Phase 2 Combined Vol 2

Phase 2 –
HANDOUT
Phase 2 – HANDOUT – Function I (Volume II)
(Volume II)
(Bridge Watch-keeping &
Ship Construction)
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BRIDGE
WATCH-KEEPING
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STCW WATCHKEEPING STANDARDS

(INCLUDING 2010 MANILA AMENDMENTS
Section 1
Watchkeeping arrangements and principles to be observed (Section A-VIII/2 of the
STCW Code)
Section 2
Guidance regarding watchkeeping arrangements and principles to be observed
(Section B-VIII/2 of the STCW Code)
Section 3
The Navigation and Radio Watch
This Section sets out for convenience those parts of Sections 1 and 2 that relate
to the navigational and radio watch
Section 4
The Engineering Watch
This Section sets out for convenience those parts of Sections 1 and 2 that relate to the
engineering watch
WATCHKEEPING ARRANGEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES TO BE

OBSERVED
SECTION A-VIII/2 OF THE STCW CODE

Part 1 - Certification
1. The officer in charge of the navigational or deck watch shall be duly qualified
in accordance with the provisions of chapter II, or chapter VII appropriate to
the duties related to navigational or deck watchkeeping.
2. The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall be duly qualified in
accordance with the provisions of chapter III, or chapter VII appropriate to the
duties related to engineering watchkeeping.
Part 2 - Voyage planning
General requirements
1. The intended voyage shall be planned in advance, taking into consideration all
pertinent information, and any course laid down shall be checked before the
voyage commences.
2. The chief engineer officer shall, in consultation with the master, determine in
advance the needs of the intended voyage, taking into consideration the
requirements for fuel, water, lubricants, chemicals, expendable and other spare
parts, tools, supplies and any other requirements.
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Planning prior to each voyage
1. Prior to each voyage the master of every ship shall ensure that the intended
route from the port of departure to the first port of call is planned using
adequate and appropriate charts and other nautical publications necessary for
the intended voyage, containing accurate, complete and up to date information
regarding those navigational limitations and hazards which are of a permanent
or predictable nature and which are relevant to the safe navigation of the ship.
Verification and display of planned route
1. When the route planning is verified, taking into consideration all pertinent
information, the planned route shall be clearly displayed on appropriate charts
and shall be continuously available to the officer in charge of the watch, who
shall verify each course to be followed prior to using it during the voyage.
Deviation from planned route
1. If a decision is made, during a voyage, to change the next port of call of the
planned route, or if it is necessary for the ship to deviate substantially from the
planned route for other reasons, then an amended route shall be planned prior
to deviating substantially from the route originally planned.
Part 3 – Watchkeeping principles in general
Watches shall be carried out based on the following bridge and engine-room
resource management principles:
.1 proper arrangements for watchkeeping personnel shall be ensured in
accordance with the situations;
.2 Any limitation in qualifications or fitness of individuals shall be taken into
account when deploying watchkeeping personnel;
.3 Understanding of watchkeeping personnel regarding their individual roles,
responsibility and team roles shall be established;
.4 The master, chief engineer officer and officer in charge of watch duties
shall maintain a proper watch, making the most effective use of the
resources available, such as information, installations/equipment and other
personnel;
.5 Watchkeeping personnel shall understand functions and operation of
installations/equipment, and be familiar with handling them;
.6 Watchkeeping personnel shall understand information and how to respond
to information from each station/installation/equipment;
.7 Information from the stations / installations / equipment shall be
appropriately shared by all the watch keeping personnel;
.8 Watchkeeping personnel shall maintain an exchange of appropriate
communication in any situation; and
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.9 Watchkeeping personnel shall notify the master/chief engineer

officer/officer in charge of watch duties without any hesitation when in
any doubt as to what action to take in the interest of safety.
Part 4 – Watchkeeping
Principles applying to watchkeeping generally
1. Parties shall direct the attention of companies, masters, chief engineer officers
and watchkeeping personnel to the following principles, which shall be
observed to ensure that safe watches are maintained at all times.
2. The master of every ship is bound to ensure that watchkeeping arrangements
are adequate for maintaining a safe navigational or cargo watch. Under the
master’s general direction; the officers of the navigational watch are
responsible for navigating the ship safely during their periods of duty, when
they will be particularly concerned with avoiding collision and stranding.
3. The chief engineer officer of every ship is bound, in consultation with the
master, to ensure that watchkeeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a
safe engineering watch.
Protection of marine environment
1. The master, officers and ratings shall be aware of the serious effects of
operational or accidental pollution of the marine environment and shall take
all possible precautions to prevent such pollution, particularly within the
framework of relevant international and port regulations.
Part 4-1 - Principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch
1. The officer in charge of the navigational watch is the master’s representative

and is primarily responsible at all times for the safe navigation of the ship and
for complying with the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at
Sea, 1972, as amended.
Lookout
A proper lookout shall be maintained at all times in compliance with rule 5 of the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended and
shall serve the purpose of:
.1 Maintaining a continuous state of vigilance, by sight and hearing as well as
by all other available means, with regard to any significant change in the
operating environment;
.2 Fully appraising the situation and the risk of collision, stranding and other
dangers to navigation; and
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.3 Detecting ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks, debris

and other hazards to safe navigation.
2. The lookout must be able to give full attention to the keeping of a proper
lookout and no other duties shall be undertaken or assigned which could
interfere with that task.
3. The duties of the lookout and helmsperson are separate and the helmsperson
shall not be considered to be the lookout while steering, except in small ships
where an unobstructed all-round view is provided at the steering position and
there is no impairment of night vision or other impediment to the keeping of a
proper lookout. The officer in charge of the navigational watch may be the
sole lookout in daylight provided that on each such occasion:
.1 The situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established
without doubt that it is safe to do so;
.2 Full accounts has been taken of all relevant factors including but not
limited to:
- State of weather,
- Visibility,
- Traffic density,
- Proximity of dangers to navigation, and
- The attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation
schemes;
.3 Assistance is immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when
any change in the situation so requires.
4. In determining that the composition of the navigational watch is adequate to
ensure that a proper lookout can continuously be maintained, the master shall
take into account all relevant factors, including those described in this section
of the Code, as well as the following factors:
.1 visibility, state of weather and sea;
.2 Traffic density, and other activities occurring in the area in which the
vessel is navigating;
.3 The attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation
schemes or other routeing measures;
.4 The additional workload caused by the nature of the ship’s functions,
immediate operating requirements and anticipated manoeuvres;
.5 The fitness for duty of any crew members on call who are assigned as
members of the watch;
.6 Knowledge of, and confidence in, the professional competence of the
ship’s officers and crew;
.7 The experience of each officer of the navigational watch, and the
familiarity of that officer with the ship’s equipment, procedures, and
manoeuvring capability;
.8 Activities taking place on board the ship at any particular time, including
radiocommunication activities and the availability of assistance to be
summoned immediately to the bridge when necessary;
.9 The operational status of bridge instrumentation and controls, including
alarm systems;
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.10 Rudder and propeller control and ship manoeuvring characteristics;

