January 16, 2024

Anatomy
- Structure and shape of the body and its parts
Physiology
- In the body, an organ works independently and with others

Anatomy
- Lvls of study
o Gross anatomy
▪ Large structures

▪ Easily observable

▪ Ex. Digestive system

o Microscopic anatomy
▪ Very small structures

▪ Tissues, cellular lvl

▪ Can only be viewed with a microscope

- Lvls of structural organization
o The human body is arranged based on increasing complexity?
o Atoms - molecules < cells < tissue < organ < organ system < organism
o human body is made up of tiny structures arranged in a systematic and organized
manner
o each unit is interdependent with other units but can still function on its own
o work as one
- organ system overview
o integumentary
▪ external body system

▪ skin

▪ some sections of the body has so many receptors

● when somebody touches you, it can elicit a reaction

 ● some sections have less receptors than others
o skeletal
▪ where we store our minerals, mainly calcium

▪ if this is not around, we won’t stand erect or move from one point to
another
o muscular
▪ work with skeletal

▪ produces mvmnt allowing the body to do actions

▪ skeletal muscles (skeleton attached), smooth (internal), cardiovascular

(special sa heart)
o nervous
▪ acts like electricity

▪ acts quickly?

▪ The main goal is to protect you during danger, it will tell u to do certain
actions to protect you
o Endocrine
▪ Secretes regulatory hormones

● Crucial for growth, reproduction and metabolism

▪ Contains lots of glands crucial to work with nervous and circulatory

systems
● Some are time-controlled hormones (only released at certain dev’t
stage)
o Cardiovascular
▪ Special structure

▪ Transports materials via blood pumped by heart

● Distributes nutrients like O2, nutrients, also capturing waste

materials and CO2
▪ Allow body to function well
o Lymphatic
 ▪ Crucial bcoz site where there is a battle between foreign bodies and
bacteria that might destroy you
▪ Like the warrior of the body

▪ Lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels

▪ Lymph node points /bukol (?) = Swollen sites are where WBC carry all
foreign bacteria and viruses
● Means protecting you from having ur immunity destroyed or
compromised
o Respiratory
▪ Capturing o2 and removing co2

▪ When you have so much co2, can cause death to the person

▪ There are many organs to facilitate a quality oxygen inhaled by the person
o Digestive
▪ Allows nutrients to be absorbed in the blood

▪ Breaks down food

▪ Eliminates indigestible material

o Urinary
▪ Eliminates nitrogenous wastes

● Esp when taking drugs or medication

▪ We need to drink water to balance acidity and basicity of the body

▪ Abuse of body can lead to kidney failure and affect the whole body
o Reproductive
▪ Main function is to produce an offspring

▪ Male and female have different counterparts

- Necessary life functions
o Maintain boundaries
▪ Skin itself protects from external trauma, bacteria, viruses

▪ Every organ system also has boundary

 ▪ Important so that it won’t cause destruction to the body, for each system to
affect other systems directly
▪ Protects each system too

▪ Ex. If urinary system fails, you can treat it alone and not have to treat the
whole body immediately
o Mvmnt
▪ When we talk about water & fluids, we talk about mvmnt

▪ Not just about person moving, also contraction and relocation

▪ Locomotion

▪ Mvmnt of substances

● How food moves in ur body, how message moves from one neuron
to another
o Responsiveness
▪ Ability to sense changes and react

● Response to stimulus

▪ Organs in ur body also has a way to respond immediately

▪ Acidity and basicity is a form of response too?

o Digestion
▪ Break-down and absorption of nutrients

● Necessary coz when a person breaks down food in oral cavity for it
not to be digested difficultly by the stomach
▪ Need to eat for life to function
o Metabolism
▪ Chemical reactions within the body

▪ Requires a lot of things

▪ Necessary to growth and development

o Excretion
▪ Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions
 ▪ Can happen whenever the urinary system functions
o Reproduction
▪ Produces future generation

▪ Fulfill our responsibility to the envi by producing offspring

o Growth
▪ Incr in cell size and no. of cells

▪ Mitosis and meiosis in cellular lvl

● Cell has its own lifespan

▪ Regeneration
- Survival needs
o Nutrients
▪ Need to be sufficient

▪ Includes biomolecules

● Some vitamins are necessary either in big or small amounts

depending on ur body needs
▪ Chemicals for energy and cell building
o Oxygen
▪ Required for majority of chemical reactions in the body

