Reviewer in Statistics

Module 1:

Statistics
- Is defined as the science of collecting, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting
numerical data for the purpose of assisting in making a more effective decision.

Statistic - a quantity calculated in a sample to estimate a value in a population.

Types of Statistics:
a) Descriptive Statistics -
- Presenting, organizing, and summarizing data.
- Are numbers that are used to summarize and describe data.
● Organize, Summarize, Simplify, Presentation of data
● Describing data
Three Types
1. Frequency Distributions - # of respondents that fall in a particular category
2. Graphical Representations - Graphs and Tables
3. Summary Statistics- Describe data in just one number
Examples:
The average time Women: 2:26:05 Men: 2:27:18 Women have been faster!
The average time of men Years 1896 1956 : 2:42:59 Years 1960 2012 : 2:11:37
By 31 min and 22 sec. faster

b) Inferential Statistics
- Drawing conclusions about a population based on data observed in a sample.
- Is a collection of methods for using sample data to make conclusions about a
population.
● Generalize from samples to pops, Hypothesis testing, Relationships among variables
● Make predictions

Data and Variables

Data - are often discussed in terms of variable
Variable - Any characteristic that varies from one member of a population to another

Types of Data
Variables are properties or characteristics of some event, object, or person that can take on
different values or amounts; Constants do not vary.
Variables may be independent or dependent; discrete or continuous; qualitative or
quantitative.

Independent and Dependent Variables

● For example, an experimenter might compare the e ectiveness of four types of
antidepressants. In this case, the variable is "type of antidepressant." When a
variable is manipulated by an experimenter, it is called an independent variable
● In an experiment on the effect of sleep on memory, the independent variable is
number of hours of sleep
● The experiment seeks to determine the e ect of the independent variable on relief
from depression. In this example, relief from depression is called a dependent
variable.
● In an experiment on the effect of sleep on memory, the dependent variable is recall
score on a memory test

Quantitative and Qualitative Variables

Qualitative variables are those that express a qualitative attribute such as hair colour, eye
colour, religion, favourite movie, gender, and so on.
Quantitative variables are those variables that are measured in terms of numbers. Some
examples of quantitative variables are height, weight, and shoe size.

Discrete and Continuous Variable

Discrete variables can take only certain values. Ex: a household could have three children
or six children, but not 4.53 children.
Continuous variables can take any value within the range of the scale. Ex: time to respond
to a question are continuous variables since the scale is continuous and not made up of
discrete steps, say, the response time could be 1.64 seconds.

Scales of Measurements
Nominal ► Ordinal ► Interval ► Ratio

A nominal scale classifies data into distinct categories in which no ranking is implied.
Examples include: gender, marital status, favorite color, religion

Ordinal - The data have the properties of nominal data and the order or rank of the data is
meaningful. A nonnumeric label or numeric code may be used.
Examples include: consumer satisfaction ratings, military rank, class ranking

Interval: names or categories, the order is meaningful, and intervals have the same
interpretation Example: Celsius temperature scale problem; No true zero point

Ratio: highest and most informative scale, contains the qualities of the nominal, ordinal,
and interval scales with the addition of an absolute zero point
Example: amount of money - zero money indicates the absence of money
Activity:
1. Identify the scale of measurement for the following: military title Lieutenant, Captain,
Major. Ans: Ordinal
2. Identify the scale of measurement for the following categorization of clothing: hat,
shirt, shoes, pants . Ans: Nominal
3. Identify the scale of measurement for the following: heat measured in degrees
centigrade. Ans: Interval
4. A score on a 5-point quiz measuring knowledge of algebra is an example of a(n)
Ans: ordinal scale

Module 2: Sampling Techniques and Data Collection

Types of Data Analysis
1. Descriptive - Aims to help uncover valuable insight from the data being analyzed
Answers the question “What happened?”
2. Predictive - Helps forecast behavior of people and markets Answers the question
“What could happen?
3. Prescriptive - Suggests conclusions or actions that may be taken based on the
analysis Answers the question “What should be done?”