.11 The size of the ship and the field of vision available from the conning
position;
.12 The configuration of the bridge, to the extent such configuration might
inhibit a member of the watch from detecting by sight or hearing any
external development; and
.13 Any other relevant standard, procedure or guidance relating to
watchkeeping arrangements and fitness for duty which has been adopted
by the Organization.
Watch arrangements
When deciding the composition of the watch on the bridge, which may include
appropriately qualified ratings, the following factors, inter alia, shall be taken into
account:
.1 At no time shall the bridge be left unattended;
.2 Weather conditions, visibility and whether there is daylight or darkness;
.3 Proximity of navigational hazards which may make it necessary for the
officer in charge of the watch to carry out additional navigational duties;
.4 Use and operational condition of navigational aids such as ECDIS radar or
electronic position indicating devices and any other equipment affecting
the safe navigation of the ship;
.5 Whether the ship is fitted with automatic steering;
.6 Whether there are radio duties to be performed;
.7 Unmanned machinery space (UMS) controls, alarms and indicators
provided on the bridge, procedures for their use and limitations; and
.8 Any unusual demands on the navigational watch that may arise as a result
of special operational circumstances.
Taking over the watch
1. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not hand over the watch
to the relieving officer if there is reason to believe that the latter is not capable
of carrying out the watchkeeping duties effectively, in which case the master
shall be notified.
2. The relieving officer shall ensure that the members of the relieving watch are
fully capable of performing their duties, particularly as regards their
adjustment to night vision. Relieving officers shall not take over the watch
until their vision is fully adjusted to the light conditions.
3. Prior to taking over the watch, relieving officers shall satisfy themselves as to
the ship’s estimated or true position and confirm its intended track, course and
speed and UMS controls as appropriate and shall note any dangers to
navigation expected to be encountered during their watch.
4. Relieving officers shall personally satisfy themselves regarding the:
.1 Standing orders and other special instructions of the master relating to
navigation of the ship;
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.2 Position, course, speed and draught of the ship;

.3 Prevailing and predicted tides, currents, weather, visibility and the effect
of these factors upon course and speed;
.4 Procedures for the use of main engines to manoeuvre when the main
engines are on bridge control; and
.5 Navigational situation including, but not limited to:
.5.1 The operational condition of all navigational and safety equipment
being used or likely to be used during the watch,
.5.2 The errors of gyro and magnetic compasses,
.5.3 The presence and movement of ships in sight or known to be in the
vicinity,
.5.4 The conditions and hazards likely to be encountered during the
watch, and
.5.5 The possible effects of heel, trim, water density and squat on under
keel clearance.
5. If at any time the officer in charge of the navigational watch is to be relieved
when a manoeuvre or other action to avoid any hazard is taking place, the
relief of that officer shall be deferred until such action has been completed.
Performing The Navigational Watch
1. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:

.1 Keep the watch on the bridge;
.2 In no circumstances leave the bridge until properly relieved; and
.3 Continue to be responsible for the safe navigation of the ship, despite the
presence of the master on the bridge, until informed specifically that the
master has assumed that responsibility and this is mutually understood.
2. During the watch the course steered, position and speed shall be checked at
sufficiently frequent intervals, using any available navigational aids necessary,
to ensure that the ship follows the planned course.
3. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall have full knowledge of
the location and operation of all safety and navigational equipment on board
the ship and shall be aware and take account of the operating limitations of
such equipment.
4. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not be assigned or
undertake any duties which would interfere with the safe navigation of the
ship.
5. When using radar the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall bear in
mind the necessity to comply at all times with the provisions on the use of
radar contained in the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at
Sea 1972, as amended, in force.
6. In cases of need, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not
hesitate to use the helm, engines and sound signalling apparatus. However,
timely notice of intended variations of engine speed shall be given where
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possible or effective use made of UMS engine controls provided on the bridge
in accordance with the applicable procedures.
7. Officers of the navigational watch shall know the handling characteristics of
their ship, including its stopping distances, and should appreciate that other
ships may have different handling characteristics.
8. A proper record shall be kept during the watch of the movements and
activities relating to the navigation of the ship.
9. It is of special importance that at all times the officer in charge of the
navigational watch ensures that a proper lookout is maintained. In a ship with
a separate chartroom, the officer in charge of the navigational watch may visit
the chartroom, when essential, for a short period for the necessary
performance of navigational duties, but shall first ensure that it is safe to do so
and that proper lookout is maintained.
10. Operational tests of shipboard navigational equipment shall be carried out at
sea as frequently as practicable and as circumstances permit, in particular
before hazardous conditions affecting navigation are expected. Whenever
appropriate, these tests shall be recorded. Such tests shall also be carried out
prior to port arrival and departure.
11. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall make regular checks to
ensure that:
.1 The person steering the ship or the automatic pilot is steering the correct
course;
.2 The standard compass error is determined at least once a watch and, when
possible, after any major alteration of course; the standard and gyro-
compasses are frequently compared and repeaters are synchronized with
their master compass;
.3 The automatic pilot is tested manually at least once a watch;
.4 The navigation and signal lights and other navigational equipment are
functioning properly;
.5 The radio equipment is functioning properly in accordance with paragraph
86 of this section; and
.6 The UMS controls, alarms and indicators are functioning properly.
12. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall bear in mind the
necessity to comply at all times with the requirements in force of the
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, (SOLAS) 19741. The
officer of the navigational watch shall take into account:
.1 The need to station a person to steer the ship and to put the steering into
manual control in good time to allow any potentially hazardous situation to
be dealt with in a safe manner; and
.2 That with a ship under automatic steering, it is highly dangerous to allow a
situation to develop to the point where the officer in charge of the
navigational watch is without assistance and has to break the continuity of
the lookout in order to take emergency action.
13. Officers of the navigational watch shall be thoroughly familiar with the use of
all electronic navigational aids carried, including their capabilities and
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limitations, and shall use each of these aids when appropriate and shall bear in
mind that the echo-sounder is a valuable navigational aid.
14. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall use the radar whenever
restricted visibility is encountered or expected and at all times in congested
waters; having due regard to its limitations.
15. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall ensure that the range
scales employed are changed at sufficiently frequent intervals so that echoes
are detected as early as possible. It shall be borne in mind that small or poor
echoes may escape detection.
16. Whenever radar is in use, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall
select an appropriate range scale and observe the display carefully, and shall
ensure that plotting or systematic analysis is commenced in ample time.
17. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall notify the master
immediately:
.1 If restricted visibility is encountered or expected;
.2 If the traffic conditions or the movements of other ships are causing
concern;
.3 If difficulty is experienced in maintaining course;
.4 On failure to sight land, a navigation mark or to obtain soundings by the
expected time;
.5 If, unexpectedly, land or a navigation mark is sighted or a change in
soundings occurs;
.6 On breakdown of the engines, propulsion machinery remote control,
steering gear or any essential navigational equipment, alarm or indicator;
.7 If the radio equipment malfunctions;
.8 In heavy weather, if in any doubt about the possibility of weather damage;
.9 If the ship meets any hazard to navigation, such as ice or a derelict; and
.10 In any other emergency or if in any doubt.
18. Despite the requirement to notify the master immediately in the foregoing
circumstances the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall, in addition,
not hesitate to take immediate action for the safety of the ship where
circumstances so require.
19. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall give watchkeeping
personnel all appropriate instructions and information which will ensure the
keeping of a safe watch; including a proper lookout.
Watchkeeping under different conditions and in different areas
CLEAR WEATHER
20. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall take frequent and
accurate compass bearings of approaching ships as a means of early detection
of risk of collision and shall bear in mind that such risk may sometimes exist
even when an appreciable bearing change is evident; particularly when
approaching a very large ship or a tow or when approaching a ship at close
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range. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall also take early and
positive action in compliance with the applicable International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended and subsequently check that
such action is having the desired effect.
21. In clear weather, whenever possible, the officer in charge of the navigational
watch shall carry out radar practice.
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Restricted visibility
22. When restricted visibility is encountered or expected, the first responsibility of