▪ Ex. Lack of oxygen leading to difficulty in breathing can lead to

complications
o Water
▪ Needed for metabolic reaction or function

▪ If we lack water, it can also affect our health

▪ Maintains stable body temp

o Stable body temp
▪ One symptom of sickness is low or high body temp

● High = fighting diseases or something going on in ur body

o Atmospheric pressure
 ▪ Although we are living in earth, there are some areas with higher pressure

● Mountains, ocean diving, planes

▪ Can break organs?

- Interrelationships among body systems
o Independent systems are connected to and interact with each other
o Barriers are important; may internal and external environment
▪ When something happens to one system, doctor can find a way to prolong
the life of the person especially if curable naman, hindi damay lahat
▪ External = interact with abiotic factor?
- Homeostasis
o Maintenance of stable internal envi
▪ To develop state of equilibrium
o If can’t maintain balance, must be signal of sickness or area of concern
o Balance temp, pH lvl of body
o Homeostatic imbalance
▪ Can cause disturbance resulting in disease

▪ Ex. Excess glucose can lead to diabetes

▪ Excess BP = hypertension or heart problems

o Illustration of importance
▪ If there is imbalance, there are receptors and effectors in place to bring
back balance
o Control center
▪ Provides means to repsons to stimulus
o Negative feedback mechanism
▪ Like a household thermostat
o Positive feedback mechanism
▪ There is already sufficient but there is need to increase to accomplish a
certain action
▪ Occurs during blood clotting and birth of a baby

● Ex. More hormones to dilate the vaginal opening

 ● Ex. Need to seal an open wound

Be ready for quiz on wed and Thursday for both subjects

FIXED NOTES

ANATOMY /pink
● STRUCTURE and SHAPE of the body and its parts

PHYSIOLOGY /pink
● in the body, an organ works independently and with others

ANATOMY: Levels of Study /peach

● GROSS Anatomy
○ LARGE structures
○ easily observable
● MICROSCOPIC Anatomy
○ very SMALL structures
■ tissues, cellular level
○ can only be viewed with a MICROSCOPE

Levels of Structural Organization /peach

● Atom - Molecule (chemical lvl) > Cell > Tissue > Organ > Organ system > Organism
● the human body is arranged based on increasing complexity
● the human body is made up of tiny structures arranged in a systematic and organized
manner
● each unit is interdependent with other units but can still function independently

Organ System Overview /peach

● INTEGUMENTARY
○ forms the EXTERNAL body covering = SKIN
○ PROTECTS deeper tissue from INJURY
 ○ helps REGULATE BODY TEMP
○ location of Cutaneous NERVE RECEPTORS
■ some sections of the body have many receptors
● if someone touches you, it can elicit a reaction
■ some sections have less receptors than others
● SKELETAL
○ protects and supports BODY ORGANS
○ provides MUSCLE ATTACHMENT for movement
○ site of BLOOD CELL FORMATION
○ stores MINERALS, mainly CALCIUM
○ if this is not around, we won’t stand erect or move from one point to another
● MUSCULAR
○ works WITH the SKELETAL system
○ produces MOVEMENT, allowing the body to do ACTIONS
○ maintains POSTURE
○ produces HEAT
○ Skeletal muscles - attached to the skeleton
○ Smooth muscles - internal
○ Cardiovascular muscles - special; found in the heart
● NERVOUS
○ fast-acting CONTROL system
○ RESPONDS to internal and external CHANGE
■ the main goal is to protect you when in danger, telling you to do certain
actions to protect yourself
○ ACTIVATES muscles and glands
■ acts like electricity
● ENDOCRINE
○ secretes regulatory HORMONES
○ crucial for:
■ Growth
■ Reproduction
■ Metabolism
○ contains lots of GLANDS crucial to work with nervous and circulatory system
■ some are time-controlled hormones - only released at a certain
developmental stage
● CARDIOVASCULAR
○ TRANSPORTS materials in body via BLOOD pumped by heart
■ distributes: Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Nutrients
■ captures: Wastes
○ allows body to function well
● LYMPHATIC
○ returns FLUIDS to blood vessels
○ CLEANSES the blood
 ○ involved in IMMUNITY
■ protects us from foreign bodies and bacteria that might destroy you
■ like the WARRIOR of the body
○ Lymph nodes, Lymphatic vessels
○ Lymph Node Points
■ swollen sites (bukol) are where WBC carry all foreign bacteria and viruses
● protecting you from having your immunity destroyed or
compromised
● RESPIRATORY
○ keeps blood SUPPLIED with OXYGEN
■ many organs facilitate a quality oxygen inhaled by the person
○ REMOVES CO2
■ too much of this can cause death to the person
● DIGESTIVE
○ breaks down FOOD
○ allows for NUTRIENT ABSORPTION into blood
○ ELIMINATES INDIGESTIBLE material
● URINARY
○ eliminates NITROGENOUS WASTES
■ especially when taking drugs or medications
○ maintains ACID-BASE BALANCE
○ regulates WATER and ELECTROLYTES
○ abuse of the body can lead to kidney failure and affect the whole body
● REPRODUCTIVE
○ produces OFFSPRING
○ Male and Female have different counterparts(?)