Descriptive - Though the most simple type, it is used most often.

Two types of descriptive analysis:
1. Measures of central tendency (tells us about the middle) ▪ Mean − the average ▪ Median −
the midpoint of the responses ▪ Mode − the response with the highest frequency
2. Measures of dispersion ▪ Range − the min, the max and the distance between the two
▪Variance − the average degree to which each of the points differ from the mean
▪Standard Deviation − the most common/standard way of expressing the spread of data

Predictive - Some mistake predictive analysis to have exclusive relevance to predicting

future events.

Sources of Data
● Primary sources – managers, consumers, rank and file, households, students,
teachers, farmers, etc.
● Secondary sources – GOs, NGOs, NEDA, NSCB, NSO, BSP, PIDS, BAS, NAMRIA,
PAGASA, DTI, CHED, DOST, POEA, NCRFW - Business Organizations eg.
Advertising Board of the Philippines, Bankers Association of the Phil., Makati
Business Club, PCCI, ENEDA, Entrepreneurs Society of the Phil., Phil. Retailers’
Association

Sampling - process of choosing adequate and representative elements from the population
Population or Universe – total number of people in a given geographical area
Sample – subset of a population that is to be taken to be the representative of the entire
population.

Target Population - the complete group of objects or elements relevant to the research
project. They are relevant because they possess the information the research project is
designed to collect.
A census involves collecting data from all members of a population.
A sample is a relatively small subset of the population that is selected to be representative
of the population’s characteristics.
Adequacy – refers to sample size (n) which is based on the desired confidence level (1-α)
and room for error; the higher the confidence level the bigger the n.
Representativeness – pertains to the possession of the characteristics of the sample as
specified characteristics of the population

Sampling Unit - elements or objects available for selection during the sampling process are
known as the sampling unit.
Sampling Methods
Probability - each element of the population has a known, but not necessarily equal,
probability of being selected in a sample.
Non-Probability - not every element of the target population has a chance of being selected
because the inclusion or exclusion of elements in a sample is left to the discretion of the
researcher

Simple Random Sampling - a sampling method in which each element of the population
has an equal probability of being selected. It is done by allowing every nth subject or unit is
selected from a population; k = N / n
a) fishbowl technique b) lottery c) table of random numbers

Systematic Sampling - a process that involves randomly selecting an initial starting point
on a list, and thereafter every nth element in the sampling frame.

Stratified Sampling - samples are selected from a stratum of the population which are of
interest to the researcher; requires the researcher to partition the target population into
relatively homogeneous subgroups that are distinct and non-overlapping.

Stratification – based on gender, age, income level, size of company nature of businesses,
ownership of firm

Types of Stratified Sampling

Proportionate - the number of elements chosen from each of the strata is proportionate to
the size of a particular strata relative to the overall sample size.
Disproportionate - the number of elements chosen from each of the strata is not based on
the size of the stratum relative to the target population size, but rather is based either on the
importance of a particular stratum or its variability.

Cluster Sampling - the relatively homogeneous individual clusters where sampling occurs
are chosen randomly and not all clusters are sampled.

Multistage Sampling - samples are selected in various stages; usually used in nationwide
surveys where each region, province, city, municipality, or barangay is subdivided and
selected before the actual respondents are chosen.
Nonprobability Sampling
Quota Sampling - similar to proportionately stratified random sampling but the selection of
the elements from the strata is done on a convenience basis.

Judgment Sampling - a form of convenience sampling in which the researcher’s judgment

is used to select the sample elements

Convenience Sampling - involves selecting sample elements that are most readily
available to participate in the study and who can provide the required information.

Snowball Sampling - also called a referral sample, the initial respondents typically are
chosen using probability methods and these respondents then identify others in the target
population.