the officer in charge of the navigational watch is to comply with the relevant
rules of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972,
as amended with particular regard to the sounding of fog signals, proceeding
at a safe speed and having the engines ready for immediate manoeuvre. In
addition, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:
.1 Inform the master;
.2 Post a proper lookout;
.3 Exhibit navigation lights; and
.4 Operate and use the radar.
In hours of darkness
23. The master and the officer in charge of the navigational watch, when
arranging lookout duty, shall have due regard to the bridge equipment and
navigational aids available for use, their limitations; procedures and
safeguards implemented.
Coastal and congested waters
24. The largest scale chart on board, suitable for the area and corrected with the
latest available information, shall be used. Fixes shall be taken at frequent
intervals, and shall be carried out by more than one method whenever
circumstances allow. When using ECDIS, appropriate usage code (scale)
electronic navigational charts shall be used and the ship’s position shall be
checked by an independent means of position fixing at appropriate intervals.
25. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall positively identify all
relevant navigation marks.
Navigation with pilot on board
26. Despite the duties and obligations of pilots, their presence on board does not
relieve the master or officer in charge of the navigational watch from their
duties and obligations for the safety of the ship. The master and the pilot shall
exchange information regarding navigation procedures, local conditions and
the ship’s characteristics. The master and/or the officer in charge of the
navigational watch shall cooperate closely with the pilot and maintain an
accurate check on the ship’s position and movement.
27. If in any doubt as to the pilot’s actions or intentions, the officer in charge of
the navigational watch shall seek clarification from the pilot and, if doubt still
exists, shall notify the master immediately and take whatever action is
necessary before the master arrives.
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Ship at anchor
28. If the master considers it necessary a continuous navigational watch shall be

maintained at anchor. While at anchor the officer in charge of the navigational
watch shall:
.1 Determine and plot the ship’s position on the appropriate chart as soon as
practicable;
.2 When circumstances permit, check at sufficiently frequent intervals
whether the ship is remaining securely at anchor by taking bearings of
fixed navigation marks or readily identifiable shore objects;
.3 Ensure that proper lookout is maintained;
.4 Ensure that inspection rounds of the ship are made periodically;
.5 Observe meteorological and tidal conditions and the state of the sea;
.6 Notify the master and undertake all necessary measures if the ship drags
anchor;
.7 Ensure that the state of readiness of the main engines and other machinery
is in accordance with the master’s instructions;
.8 If visibility deteriorates, notify the master;
.9 Ensure that the ship exhibits the appropriate lights and shapes and that
appropriate sound signals are made in accordance with all applicable
regulations; and
.10 Take measures to protect the environment from pollution by the ship and
comply with applicable pollution regulations.
Part 4-3 - Principles to be observed in keeping a radio watch
General provisions
84. Administrations shall direct the attention of companies, masters and radio
watchkeeping personnel to comply with the following provisions to ensure
that an adequate safety radio watch is maintained while a ship is at sea.
In complying with this Code account shall be taken of the Radio Regulations.
Watch arrangements
85. In deciding the arrangements for the radio watch, the master of every seagoing
ship shall:
.1 Ensure that the radio watch is maintained in accordance with the relevant
provisions of the Radio
Regulations and the SOLAS Convention;

.2 Ensure that the primary duties for radio watchkeeping are not adversely
affected by attending to radio traffic not relevant to the safe movement of
the ship and safety of navigation; and
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.3 Take into account the radio equipment fitted on board and its operational
status.
Performing the radio watch
86. The radio operator performing radio watchkeeping duties shall:

.1 Ensure that watch is maintained on the frequencies specified in the Radio
Regulations and the SOLAS Convention; and
.2 While on duty, regularly check the operation of the radio equipment and
its sources of energy and report to the master any observed failure of this
equipment.
87. The requirements of the Radio Regulations and the SOLAS Convention on
keeping a radiotelegraph or radio log, as appropriate, shall be complied with.
88. The maintenance of radio records, in compliance with the requirements of the
Radio Regulations and the SOLAS Convention, is the responsibility of the
radio operator designated as having primary responsibility for
radiocommunications during distress incidents. The following shall be
recorded, together with the times at which they occur:
.1 A summary of distress, urgency and safety radiocommunications;
.2 Important incidents relating to the radio service;
.3 Where appropriate, the position of the ship at least once per day; and
.4 A summary of the condition of the radio equipment including its sources
of energy.
89. The radio records shall be kept at the distress communications operating
position, and shall be made available:
.1 For inspection by the master; and
.2 For inspection by any authorized official of the Administration and by any
duly authorized officer exercising control under article X of the
Convention.
Part 5 - Watchkeeping in Port
Principles applying to all watchkeeping
General
90. On any ship safely moored or safely at anchor under normal circumstances in
port, the master shall arrange for an appropriate and effective watch to be
maintained for the purpose of safety. Special requirements may be necessary
for special types of ships’ propulsion systems or ancillary equipment and for
ships carrying hazardous, dangerous, toxic or highly flammable materials or
other special types of cargo.
Watch arrangements
91. Arrangements for keeping a deck watch when the ship is in port shall at all
times be adequate to:
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.1 Ensure the safety of life, of the ship, the port and the environment, and the
safe operation of all machinery related to cargo operation;
.2 Observe international, national and local rules; and
.3 Maintain order and the normal routine of the ship.
92. The master shall decide the composition and duration of the deck watch
depending on the conditions of mooring, type of the ship and character of
duties.
93. If the master considers it necessary, a qualified officer shall be in charge of the
deck watch.
94. The necessary equipment shall be so arranged as to provide for efficient
watchkeeping.
95. The chief engineer officer, in consultation with the master, shall ensure that
engineering watchkeeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a safe
engineering watch while in port. When deciding the composition of the
engineering watch, which may include appropriate engine-room ratings, the
following points are among those to be taken into account:
.1 On all ships of 3,000 kW propulsion power and over there shall always be
an officer in charge of the engineering watch; and
.2 On ships of less than 3,000 kW propulsion power there may be, at the
master’s discretion and in consultation with the chief engineer officer, no
officer in charge of the engineering watch; and
.3 Officers, while in charge of an engineering watch, shall not be assigned or
undertake any task or duty which would interfere with their supervisory
duty in respect of the ship’s machinery system.
Note: Marine Orders Part 28 requires that, during watchkeeping in port, on all
ships of 750 kW propulsion power and over there shall always be an officer in
charge of the engineering watch.
Note: The STCW Code defines propulsion power as the total maximum
continuous rated output power in kilowatts of all the ship’s main propulsion
machinery which appears on the ship’s certificate of registry or other official
document.
Taking over the watch
96. Officers in charge of the deck or engineering watch shall not hand over the
watch to their relieving officer if they have any reason to believe that the latter
is obviously not capable of carrying out watchkeeping duties effectively, in
which case the master or chief engineer shall be notified accordingly.
Relieving officers of the deck or engineering watch shall ensure that all
members of their watch are apparently fully capable of performing their duties
effectively.
97. If, at the moment of handing over the deck or engineering watch, an important
operation is being performed it shall be concluded by the officer being
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relieved, except when ordered otherwise by the master or chief engineer