Necessary Life Functions /peach

● maintain BOUNDARIES
○ SKIN itself protects from external trauma, bacteria, viruses
○ each organ system also has boundaries
■ protects each system so that they don’t directly affect other systems,
especially if a specific organ has a problem
■ you can treat the specific organ only without having to treat the whole
body entirely
● MOVEMENT
○ contraction & relocation
○ Locomotion
○ movement of Substances
■ how food moves in our body; how message moves from one neuron to
another; water and fluids
● RESPONSIVENESS
○ ability to SENSE CHANGES and REACT to stimulus
● DIGESTION
○ break-down and absorption of NUTRIENTS
■ it is necessary to break down food starting from the oral cavity so that the
stomach will not have difficulty in digesting it
○ we need to eat for life to function
● METABOLISM
○ CHEMICAL REACTIONS within the body
○ produces ENERGY
○ makes body structures
● EXCRETION
○ ELIMINATES WASTE from metabolic reactions
○ can happen when the urinary system functions
● REPRODUCTION
○ produces future generation
○ we fulfill pur responsibility to the environment by reproducing
● GROWTH
○ INCREASES cell size and number of cells
○ Mitosis and Meiosis at the cellular level
○ Regeneration

Survival Needs /peach

● NUTRIENTS
○ chemicals for ENERGY and CELL BUILDING
■ we need sufficient intake of these
○ includes Biomolecules - carbs, proteins, lipids, vitamins, & minerals
● OXYGEN
○ required for CHEMICAL REACTIONS
○ lack of oxygen, leading to difficulty breathing, can cause complications or,
ultimately, death
● WATER
○ 60-80% of body weight
○ provides for metabolic reaction
● STABLE BODY TEMP
○ one symptom of sickness is high or low body temperature
■ High temp = body is trying to fight a disease or virus
● ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
○ must be appropriate
○ although we live on Earth, there are some places with higher atmospheric
pressure, wherein prolonged, unprotected exposure can cause harm to the body
 HOMEOSTASIS /pink
● maintenance of a STABLE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
○ dynamic state of Equilibrium
● necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life
● Homeostatic IMBALANCE
○ a DISTURBANCE in homeostasis resulting in DISEASE
● [insert picture]

Maintaining Homeostasis /peach

● CONTROL CENTER
○ determines SET POINT
○ ANALYZES information
○ determines appropriate RESPONSE
● EFFECTOR
○ provides a MEANS for RESPONSE to the stimulus

FEEDBACK MECHANISMS /pink

● NEGATIVE Feedback
○ includes MOST homeostatic control mechanisms
○ shuts OFF the ORIG STIMULUS or REDUCES its intensity
○ works like a household THERMOSTAT
● POSITIVE Feedback
○ INCREASES the orig stimulus to PUSH the variable further
in the body, this only occurs in BLOOD CLOTTING and during the BIRTH of a BABY