Accidental or Available sampling – respondents are selected by chance or only those who
are available during the data gathering process are included in the sample. (eg. Jeepney
drivers, urban hawkers, buyers of medicine)
Purposive sampling – involves selection of respondents on the basis of predetermined set
of criteria (eg. CARP beneficiaries, senior citizens, buyers of unleaded gasoline only)

Data Collection Methods

1. Online Survey - It is the systematic gathering of data from the target audience
characterized by the invitation of the respondents and the completion of the
structured questionnaire over the internet

Instruments for Data Collection

Interview Schedule - questions are personally asked by the researcher
Questionnaire- respondents read and answer the questions (self-administered); either
mailed or nonmailed
Interview Guide - questions are directly asked but allows the respondent to answer the
questions in whatever manner he prefers

Types of Questions:
Closed Format (Structured) – Respondents are forced to choose between several given
options. – multiple choice, yes/no and ranking
Open Format: the respondents can formulate their own answers. – use the open format if
you are looking for respondents to provide specific comments or feedback.

2. Observation - a process where the respondents are observed without any interruption by
the observers. - looking at behavioral and nonbehavioral phenomena with the use of one’s
senses, camera, one-way mirror (eg. Sensory testing)
3. Triangulation – interview, observation of verbal behavior, and observation of nonverbal
behavior due to some abnormalities in the condition during the time of observation
4. Experimental – data are gathered in a controlled condition
5. Delphi method – qualitative process of acquiring information on issues from a panel of
key informants who are considered experts on the topic under study, to be the respondents
of the study.
6. Projective method – use of standardized psychological tests to probe deeper into the
minds, behavior, and attitudes of respondents; can be useful in studies on consumer
preferences and workers’ motivation; require the services of trained or professional
psychometricians.
7. Unobstrusive method – using other data sources aside from individuals

Methods of Displaying and Exploring Data

1. When a Diagrammatic presentation involves shapes like a bar or circle, we call that a
Geometric Diagram.
2. Simple Bar Diagram is composed of rectangular bars.
3. In many states of India, electric bills have bar diagrams showing the consumption in
the last 5 months. Along with these bars, they also have bars that show the
consumption that happened in the same months of the previous year. This kind of
Bar Diagram is called Multiple Bar Diagrams.
4. Pie chart is a chart where you divide a pie (a circle) into different parts based on the
data.
The tabular presentation method can be further divided into four categories:
Qualitative - when the attributes in the table are some kind of quality or feature.
Quantitative - when the table consists of data classified on the basis of features that are
quantitative in nature
Temporal - the form of classification in which data is classified based on time frames.
Spatial - this is when the table has data classified on the basis of geographical or locational
difference.

Descriptive Statistics: Numerical Measures

The central tendency is the extent to which all the data values group around a typical or
central value.
The variation is the amount of dispersion, or scattering, of values
The shape is the pattern of the distribution of values from the lowest value to the highest
value.

Measures of Central Tendency/Location/Average

If the measures are computed for data from a sample, they are called sample statistics.
If the measures are computed for data from a population, they are called population
parameters.
A sample statistic is referred to as the point estimator of the corresponding population
parameter. For example, the sample mean is a point estimator of the population mean.
● The mean of a data set is the average of all the data values.
● The arithmetic mean is the most widely used measure of location.

Population Mean:
Sample Mean

EXAMPLE – Weighted Mean The ATV Construction Company pays its hourly employees
Php465.00, Php419.00, or Php450.00 per hour. There are 26 hourly employees, 14 of whom
are paid at the Php265.00 rate, 10 at the Php219.00 rate, and 2 at the Php250.00 rate. What
is the mean hourly rate paid to the 26 employees?

Mean = 446.15

The Geometric Mean

Module 3: Probability
● The result of an experiment is called an outcome.
● An event is any particular outcome or group of outcomes.
● A simple event is an event that cannot be broken down further
● The sample space is the set of all possible simple events.