officer.
Part 5-1 - Taking over the deck watch
98. Prior to taking over the deck watch, the relieving officer shall be informed of
the following by the officer in charge of the deck watch as to the following:
.1 the depth of the water at the berth, the ship’s draught, the level and time of
high and low waters; the securing of the moorings, the arrangement of
anchors and the scope of the anchor chain, and other mooring features
important to the safety of the ship; the state of main engines and their
availability for emergency use;
.2 All work to be performed on board the ship; the nature, amount and
disposition of cargo loaded or remaining, and any residue on board after
unloading the ship;
.3 The level of water in bilges and ballast tanks;
.4 The signals or lights being exhibited or sounded;
.5 The number of crew members required to be on board and the presence of
any other persons on board;
.6 The state of fire-fighting appliances;
.7 Any special port regulations;
.8 The master’s standing and special orders;
.9 The lines of communication available between the ship and shore
personnel, including port authorities, in the event of an emergency arising
or assistance being required;
.10 Any other circumstances of importance to the safety of the ship, its crew,
cargo or protection of the environment from pollution; and
.11 The procedures for notifying the appropriate authority of any
environmental pollution resulting from ship activities.
99. Relieving officers, before assuming charge of the deck watch, shall verify that:
.1 The securing of moorings and anchor chain is adequate;
.2 The appropriate signals or lights are properly exhibited or sounded;
.3 Safety measures and fire protection regulations are being maintained;
.4 They are aware of the nature of any hazardous or dangerous cargo being
loaded or discharged and the appropriate action to be taken in the event of
any spillage or fire; and
.5 No external conditions or circumstances imperil the ship and that it does
not imperil others.
Part 5-3 - Performing the deck watch
100. The officer in charge of the deck watch shall:
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.1 Make rounds to inspect the ship at appropriate intervals;

.2 Pay particular attention to:
.2.1 The condition and securing of the gangway, anchor chain and
moorings, especially at the turn of the tide and in berths with a large
rise and fall, if necessary, taking measures to ensure that they are in
normal working condition,
.2.2 The draught, under-keel clearance and the general state of the ship, to
avoid dangerous listing or trim during cargo handling or ballasting,
.2.3 The weather and sea state,
.2.4 The observance of all regulations concerning safety and fire
protection,
.2.5 The water level in bilges and tanks,
.2.6 All persons on board and their location, especially those in remote or
enclosed spaces, and
.2.7 The exhibition and sounding, where appropriate, of lights and
signals;
.3 In bad weather, or on receiving a storm warning, take the necessary
measures to protect the ship, persons on board and cargo;
.4 Take every precaution to prevent pollution of the environment by the ship;
.5 In an emergency threatening the safety of the ship, raise the alarm, inform
the master, take all possible measures to prevent any damage to the ship,
its cargo and persons on board, and, if necessary, request assistance from
the shore authorities or neighbouring ships;
.6 Be aware of the ship’s stability condition so that, in the event of fire, the
shore fire-fighting authority may be advised of the approximate quantity of
water that can be pumped on board without endangering the ship;
.7 Offer assistance to ships or persons in distress;
.8 Take necessary precautions to prevent accidents or damage when
propellers are to be turned; and
.9 Enter, in the appropriate log book, all important events affecting the ship.
Part 4-5 - Watch in port on ships carrying hazardous cargo