Jan. 18, 2023

SEARCH FOR THE BOOK, GAB
Chapter 1
The human body: an orientation
language of anatomy
- exact
- position
- regional terms
 - anterior body landmarks = front
- cephalic = head part
- cervical = neck part
- Thoracic
- abdominal
- pubic
- pelvic
- lower limb
- upper limb
- posterior = back
- cephalic
- dorsal
- directional terms
- superior = towards head, cephalic / cranial
- inferior = sacral region (if naka dog position), tail part?, sacral
- ventral region/anterior = harap
- dorsal = back part or posterior
- medial = towads the middle
- laterla - side
- proximal = close to origin / major trunk of the body?
- ex. Elbow is proximal to the wrist
- distal = away from the origin of the bodt
- the knee is distal to the thigh
- superficial = layers / external part
- deep / internal = deeper section of the body
- body planes / sections
- sagittal = divides body into left and right
- can be used on any organ
- median or midsagittal = divide into half, equal left and right
- gitna yung point of referral, may pag-cut sa gitna
- frontal = anterior / posterior
- transverse /cross = superior/inferior, cross section
- * dorsolateral = dorsal part of the body????
- body cavities
- dorsal = likod, DILAW
- have much fluids
- cranial = brain
- spinal = spine
- ventral = harap, PULA
- thoracic = heart, lungs, anong fluid daw???
- perineal fluid
- decreases friction?, MORE ON THIS
- abdominopelvic = digestive, most urinary
 - upper and lowr left, upper and lower right, 4 regions
- *water is neutral, no change in pH level
- too much water is ano daw? Explode?
- if an organ dies, can also cause death sa body
- d

CHAPTER 2
basic chemistry
matter = important
energy - ability to do work
- chemical
- electrical
- mechanical
- radiant

elements= crucial for compounds found in the body

- COHN = 90% ng body
- 4% trace elements = found in body in small amts but still crucial, higher=dangerous

atoms= building blocks of elements

atomic structure
- middle? = nucleus, has P, N,
- p=unique feture of every element
- p=n=e if atom
- Outside = E, interacts with other atoms
- if p isn’t equal to the N, isotopes
- atomic number = equal to proton
- atomic mass number = p+n
Isotopes
- same number of p, diff n
- Also related to: atomic weight
- close to mass number of most abundant isotope
- relfects natural isotope variation
Radioactivity
 - radioisotope
- heavy isotope
- tends to be unstable
- decomposes to more stable isotop
- radioactivity - process of spontaneous atomic decay
molecules and compounds
- Combi with fixed amount/ratio
- molecule = like atoms
- compound = diff atoms
chemical reactions
- atoms are united by chemical bonds, dissociate if broken
- NaCl bond is broken by water = salt solution
- nagiging sodium and chlorine ions sa katawan
- Nagkakaroon ng charge, can conduct electricity
- salt alone can’t electrocute you
electrons and bonding
- rule of 2 = inner shell, to be stable
- rule 8 = octet rule, 8 sa susunod na rings
- electrons are donated (ionic) or shared (covalent)
- interactons sa outer, valence shell
- full valence shell = doesn’t form bond
- hydrogen bond = can be seen in water
- if water is stable, may film na nabubuo
- water strider = dpb’t break the layer of water, formed by hydrogen bond
- collicit property
- adhsevie property (dumidikit sa walls?)
inert elements
- 2, 8, 18
- easier to accept or donate?
- easier to accept lang if effort is kaunti
chemical bonds
- Ionic is usually done between metal and nonmetal
- ions = charged atoms
- covalent = nonmetals
- Single/double/triple???????wtf?
- usually same element daw/?????
- nonmetal madalas
polarity
- Important in covalent bonding
- polar (has positive and negative side) = h2o, mas mataas si O, partially negative
- mas maraming effort si oxygen kesa H
- non-polar (electrically neutral) = CO2
- higher electronegativity = stronger force

- hydrogen bonds
- weak chemical bonds
- strong sya tho in the body
- Attraction bet molecules
- May adhesive property sa non-water substances like blood vessels
- para ring pag naliligo ka, water also sticks to your skin
- H is attracted to negative portion of polar molecule
- hindi agad madaling masira
- pag pinapalamig mo si yelo, tumitibay pa mas lalo yung Hydrogen bond
- Tendency to expand yung space ng water molecule, hence nag-eexpand
yung bond ng hydrogen
- volume = l x w x h = cm3
- density = m / v
○ cryogenics = freeze to stop all body processes
-
Patterns of chem reacitons
- synthesis (A+B = AB)
- energy is absorbed for bond formation
- NaCl
- decomposition (Ab = A+B)
- chem energy is released
Synthesis and decomposition
- AA monomers = protein molecule (polymer chain) = synthesis
- decom = glycogen broken to release glucose units

