Designs that utilize X-framing, such as the top two systems depicted in Figure 9Error!

Reference
source not found., may be treated as tension-only systems in which only one of the diagonals is
relied upon for resisting the forces. The diagonal in compression is conservatively neglected.
Structural analysis models should account for the tension-only concept when utilized. There have
been cases where engineers conducting peer reviews may have been unaware of the tension-only
philosophy used in the original design. As a result, the peer reviewer has requested costly retrofits
because they claimed the designs were inadequate because of an apparent compressive force in
one of the diagonals that exceeded the buckling capacity of that member. If one of the diagonals
can support the entire load in tension, then the design is satisfactory.

In X-frame systems that rely on the compression strength of the diagonals and are connected at the
intersection point, the out-of-plane and in-plane compressive strength can potentially be
determined using an effective length of one-half the total diagonal length, as discussed further in
Article C6.9.4.4 of the AASHTO LRFD BDS [1]. It has also been shown [24, 25] both theoretically
and experimentally for T > 0.6C and no compression member splice that the effective length is
0.5L. These studies neglect catenary action of the tension member, which is also effective in
helping to provide the necessary bracing force at the intersection. However, Article C6.9.4.4
currently takes a more conservative approach and recommends that the full length of the diagonal
be used for the effective length until further validation studies are completed.

2.3.3 Web Distortional Stiffness, sec note: for single angle only

In Figure 5, the top flange is prevented from twisting by the bridge deck, but web distortion may
permit a relative displacement between the two flanges. A stiffener (i.e., connection plate) at the
brace location as shown in Figure 10 can be used to control the distortion. Note that in most bridge
applications, the connection plate is to be full depth and positively attached to both flanges to
account for potential fatigue issues related to distortion-induced fatigue. .

Cross-sectional distortion significantly impacts the behavior of beams with relatively shallow
braces with respect to the beam or girder depth. The portion of the web that impacts distortion is
the region above and below the brace. Therefore, web distortion essentially cannot occur for cross-
frames or diaphragms that are nearly the full depth of the web. For braces that are less than the full
web depth, distortion is controlled with the connection plates. The impact of cross-sectional
distortion stiffness is accounted for with the term, βsec, in the calculation of the actual overall
bracing system stiffness. The sec effect on the torsional brace system stiffness, related to the out-
of-plane bending stiffness of the web plus any web stiffening, is given by the following expression:

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