General
105. The master of every ship carrying cargo that is hazardous, whether explosive,
flammable, toxic, health threatening or environment-polluting, shall ensure
that safe watchkeeping arrangements are maintained. On ships carrying
hazardous cargo in bulk, this will be achieved by the ready availability on
board of a duly qualified officer or officers, and ratings where appropriate,
even when the ship is safely moored or safely at anchor in port.
106. On ships carrying hazardous cargo other than in bulk, the master shall take
full account of the nature, quantity, packing and stowage of the hazardous
cargo and of any special conditions on board, afloat and ashore.
Part 4-6 - Cargo watch
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107. Officers with responsibility for the planning and conduct of cargo operations
shall ensure that such operations are conducted safely through the control of
the specific risks, including when non-ship’s personnel are involved.
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THE ENGINEERING WATCH
1 Certification
The officer in charge of the engineering watch must be qualified in accordance with
the provisions of Marine Orders, Part 3 (Seagoing Qualifications) appropriate tothe
duties related to engineering watchkeeping.
2 Voyage Planning
The chief engineer officer shall, in consultation with the master, determine in advance
the needs of the intended voyage, taking into consideration the requirements for fuel,
water, lubricants, chemicals, expendable and other spare parts, tools, supplies and any
other requirements.
3 Watchkeeping at Sea
3.1 General principles
3.1.1 Companies, chief engineer officers and watchkeeping personnel must observe
the following principles to ensure that safe watches are maintained at all times.
3.1.2 The chief engineer officer of every ship is bound, in consultation with the
master, to ensure that watchkeeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a
safe engineering watch.
3.2 Protection of marine environment
Engineer officers and ratings must be aware of the serious effects of operational or
accidental pollution of the marine environment and shall take all possible
precautions to prevent such pollution, particularly within the framework of
relevant international and port regulations.
3.3 Watch arrangements
3.3.1 The composition of the engineering watch shall, at all times, be adequate to
ensure the safe operation of all machinery affecting the operation of the ship, in
either automated or manual mode and be appropriate to the prevailing
circumstances and conditions.
3.3.2 When deciding the composition of the engineering watch, which may include
appropriately qualified ratings, the following criteria, inter alia, must be taken
into account:
(a) The type of ship and the type and condition of the machinery;
(b) The adequate supervision, at all times, of machinery affecting the safe
operation of the ship;
Page 19
(c) Any special modes of operation dictated by conditions such as weather, ice,
contaminated water, shallow water, emergency conditions, damage
containment or pollution abatement;
(d) The qualifications and experience of the engineering watch;
(e) The safety of life, ship, cargo and port, and protection of the environment;
(f) The observance of international, national and local regulations; and
(g) Maintaining the normal operations of the ship.
3.4 Taking over the watch
3.4.1 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall not hand over the watch to
the relieving officer if there is reason to believe that the latter is obviously not
capable of carrying out the watchkeeping duties effectively, in which case the
chief engineer officer must be notified.
3.4.2 The relieving officer of the engineering watch shall ensure that the other
members of the relieving engineering watch, if any, are apparently fully
capable of performing their duties effectively.
3.4.3 Prior to taking over the engineering watch, relieving officers shall satisfy
themselves regarding at least the following:
(a) The standing orders and special instructions of the chief engineer officer
relating to the operation of the ship’s systems and machinery;
(b) The nature of all work being performed on machinery and systems, the
personnel involved and potential hazards;
(c) The level and, where applicable, the condition of water or residues in bilges,
ballast tanks, slop tanks, reserve tanks, fresh water tanks, sewage tanks and
any special requirements for use or disposal of the contents thereof;
(d) The condition and level of fuel in the reserve tanks, settling tank, day tank
and other fuel storage facilities;
(e) Any special requirements relating to sanitary system disposals;
(f) Condition and mode of operation of the various main and auxiliary systems,
including the electrical power distribution system;
(g) Where applicable, the condition of monitoring and control console
Equipment, and which equipment is being operated manually;
(h) Where applicable, the condition and mode of operation of automatic boiler
controls such as flame safeguard control systems, limit control systems,
combustion control systems, fuel-supply control systems and other
equipment related to the operation of steam boilers;
(i) Any potentially adverse conditions resulting from bad weather, ice,
contaminated or shallow water;
(j) Any special modes of operation dictated by equipment failure or adverse
ship conditions;
(k) The reports of engine-room ratings, relating to their assigned duties;
(l) The availability of fire-fighting appliances; and
(m) The state of completion of engine-room log.
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3.5 Performing the watch
3.5.1 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that the established
watchkeeping arrangements are maintained and that under direction, engine-
room ratings, if forming part of the engineering watch, assist in the safe and
efficient operation of the propulsion machinery and auxiliary equipment.
3.5.2 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall continue to be responsible
for machinery space operations, despite the presence of the chief
engineerofficer in the machinery spaces, until specifically informed that the
chief engineer officer has assumed that responsibility and this is mutually
understood.
3.5.3 All members of the engineering watch shall be familiar with their assigned
watchkeeping duties. In addition, every member must with respect to the ship
they are serving in have knowledge of:
(a) The use of appropriate internal communication systems;
(b) The escape routes from machinery spaces;
(c) The engine-room alarm systems and be able to distinguish between the
various alarms with special reference to the fire-extinguishing media alarm;
and (d) the number, location and types of fire-fighting equipment and
damage-control gear in the machinery spaces, together with their use and
the various safety precautions to be observed.
3.5.4 Any machinery not functioning properly, expected to malfunction or requiring
special service, shall be noted along with any action already taken. Plans shall
be made for any further action if required.
3.5.5 When the machinery spaces are in the manned condition, the officer in charge of
the engineering watch shall at all times be readily capable of operating the
propulsion equipment in response to needs for changes in direction or speed.
3.5.6 When the machinery spaces are in the periodic unmanned condition, the
designated duty officer in charge of the engineering watch must be immediately
available and on call to attend the machinery spaces.
3.5.7 All bridge orders shall be promptly executed. Changes in direction or speed of
the main propulsion units shall be recorded. The officer in charge of the
engineering watch shall ensure that the main propulsion unit controls, when in
the manual mode of operation, are continuously attended under stand-by or
manoeuvring conditions.
3.5.8 Due attention shall be paid to the ongoing maintenance and support of all
machinery, including mechanical, electrical, electronic, hydraulic and
pneumatic systems, their control apparatus and associated safety equipment, all
accommodation service systems equipment and the recording of stores and
spare gear usage.
3.5.9 The chief engineer officer shall ensure that the officer in charge of the
engineering watch is informed of all preventive maintenance, damage control,
Page 21
or repairoperations to be performed during the engineering watch. The officer

in charge of the engineering watch is responsible for the isolation, by passing
and adjustment of all machinery under the responsibility of the engineering
watch that is to be worked on, and shall record all work carried out.
3.5.10 When the engine-room is put in a stand-by condition, the officer in charge of
the engineering watch must ensure that all machinery and equipment which
may be used during manoeuvring is in a state of immediate readiness and that
an adequate reserve of power is available for steering gear and other
requirements.
3.5.11 Officers in charge of an engineering watch shall not be assigned or undertake
any duties which would interfere with their supervisory duties in respect of the
main propulsion system and ancillary equipment. They shall keep the main
propulsion plant and auxiliary systems under constant supervision until
properly relieved, and must periodically inspect the machinery in their charge.
They shall also ensure that adequate rounds of the machinery and steering gear
spaces are made for the purpose of observing and reporting equipment
malfunctions or breakdowns, performing or directing routine adjustments,
required upkeep and any other necessary tasks.
3.5.12 Officers in charge of an engineering watch shall direct any other member of
the engineering watch to inform them of potentially hazardous conditions
which may adversely affect the machinery or jeopardize the safety of life or of
the ship.
3.5.13 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that the machinery
space watch is supervised, and must arrange for substitute personnel in the
event of the incapacity of any engineering watch personnel. The engineering
watch shall not leave the machinery spaces unsupervised in a manner that
would prevent the manual operation of the engine-room plant or throttles.
3.5.14 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall take the action necessary
to contain the effects of damage resulting from equipment breakdown, fire,
flooding, rupture, collision, stranding, or other cause.
3.5.15 Before going off duty, the officer in charge of the engineering watch shall
ensure that all events related to the main and auxiliary machinery which have
occurred during the engineering watch are suitably recorded.
3.5.16 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall co-operate with any
engineer in charge of maintenancework during all preventive maintenance,
damage control or repairs. This includes but is not necessarily limited to:
(a) Isolating and bypassing machinery to be worked on;
(b) Adjusting the remaining plant to function adequately and safely during the
maintenance period;
(c) Recording, in the engine-room log or other suitable document, the
equipment worked on and the personnel involved, and which safety steps
have been taken and by whom, for the benefit of relieving officers and for
record purposes; and
(d) Testing and putting into service, when necessary, the repaired machinery or
equipment.
Page 22
3.5.17 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that if there are any
engine room ratings who perform maintenance duties they are available if
required to assist in the manual operation of machinery in the event of
automatic equipment failure.
3.5.18 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall bear in mind that changes
in speed, resulting from machinery malfunction, or any loss of steering, may
imperil the safety of the ship and life at sea. The bridge shall be immediately
notified, in the event of fire, and of any impending action in machinery spaces
that may cause reduction in the ship’s speed, imminent steering failure,
stoppage of the ship’s propulsion system or any alteration in the generation of
electric power or similar threat to safety. This notification, where possible,
must be accomplished before changes are made, in order to afford the bridge
the maximum available time to take whatever action is possible to avoid a
potential marine casualty.
3.5.19 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall notify the chief engineer
officer without delay:
(a) When engine damage or a malfunction occurs which may be such as to
endanger the safe operation of the ship;
(b) When any malfunction occurs which, it is believed, may cause damage or
breakdown of propulsion machinery, auxiliary machinery or monitoring
and governing systems; and
(c) In any emergency or if in any doubt as to what decision or measures to take.
3.5.20 Despite the requirement to notify the chief engineer officer in the foregoing
circumstances, the officer in charge of the engineering watch shall not hesitate
to take immediate action for the safety of the ship, its machinery and crew
where circumstances require.
3.5.21 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall give the other
watchkeeping personnel, if any, all appropriate instructions and information
which will ensure the keeping of a safe engineering watch. Routine machinery
upkeep, performed as incidental tasks as a part of keeping a safe watch, shall be
set up as an integral part of the watch routine. Detailed repair maintenance
involving repairs to electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic or applicable
electronic equipment throughout the ship shall be performed with the
cognizance of the officer in charge of the engineering watch and chief engineer
officer. These repairs shall be recorded.
3.6 Watchkeeping under different conditions and in different areas
Restricted visibility
3.6.1 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that permanent air or
steam pressure is available for sound signals and that at all times bridge orders
relating to changes in speed or direction of operation are immediately
Page 23
implemented and, in addition, that auxiliary machinery used for manoeuvring is