- exchange = AB + C = AC + B
- switch beween molecules
- has both synthesis and decom

Biochem
- body has both organic and inorganic
- balances ur body?
- organic compounds
- Has carbon
- Carbs
- sugars and starches
- CHO
- dehydration synthesis to combine; hydrolysis to combine
- lipids
- has the most number of H among biomolecules
- all oils that solidifies at room temp = animal fats
- not good for the body
- not all fats/oils are bad tho
- neutral fats / triglycerides
- phospholipids
- steroids
- Proteins
- made of AAs
- all parts of the body has proteins
- keratin = hair; melanin = skin;
- can speed up (enzumes), homrones (dev’t stage), antibodies (immunity,
warriors)
- fibrous protein
- structural
- ex. Collagen
- globular
- enzymes
- (-ase)
- steroidal (like creams) ay mabilis, for example sa allergies,
antihistamine
- Nucleic acids
- important in cell division
- ATP
- like a full charged battery
- energy decreases as phosphate number decreeses
- ATP > ADP > AMP?
- used to generate energy(?)
- we get it from food we eat
- found in glycogen (found in the liver)
- inorganic
- lack carbon
- important:
- most abundant = water
 - plays vital property?
- most activities in the body require water
- dissolves the solute(?)
- Cushioning,
- like how spinal fluid protects the spine (?)
- Salt
- Important coz the ions it has is needed by the body
- majority of brain activities need ions
- kaya pag dehydrated, recommended to drinks with electrolytes
- like pocari sweat, gatorade if sports
- why is it important to rehydrate when you have LBM = lose water a lot
- blood will thicken if dehydrated, and this can affect high blood pressure
- kaya mga diabetic, pwede ring may high BP
- mabagal dumaloy, biblis ang pintig ng puso
- kasama rin dito ang pH value
- 1(acid, H+, mataas ang hydrogen ions), 7(neutral, water), 14(basis, OH-,
mataas ang hydroxide ions)
- indirectly related
- number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions are the same = neural
- water is perfect to act as buffer, to maintain neutrality of the
substance
- pag umiinom ng gamot, good ang tubig
- some drugs are highly acidic, need kainin if busog para di
acidic din yung tiyan
- Acid
- release hydrogen ions
- proton donors
- Bases
- proton acceptors
- release hydroxide iorns
- Neutralization reaction
- acids and bases react to form water and salt

CHAPTER 1 quiz sa ZOOLOGY sa Monday

CHAPTER 1 quiz sa ANA/PHY sa Tuesday
CHAP 2 quiz sa ANA/PHY sa Thursday

Jan 23, 2024

nucleus
 - control center
- contains double helix dna
- ribosome = part of the cell that takes part in protein synthesis
- nuclear evelope
- double membrane / double walled
- unique to eukaryotic organisms
- nucleoli
- muscle cell is multi nucleated?
- this is bcoz muscle is voluntary, laging ginagamit, walang moment to rest
- bcoz voluntary, walang kakayanan mag-resist (?)
- esophagus has peristaltic movement? Can have moment to relax or
sometimes
- can help them to use more energy trhu the mitochondria
- chromatin
- contains genetic make-up of the organism, this is crucial
- Seen when cell is in the resting state, not dividing
- creates some looping(?) to create the arm
- plasma membrane
- seperate internal and external environment
- Cell itself is independent and unique but they communicate with each
other
- crucial for when exchanging materials
- semi-permeable; not all substances can go in
- ex. Cells also permit substances depending on size, some substances
require to be fitted (?) = receptor
- made up of protein so relevant din dito ang protein to protein recognition
- has a channel (?), iguguide ka?
- crucial na may oras lang at may amt lang yung pwedeng pumasok sa cell
- microvilli
- finger like projwctions
- junctions
- to increase surface area, para mas maraming ma capture
- ANO DAW
- Tight junction
- each cell is tightly packed, so i receive a message very quickly dahil dikit-dikit
- proximity is crucial para ma-pass yung info sa isa’t isa
- cell has that shape bcoz of the phospholipid layer that gives the cell its shape kasi that
layer doesn’t mix with water

