extruded 172, 174, 197 gearing down 84–85, 197 see also gear(s)
extruder 172, 173 gear(s) 74, 82, 83–4, 85, 85–91,
Index 201

NPN transistor see under pressure 17, 20, 22, 47– 49, 52,
L transistor(s) 57–60, 62, 77–79, 102, 168,
labour costs 30–31 196–198 see also closed
light-dependent resistor (LDR) system, one-way valve,
136–137, 136, 144–145, O pump, Pascal’s principle
147, 197 Ohm’s Law 113, 118, 120, 124, and stiffness
light-emitting diodes (LED) 127, 198 input 48, 197 see also
114, 129–132, 129 –131, 139, one-way valve 60, 62, 198 master cylinder and
142–143, 144–146, 147, 197 orthographic projection 7–8, slave cylinder
loads, even 18–19, 197 12, 18, 148 output 48, 198 see also
uneven 18–19, 19, 199 oxidation 156, 198 slave cylinder
pulley 64–65, 65–68, 67, 71, 80,
M P 100–102, 196 see also block
and tackle
mass 22–23, 44, 159, 196 painting 23, 155–156 moveable 68, 68–71, 197
master cylinder see under parallel 115–116, 116, 119, 119, single wheel fixed 66,
cyclinder 198–199 see also vanishing 66–67, 198
mechanical advantage 53, 59, point perspective pulley system 64, 65, 68, 70, 70,
65, 67, 69–71, 86, 98–99, 102 switches in series and 113, 115 100–103, 100–101, 103
mechanisms 47–49, 74–76, parallel lines 96–97 pump 48, 58, 60, 61–62, 198
83, 88–89, 92, 92, 100–102, Pascal’s principle 52–54, 58, 198 bicycle 58, 50–51, 51
198–199 see also ratchet perspective 7, 97, 97 see also hydraulic 174, 198
and pawl and winch vanishing point perspective treadle 49
steering 89 pickling 162–163, 163
winch 75 piston 48, 48, 50–51, 50–55,
winding 83 58–59, 76, 76–77, 198 R
metals, ferrous 155–156, see also ram rack and pinion gears
158, 197 see also ferric plan view 8, 8, 36, 198 see also see under gears
oxide (rust) drawing(s) ram 58, 198 see also hydraulic
non-ferrous 155, 197 plastics 168, 171–173, 171–175, press and piston
preserving 154–158 178–180 ratchet and pawl 74, 74,
motor 88, 103, 136, 138, 174, finishing 189–190 103, 198
178, 188 hand tools for cutting 185 recycling 167–169, 171–172, 172,
electric 58, 90, 100–103 joining 188–189 177, 179
moveable pulley 65, 68, properties of 170 recycling process 172, 172, 179
68–70, 197 types of 166–169 reservoir 60, 61–62, 198
multimeter(s) 118, 118–119 working with 177 resistance 23, 118–121, 123–127,
pneumatic system see under 124–125, 138, 144, 156, 158,
system(s)
N pollutant 172, 198
198 see also Ohm’s Law
air 18
non-contact forces see under polystyrene 169 electrical 136, 170, 170
forces
potential energy 48, 198 heat 168
non-ferrous metals see under
power supply 145 to calculate 127
metals
preserving see under food resistant 23–24, 30, 157, 170, 170,
non-metals 22, 155
and metals 197–198 see also gum-poles
202 Index