readily available.
Coastal and congested waters
3.6.2 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that all machinery
involved with the manoeuvring of the ship can immediately be placed in the
manual modeof operation when notified that the ship is in congested waters.
The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall also ensure that an
adequate reserve of power is available for steering and other manoeuvring
requirements. Emergency steering and other auxiliary equipment must be ready
for immediate operation.
Ship at anchor
3.6.3.1 At an unsheltered anchorage the chief engineer officer shall consult with the
master whether or not to maintain the same engineering watch as when
underway.
3.6.3.2 When a ship is at anchor in an open roadstead or any other virtually “at sea”
condition, the engineer officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure
that:
(a) An efficient engineering watch is kept;
(b) Periodic inspection is made of all operating and stand by machinery;
(c) Main and auxiliary machinery is maintained in a state of readiness in
accordance with orders from the bridge;
(d) Measures are taken to protect the environment from pollution by the ship,
and that applicable pollution prevention regulations are complied with; and
(e) All damage control and fire fighting systems are in readiness.
4 Watchkeeping in Port
4.1 General principles
4.1.1 On any ship safely moored or safely at anchor under normal circumstances in
port, the master shall arrange for an appropriate and effective watch to be
maintained for the purpose of safety. Special requirements may be necessary
for special types of ships’ propulsion systems or ancillary equipment and for
ships carrying hazardous, dangerous, toxic or highly flammable materials or
other special types of cargo.
4.1.2 The chief engineer officer, in consultation with the master, must ensure that
engineering watchkeeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a safe
engineering watch while in port. When deciding the composition of the
engineering watch, which may include appropriate engine-room ratings, the
following points are among those to be taken into account:
Page 24
(a) On all ships of 750 kW propulsion power and over there shall always be an
officer in charge of the engineering watch; and
(b) Officers, while in charge of an engineering watch, must not be assigned or
undertake any task or duty which would interfere with their supervisory
duty in respect of the ship’s machinery system.
Note: The STCW Code defines propulsion power as the total maximum continuous
rated output power in kilowatts of all the ship’s main propulsion machinery
which appears on the ship’s certificate of registry or other official document.
4.2 Taking over the watch
4.2.1 Officers in charge of the engineering watch shall not hand over the watch to
their relieving officer if they have any reason to believe that the latter is
obviously not capable of carrying out watchkeeping duties effectively, in which
case the chief engineer must be notified accordingly. Relieving officers of the
engineering watch must ensure that all members of their watch are apparently
fully capable of performing their duties effectively.
4.2.2 If, at the moment of handing over the engineering watch, an important
operation is being performed it must be concluded by the officer being relieved,
except when ordered otherwise by the chief engineer officer.
4.2.3 Prior to taking over the engineering watch, the relieving officer must be
informed by the officer in charge of the engineering watch as to:
(a) The standing orders of the day, any special orders relating to the ship
operations, maintenance functions, repairs to the ship’s machinery or
control equipment;
(b) The nature of all work being performed on machinery and systems on board
ship, personnel involved and potential hazards;
(c) The level and condition, where applicable, of water or residue in bilges,
ballast tanks, slop tanks, sewage tanks, reserve tanks and special
requirements for the use or disposal of the contents thereof;
(d) Any special requirements relating to sanitary system disposals;
(e) The condition and state of readiness of portable fireextinguishing equipment
and fixed fire-extinguishing installations and fire-detection systems;
(f) Authorized repair personnel on board engaged in engineering activities,
their work locations and repair functions and other authorized persons on
board and the required crew;
(g) Any port regulations pertaining to ship effluents, firefighting requirements
and ship readiness, particularly during potential bad weather conditions;
(h) The lines of communication available between the ship and shore personnel,
including port authorities, in the event of an emergency arising or assistance
being required;
(i) Any other circumstance of importance to the safety of the ship, its crew,
cargo or the protection of the environment from pollution; and
(j) The procedures for notifying the appropriate authority of environmental
pollution resulting from engineering activities.
Page 25
4.2.4 Relieving officers, before assuming charge of the engineering watch, shall
satisfy themselves that they are fully informed by the officer being relieved, as
outlined above, and:
(a) Be familiar with existing and potential sources of power, heat and lighting
and their distribution;
(b) Know the availability and condition of ship’s fuel, lubricants and all water
supplies; and
(c) Be ready to prepare the ship and its machinery, as far as is possible, for
stand-by or emergency conditions as required.
4.3 Performing the watch
4.3.1 Officers in charge of the engineering watch shall pay particular attention to:
(a) The observance of all orders, special operating procedures and regulations
concerning hazardous conditions and their prevention in all areas in their
charge;
(b) The instrumentation and control systems, monitoring of all power supplies,
components and systems in operation;
(c) The techniques, methods and procedures necessary to prevent violation of
the pollution regulations of the local authorities; and
(d) The state of the bilges.
4.3.2 Officers in charge of the engineering watch must:
(a) In emergencies, raise the alarm when in their opinion the situation so
demands, and take all possible measures to prevent damage to the ship,
persons on board and cargo;
(b) Be aware of the deck officer’s needs relating to the equipment required in
the loading or unloading of the cargo and the additional requirements of the
ballast and other ship stability control systems;
(c) Make frequent rounds of inspection to determine possible equipment
malfunction or failure, and take immediate remedial action to ensure the
safety of the ship, of cargo operations, of the port and the environment;
(d) Ensure that the necessary precautions are taken, within their area of
responsibility, to prevent accidents or damage to the various electrical,
electronic,hydraulic, pneumatic and mechanical systems of the ship;
(e) Ensure that all important events affecting the operation, adjustment or repair
of the ship’s machinery are satisfactorily recorded.
5 Guidance on keeping a Watch
5.1 Particular guidance may be necessary for special types of propulsion