cytoplasm
- covers most of the volume of the cell
 - Cystosol
- Organelles
- little organs: has independent roles
- perform particular actions, don’t all have the same jobs but work as one
- ribosome = site of protein synthesis
- can be attached to er or naglalayag lang sa cytoplasm
- golgi apparatus = pack lipids?
- ER = protein synthesis
- smooth = lipids
- rough = protein synthesis
- Dna has to stay in cell coz it has a blueprint, di to pwedeng ma-
compromise (SAN TO NAKALAGAY)
- centriole = backbone of the cell; aids in mitosis
- lysosome = eat waste, eat food, throw waste away
- mitochondria = provides ATP (cell’s energy)

mRNA = goes to nucleus to get dna(?)

- tRNA, rRNA
- message it carries is not the copy of dna but can be transcribe and translated to get the
code of the DNA
- gives message to tRNA to decode and stuff
- sa ribosome ipapacjeck
- pupunta kay RER to ceome mRNA
- 1 AA yung between a start and stop codon
- check what the start and stop codons are (research mo to girl)
- protein transporting vesicle (from RER to golgi)
- will cut the end but wull seal
- If ready for digestion = go to vacuole
- hihingi kay golgi ng para sa wolves
- plasma membrane, golgi and rer have the saem t type
- from lysosome (?) to vaulo???

lysosomes
- para yang stomach, digests substances
- sacrificial organelle
- Can kill itself for the hell his delta did
peroxisomes
- alcohol needs to be detoxify
Cytoskeleton
- backbone of the cell
- lalaki yug abangan mo
- slimy & smudy
- microfilamters
- intermiediate
- important for mitosis kasi need new oackpmtam\

centrioles
- durinh mcoyic ebieha;

Celullar projectpoon
- silis vs flagila?
- Clica

CEll diversity
- [efibroblats & erythorkitc
- single layer
- rapoed -vmaranin
- may sinabi pa
- skeletal muscles anf smooth musc cells
- macrophase = has pseudo pods / lims / actu hoitde

Cell physiology
membrane transport
- passive = no need energy
- active = needs energy (atp)
- solutions
- normally, these transports happen in solutions
- water is a buffer (?)
- solute are importnat to ensure qulity, texture, and fluidity of the oom
- interstitial fluid vs intracellular = MORE
selective permeability
- doesn’t permit passage immediately
passive transport
- diffusion
- from higher concentration to lower concentration
- when all molecules have been spread (evenly?), equilibrium
- There is net flow = 0 kasi wala nang movement
- types
- simple = unassisted
- wala masyadong effort
- small enough to pass thru membrane pores
- ex. Lipid soluble molecules
- osmosis
- keyword dapat may water
- highly polar h2o molecules pass thru aquaporins
- ano ulit yung polarity?
- may katangian na maging positive at negative?
- facilitated
- may taga-guide?
- usually protein carriers
- may particular shape or color
- filtration
- sometimes substances are moved bcoz of the pressure…. Huh?
- lysis? = bursting if sobrang daming water(?)
- hypertonic?
- equal = isotonic
- hypotonic = kulang???
- for the cell to behave normally, substances outside and inside must be
equal
active transport
- need energy to make it enter and leave?
- Vesticular transport: (3)
- Exocytosis
- nilalabas
- endocytosis
- kinakain
- phago = eating
- pino = drinking
- papasok
- receptor-mediated endocytosis
- may receptor bago kainin(?)
- papasok
- solute pumping
 - need matinding pressure to pump the substance
- uses atp din
● normally cell is in danger when it entertains outside substances(?)