resistors 120, 122, 123–126, 127, electronic 113, 123, 128, transistor(s) 130–132
136, 145, 198 128–129, 143, 146–147, 151 NPN 132–133, 133, 145
rim brakes see under brakes gear 82–83, 86, 87, 87–88,
111, 195
hydraulic 47–50, 54, 54, V
S 57–58, 59, 76, 99, 110–111, vanishing point perspective
scale drawing see under 196–198 7, 37, 96, 96, 199
drawing(s) hydraulic jack 62 view(s) 2D 8, 8
sensor(s) 99, 132, 135, 138, 144, integrated 93, 93, 99, exploded 148–149, 151, 197
144–145 102 104, 192 front 8, 8, 96, 183, 197
heat 93 integrated rescue system inside 97
light 144, 146 100, 104, 104–108 multi- 8
rain 134–135 mechanical 46, 47, 47–48, perspective 97
series see under circuits 103, 107, 193–194, 197–198 plan 8, 36, 198
shear force see under forces mechanical control 72–73, projected 10
side view see under view(s) 110–111 side 8, 8, 11, 12, 183, 198
single wheel fixed pulley pneumatic 47–49, 51, 99, 198 single 8
see under pulley pulley 64, 65, 68, 70, 70, 100, top 8, 8, 12, 183, 198
slave cylinder see under 100, 101–103, 103 voltage 114–115, 118–121, 127,
cylinders 158, 198 see also Ohm’s Law
pulley block 70 see also
spur gear see under gear(s) voltmeter 119, 119
block and tackle
staple food see under food
rack and pinion 89
static forces see under forces
rack and pinion gear 88
sterile (food) see under food
rescue 100, 104–105 W
stiffness 22–23, 25, 198 winch 74, 75, 99–103, 102–103,
screw jack 100
structural member 17–18, 198 199
strapping and mattress 101
subsistence farmers 162, 199 worm gear see under gear(s)
sub- 46, 47, 47, 78
switches 94, 113–114, 116, 116,
three pulley 70
130, 132, 137–138, 143
winch 99–100, 100–101
symbol(s) 8, 8, 116, 132, 159, 189
worm gear 90
circuit 136, 138, 138–139
component 114, 123, 145
identification 169 T
recycling 168, 171
tension 18, 20, 20–21
system(s) 47
thermistor 124, 138, 138–139,
belt pulley 102, 103
199
bevel gear 86
thermoplastic 168, 168, 170,
brake 76, 78, 103
199
braking 76, 101
thermosetting plastic or
closed 52, 58, 196
thermoset 168, 170, 196, 199
closed hydraulic 52, 60, 197
see also epoxy
combined 100
top view 12 see also plan view
control 73, 78, 104
torque 84–85, 90, 199U
disc brake 76, 76–77
torsion 17, 20
double pulley 70
Index 203

Grid paper to use for drawing 3D oblique projections
204

205

206

The Design Process
207

208

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CAPS

• Superior CAPS coverage and written by expert authors

F. Clitheroe • A. Goosen • V. Kathan • T. Mlambo • M. Roebert

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First published in 2013

Book design by MML studio

Figure 1.1 An architect using drawing tools

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In Grades 7 and 8 you were introduced to many graphic

Investigate graphic skills

Figure 1.4 A 2D drawing of a house Figure 1.5 A 3D drawing of a house

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1 First angle orthographic projection

Producing an orthographic drawing

front view left side view

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Figure 1.9 Drawing sheet fixed to drawing board in landscape position

1. Figure 1.10 shows a 3D oblique cube at

45 degrees, as you learnt in Grade 8. Use the

2. Use the measurements of the rectangular

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Enabling Task 2 Use line type, scale and dimensions

Figure 1.18 First angle orthographic drawing showing stairs.

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2 Drawing 3D objects in orthographic projection

Factors to consider when designing a ramp

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Figure 1.21 3D view of a ramp and stairs with measurements (mm)

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6. Handrails: Handrails are always recommended for ramps. A handrail should

Enabling Task 3 Design a ramp to allow someone using a

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Figure 1.22 Example of a ramp and stairs giving access to a building

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Figure 2.1 Steel columns are providing temporary support.

Figure 2.2 An earthquake fractured a supporting column.

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The photo of the building that is collapsing (Figure

Structures need to be very strong or sturdy. This means

Investigate structural members

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1 Forces and loads acting on structures

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Enabling Task 1 Investigate types of forces and loads

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2 Strength of materials under the action of forces

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3 Properties of various construction materials

Key words Types of construction materials

Properties of construction materials

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Suitability of construction materials

Workers are exposed to many

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Enabling Task 3 Investigate construction materials

Scratch – hardness Bend – stiffness Dry – waterproof Sun – heat conductor