systems or ancillary equipment and for ships carrying hazardous,
dangerous, toxic or highly flammable materials or other special types of
Page 26
cargo. The chief engineer officer should provide this operational guidance
as appropriate.
5.2 It is essential that officers in charge of the engineering watch appreciate
that the efficient performance of engineering watchkeeping duties is
necessary in the interest of the safety of life and property at sea and of
preventing pollution of the marine environment.
5.3 The relieving officer, before assuming charge of the engineering watch,
should:
(a) be familiar with the location and use of the equipment provided for the
safety of life in a hazardous or toxic environment;
(b) Ascertain that materials for the administration of emergency medical first
aid are readily available, particularly those required for the treatment of
burns and scalds; and
(c) When in port, safely anchored or moored, be aware of:
(i) Cargo activities, the status of maintenance and repair functions and all other
operations affecting the watch; and
(ii) The auxiliary machinery in use for passenger or crew accommodation
services, cargo operations, operational water supplies and exhaust systems.
Page 27
SHIP
CONSTRUCTION
Page 28
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
BOLTING OF ALUMINIUM WITH STEEL SHEETS USING INSULAYED
MATERIAL
Page 29
CAD CAM IN SHIP CONSTRUCTION

USING COMPUTER AIDED DESIGNS AND MANUFACTURING
(CAD/CAM)
Ship designs are now days made by computer aided process and thus many computer
aided design (CAD) systems are available like TRIBON, FORAN, Autoship etc. The
information provided by these designs are integrated into computer aided
manufacturing (CAM) systems. Production information is provided directly for use by
computer numerical control (CNC) machines. Thus the production process of cutting
and shaping plates and section, panel assemblies etc can be done automatically with
the help of computer.
A wire-frame model is a visual presentation of a three-dimensional (3D) or physical
object used in 3D computer graphics. It is created by specifying each edge of the
physical object where two mathematically continuous smooth surfaces meet, or by
connecting an object's constituent vertices using straight lines or curves. The object is
projected onto a display screen by drawing lines at the location of each edge. The
term wire frame comes from designers using metal wire to represent the three-
dimensional shape of solid objects. 3D wire frame allows to construct and manipulate
solids and solid surfaces. Using a wire-frame model allows visualization of the
underlying design structure of a 3D model. Traditional two-dimensional views and
drawings can be created by appropriate rotation of the object and selection of hidden
line removal via cutting planes.
When greater graphical detail is desired, surface textures can be added automatically
after completion of the initial rendering of the wire frame. This allows the designer to
quickly review solids or rotate the object to new desired views. Wire-frame models
are also used as the input for computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
There are mainly three types of 3D CAD models. Wire frame is one of them and it is
the most abstract and least realistic. Other types of 3D CAD models are surface and
solid. This method of modeling consists of only lines, points and curves defining the
edges of an object.
METHOD FOR CREATING 3D WIREFRAME

Extrusion is a technique for creating a 3D wire-frame model by copying a 2D profile
and extending it to a depth defined by the operator. The result is a 3D wireframe of
the profile.
1. Rotation produces wire-frame models by rotating a cross section or profile
of the part about an axis. It is similar to extrusion except it is swept about an
axis.
2. Extrusion with scale technique consists of defining the depth along with the
facility of enlarging scale uniformly.
3. Using primitive shapes to build models.
Page 30
WIRE FRAME MODEL OF AN OIL TANKER
PLATE NESTING
This involves shaping and cutting of steel plates to a particular shape using manual
methods or automatic methods like CAM. Computer aided machinery uses
Numerically Controlled (NC) system. Nesting refers to the process of laying out
cutting patterns to minimize the raw material waste.
NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC)

NC system is one in which a machine is operated and controlled by insertion of
Numerical Data. Numerical Data is a sequence of numbers which fully describes the
part to be produced. Additionally certain instructions can be fed in to a CAM for
operating it automatically. These instructions are also fed numerically in to the
computer.
Once the numbers are fed then there is a reading device which converts these numbers
into electrical impulses. These electrical impulses become control signals for various
parts of the machine which produces the desired finish product. The input data to the
cutting machine goes from CAM system. If several parts are to be cut from a single
plate, these parts are nested or economically fitted into the plate from where the parts
are going to get cut, before the actual cutting starts. This is helpful in avoiding the
wastage.
Page 31
Nesting software must take into account the limitations and features of
the machining technology in use, such as:
 Machining cannot take place where the raw material is clamped into place;
 Some machines can access only half of the material at a particular time;
the machine automatically flips the sheet over to allow the remaining half
to be accessed;
 When punching, the width of the punch tool must be considered;
 Shearing may be permitted only in certain areas of the sheet due to
limitations of the machinery
 Defects on material that must be discarded;
 Different quality areas that must match corresponding quality levels
required for different parts;
 Direction constraints, that may come from a printed pattern or from fiber
direction;
Once the plate is nested then the parts can be joined and sub-assemblies can be
prefabricated. Sub assemblies and assemblies can be joined to form a unit. These units
are put together or assembled to form a complete ship.
Page 32
CARPY V-NOTCH TEST
The CHARPY,
Impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is a standardized high strain-rate
test which determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture.
This absorbed energy is a measure of a given material's notch toughness and acts as a
tool to study temperature-dependent ductile-brittle transition. It is widely applied in
industry, since it is easy to prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly
and cheaply. A disadvantage is that some results are only comparative.
The test was developed around 1900 by S.B. Russell (1898, American) and Georges
Charpy (1901, French).The test became known as the Charpy test in the early 1900s
due to the technical contributions and standardization efforts by Charpy. The test was
pivotal in understanding the fracture problems of ships during World War II.
Today it is utilized in many industries for testing materials, for example the
construction of pressure vessels and bridges to determine how storms will affect the
materials used.
In 1896 S. B. Russell introduced the idea of residual fracture energy and devised a
pendulum fracture test. Russell's initial tests measured un-notched samples. In 1897
Frémont introduced a test trying to measure the same phenomenon using a spring-
loaded machine. In 1901 Georges Charpy proposed a standardized method improving
Russell's by introducing a redesigned pendulum, notched sample and generally giving
precise specifications.
DEFINITION
The apparatus consists of a pendulum of known mass and length that is dropped from
a known height to impact a notched specimen of material. The energy transferred to
the material can be inferred by comparing the difference in the height of the hammer
before and after the fracture (energy absorbed by the fracture event).
The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test, thus it is necessary for
the notch to be of regular dimensions and geometry. The size of the sample can also
affect results, since the dimensions determine whether or not the material is in plane
strain. This difference can greatly affect conclusions made.
The "Standard methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials" can be
found in ASTM E23, ISO 148-1 or EN 10045-1, where all the aspects of the test and
equipment used are described in detail.
ting of Metallic Materials" can be found in ASTM E23, ISO 148-1 or EN 10045-
1where all the aspects of the test and equipment used are described in detail.
Page 33
QUANTITATIVE RESULTS
The quantitative result of the impact tests the energy needed to fracture a material and
can be used to measure the toughness of the material. There is a connection to the
yield strength but it cannot be expressed by a standard formula. Also, the strain rate
may be studied and analyzed for its effect on fracture.
The ductile-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) may be derived from the
temperature where the energy needed to fracture the material drastically changes.
However, in practice there is no sharp transition and it is difficult to obtain a precise
transition temperature (it is really a transition region). An exact DBTT may be
empirically derived in many ways: a specific absorbed energy, change in aspect of
fracture (such as 50% of the area is cleavage), etc.
QUALITATIVE RESULTS
The qualitative results of the impact test can be used to determine the ductility of a
material. If the material breaks on a flat plane, the fracture was brittle, and if the
material breaks with jagged edges or shear lips, then the fracture was ductile. Usually
a material does not break in just one way or the other, and thus comparing the jagged
to flat surface areas of the fracture will give an estimate of the percentage of ductile
and brittle fracture.
SAMPLE SIZES
According to ASTM A370, the standard specimen size for Charpy impact testing is
10 mm × 10mm × 55mm. Subsize specimen sizes are: 10 mm × 7.5 mm × 55mm,
10 mm × 6.7 mm × 55 mm, 10 mm × 5 mm × 55 mm, 10 mm × 3.3 mm × 55 mm,
10 mm × 2.5 mm × 55 mm. Details of specimens as per ASTM A370 (Standard Test
Method and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products).
According to EN 10045-1, standard specimen sizes are 10 mm × 10 mm × 55 mm.
Subsize specimens are: 10 mm × 7.5 mm × 55 mm and 10 mm × 5 mm × 55 mm.
According to ISO 148, standard specimen sizes are 10 mm × 10 mm × 55 mm.
Subsize specimens are: 10 mm × 7.5 mm × 55 mm, 10 mm × 5 mm × 55 mm and
10 mm × 2.5 mm × 55mm.
Page 34
CRYOGENIC STEEL
CRYOGENIC TREATMENT
Is the process of treating workpieces to cryogenic temperatures (i.e. below −190 °C