Cell life cycle

- cells have two major periods
- review on this (PIE CHART nung process)
- interphase
- preparing itself
- Puro chromatin lang
- dna replication
- from N to 2N
- dna is being unwind, copies the other side to produce 2 duplicate
copy
- cell division
- active in dividing
- EVENTS
- mitosis
- from 1 cell naproduce ang 2 cells
- prophase
- wala nang nuclear membrane, para malabas
yung mga chromatin? Chromatid?
- cytokinesis
- division of the cytoplasm
- cleavage furrow
- need maghiwalay yung 2 cytoplasm for a successful
cell division
- formed during telophase?
- Happens after telophase

protein synthesis
- crucial in the transferring of DNA
- RNA
- transcription
- translation
- WATCH A VIDEO ABOUT PROTEIN SYNTHESI

body tissues
 - epithelial
- glandular = sa mga layer
- * all parts of the body are prone to external trauma
- majority of tissues in the body has epithelium(?)
- eptihelium
- Pesudo stratified
- false layer
- parang madaming layer pero isa lang talaga
- bcoz of position of nucleus
- mostly seen sa diaphragm
- stratified
- glandular
- may mga glands
- found in any secreting cell = urinary, digestive,
- endocrine
- ductless
- sa dugo dumadaloy
- exocrine
- sweat glands, oil glands, salivary

THURSDAY = QUIZ 2 = chap 2

Chapter 2: Basic CHEMISTRY

MATTER /pink
● anything that occupies space and has mass (weight)
ENERGY /pink
● the ability to do work
● four types
○ CHEMICAL
○ ELECTRICAL
○ MECHANICAL
○ RADIANT

COMPOSITION of Matter /peach

● ELEMENTS - FUNDAMENTAL units of matter
○ 96% of the body is made from FOUR (4) elements
■ Carbon (C)
 ■ Oxygen (O)
■ Hydrogen (H)
■ Nitrgoen (N)
● ATOMS - BUILDING BLOCKS of elements

ATOMIC STRUCTURE /peach

● Nucleus
○ Protons (p+0
○ Neutrons (n0)
● Outside of nucleus
○ Electrons (e-)
Atomic Structure of Smallest Atoms /cursive
[picture]

Identifying Elements
● ATOMIC NUMBER = number of protons that the atom contains
● ATOMIC MASS NUMBER = sum of protons and neutrons

Isotopes and Atomic Weight

● ISOTOPES
○ have SAME number of PROTONS
○ VARY in the number of NEUTRONS
○ [picture]
● ATOMIC WEIGHT
○ close to MASS NUMBER of most ABUNDANT isotope
○ reflects natural isotope VARIATION

RADIOACTIVITY /pink
● process of spontaneous atomic decay
● RADIOISOTOPE
○ heavy isotope
○ tends to be unstable
○ decomposes to more stable isotope
 Molecules and Compounds /peach
● MOLECULE - two or more LIKE ATOMS combined chemically
● COMPOUND - two or more DIFFERENT ATOMS combined chemically

CHEMICAL REACTIONS /peach

● atoms are UNITED by CHEMICAL BONDS
● atoms DISSOCIATE from other atoms when chemical bonds are BROKEN

Electron and Bonding /peach

● Electrons occupy energy levels called ELECTRON SHELLS
● Electrons closest to the NUCLEUS are more STRONGLY attracted
● each shell has DISTINCT properties
○ the number of electrons has an upper limit
○ shells closest to the nucleus fill first
● BONDING involves INTERACTIONS between electrons in the outer shell (VALENCE
shells)
○ FULL valence shells do NOT FORM bonds

INERT Elements /peach

● atoms are STABLE (inert) when the OUTERMOST shell is COMPLETE
● HOW to fill the atom’s shells
○ shell 1 can hold a max of 2 electrons
○ shell 2 can hold a max of 8 electrons
○ shell 3 can hold a max of 18 electrons
● RULE of EIGHTS
○ RULE of TWOs

REACTIVE ELEMENTS /peach

●

CHEMICAL BONDS /peach

● IONIC bonds
○ IONs
● COVALENT bonds
 ○
atoms become stable through SHARED electrons
○
SINGLE covalent bonds share ONE PAIR of electrons
○
DOUBLE covalent bonds share TWO PAIRS of electrons
○
[pictures of examples]
○
POLARITY
■ covalently bonded molecules
● some are NON-POLAR
○ electrically NEUTRAL as a molecule
● some are POLAR
○ have POSITIVE and NEGATIVE side
○ [pictures]
● HYDROGEN bonds
○ WEAK chemical bonds
○ hydrogen is attracted to the NEGATIVE portion of a polar molecule
○ provides attraction between molecules

PATTERNS of Chemical Reactions /peach

[check symbols]
● SYNTHESIS reaction (A + B = AB)
○ atoms or molecules COMBINE
○ ENERGY is ABSORBED for bond formation
○ [amino acid example]
● DECOMPOSITION reaction (AB = A + B)
○ molecule is BROKEN DOWN
○ chemical ENERGY is RELEASED
○ [glycogen to glucose example]
● EXCHANGE reaction (AB + C = AC + B)
○ involves both SYNTHESIS and DECOMPOSITION reactions
○ SWITCH is made between molecule parts and different molecules are made
○ [atp example]

BIOCHEMISTRY: Essentials for Life /cursive

● ORGANIC compounds /pink
○ contain CARBON
○ most are COVALENTLY bonded
○ example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
○ important:
■ CARBOHYDRATES
● contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
 ● include sugars and starches
● classified according to size
○ MONOsaccharides - simple sugars
○ DIsaccharides - TWO (2) simple sugars joined together by
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS
○ POLYsaccharides - LONG-BRANCHING CHAINS of
linked simple sugars
○ [pics of examples per type]
■ NUCLEIC ACIDS
● provide BLUEPRINT of LIFE
● Nucleotide Bases
○ A = Adenine
○ G = Guanine
○ C = Cytosine
○ T = Thymine
○ U = Uracil
● Make DNA and RNA
● Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
○ organized by COMPLIMENTARY bases to form
DOUBLE HELIX
○ REPLICATES before cell division
○ provides INSTRUCTIONS for every protein in the body
■ Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
● CHEMICAL ENERGY used by ALL cells
● energy is RELEASED by BREAKING high energy phosphate
bond
● REPLENISHED by OXIDATION of food fuels
● [figure 2.21]
■ LIPIDS
● contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
○ C and H outnumber O
● INSOLUBLE in water
● COMMON lipids in the human body:
○ TRIGLYCERIDES
■ NEUTRAL fats
■ found in FAT DEPOSITS
■ composed of FATTY ACIDS and GLYCEROL
■ source of STORED ENERGY
○ PHOSPHOLIPIDS
■ form CELL MEMBRANES
○ STEROIDS
■ include Cholesterol, Bile Salts, Vitamin D, and
some hormones
 ■ [pictures]
■ CHOLESTEROL
● basis for all steroids made in the body
● [picture]
■ PROTEINS
● made of AMINO ACIDS
○ contain Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and
sometimes Sulfur
○ [picture]
● account for OVER HALF of the body’s ORGANIC matter
○ provide for CONSTRUCTION materials for body
TISSUES
○ play a vital role in CELL FUNCTION
● act as Enzymes, Hormones, and Antibodies
● Amino Acid structure
○ amine group (NH2)
○ acid group (COOH)
○ vary only by R groups
● FIBROUS proteins
○ also known as STRUCTURAL proteins
○ appear in BODY STRUCTURES
○ examples: collagen and keratin
○ stable
● GLOBULAR proteins
○ also known as FUNCTIONAL proteins
○ functions as ANTIBODIES or ENZYMES
○ can be denatured
● ENZYMES
○ act as BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS
○ INCREASE the RATE of chemical REACTIONS
● INORGANIC compounds /pink
○ LACK CARBON
○ tend to be SIMPLER compounds
○ example: H2O (water)
○ important:
■ WATER
● most ABUNDANT inorganic compound
● VITAL properties
○ high heat capacity
○ polarity/solvent properties
○ chemical reactivity
○ cushioning
■ SALTS
 ● easily DISSOCIATE into IONS in the presence of WATER
● vital to many BODY FUNCTIONS
● include ELECTROLYTES which conduct electrical currents
● [dissociation into water picture]
■ ACIDS
● release HYDROGEN ions (H+)
● are proton DONORS
■ BASES
● release HYDROXYL ions (OH-)
● are proton ACCEPTORS
■ NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
● acids and bases react to form water and salt

pH / pink
● measures relative CONCENTRATION of HYDROGEN IONS
○ ph above 7 = basic
○ ph 7 = neutral
○ ph below 7 = acidic
● BUFFERS - chemicals that can regulate pH change