(−310 °F)) in order to remove residual stresses and improve wear resistance on steels.
In addition to seeking enhanced stress relief and stabilization, or wear resistance,
cryogenic treatment is also sought for its ability to improve corrosion resistance by
precipitating micro-fine eta carbides, which can be measured before and after in a part
using a quantimet.
The process has a wide range of applications from industrial tooling to the
improvement of musical signal transmission. Some of the benefits of cryogenic
treatment include longer part life, less failure due to cracking, improved thermal
properties, better electrical properties including less electrical resistance, reduced
coefficient of friction, less creep and walk, improved flatness, and easier machining
Cryogenic hardening is a cryogenic treatment process where the material is cooled to
very low temperatures. By using liquid nitrogen, the temperature can go as low as
−190 °C. It can have a profound effect on the mechanical properties of certain
materials, such as steels or tungsten carbide.
Page 35
APPLICATIONS OF CRYOGENIC HARDENING
 Aerospace & Defense: communication, optical housings, weapons platforms,

guidance systems, landing systems.
 Automotive: brake rotors, transmissions, clutches, brake parts, rods, crank
shafts, camshafts axles, bearings, ring and pinion, heads, valve trains,
differentials, springs, nuts, bolts, washers.
 Cutting tools: cutters, knives, blades, drill bits, end
mills, turning or milling inserts. There are two main types of cryogenic
treatments of cutting tools: Cryogenic treatments of cutting inserts can be
classified as follows: Deep Cryogenic Treatments (DCT) or Shallow
Cryogenic Treatments (SCT). A different minimum tool cooling temperature
is used in the two mentioned treatments: -196 °C for DCT and -80 °C for SCT.
 Forming tools: roll form dies, progressive dies, stamping dies.
 Mechanical industry: pumps, motors, nuts, bolts, washers.
 Medical: tooling, scalpels.
 Motorsports and Fleet Vehicles: See Automotive for brake rotors and other
automotive components.
 Musical: Vacuum tubes, brass instruments, guitar strings and fret wire, piano
wire, amplifiers, magnetic pickups, cables, connectors.
 Sports: Firearms, knives, fishing equipment, auto racing, tennis rackets, golf
clubs, mountain climbing gear, archery, skiing, aircraft parts, high pressure
lines, bicycles, motor cycles.
Page 36
FIRE STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
BASIC PRINCIPLES / FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRE

PROTECTION AND DETECTION
1. Division of ship into main vertical zones by thermal and structural

boundaries.
2. Separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of the ship by
thermal and structural boundaries.
3. Restricted use of combustible materials.
4. Detection of any fire in the zone of origin.
5. Containment and Extinction of any fire in the space of origin.
6. Protection of means of escape or access for fire fighting.
7. Ready availability of fire-extinguishing appliances.
8. Minimization of possibility of ignition of flammable cargo vapour.
THE FIRE SAFETY OBJECTIVES OF THIS CHAPTER ARE TO:
1. Prevent the occurrence of fire and explosion;

2. Reduce the risk to life caused by fire;
3. Reduce the risk of damage caused by fire to the ship, its cargo and the
environment;
4. Contain, control and suppress fire and explosion in the compartment of
origin;
5. Provide adequate and readily accessible means of escape for passengers and
crew.
STANDARD FIRE TEST
 In this a specimens of the relevant bulkheads or decks are exposed in a test

furnace to temperatures corresponding approximately to the standard time-
temperature curve.
 The specimen shall resemble as closely as possible the intended construction
and include, where appropriate, at least one joint.
 The specimen must have an exposed area of 4.65sq.mtrs and height of
2.44mtrs.
Page 37
STANDARD TIME-TEMPERATURE CURVE.
STANDARD FIRE TEST
The standard time-temperature curve is defined by a smooth curve drawn through the
following temperature points measured above the initial furnace temperature.
At the end of the Temperature(°C)

first(minutes)
5 556
10 659
15 718
30 821
60 925
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“A” Class Divisions
Divisions formed by bulkheads and decks which comply with the following:
1. Constructed of steel or other equivalent material;
2. Suitably stiffened;
3. Prevent the passage of smoke and flame to the end of the one-hour standard fire
test;
4. Insulated with approved non-combustible materials such that the average
temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more than 140˚C above the
original temperature, nor will the temperature, at any one point, including any
joint, rise more than 180˚C above the original temperature, within the time listed
below:
class “A-60” 60 min
“B” Class Divisions
Divisions formed by bulkheads, decks, ceiling or linings which comply with the
following:
1. Prevent the passage of flame to the end of the first half hour of the standard
fire test.
2. Constructed of approved non-combustible materials including all materials
used for erection, with the exception that combustible veneers may be
permitted.
3. Insulated such that the average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise
more than 140˚C above the original temperature, nor will the temperature at
any one point, including any joint, rise more than 225˚C above the original
temperature, within the time listed below:
class “B-15” 15 min
class “B-0” 0 min
“C” CLASS DIVISIONS
Divisions formed by bulkheads, decks, ceiling or linings which comply with the
following:
1. Constructed of approved non-combustible materials including all materials
used for erection, with the exception that combustible veneers may be
permitted.
They do not meet the requirements relating to passage of smoke, flame or temperature
rise. Combustible veneers may be permitted provided they meet with other
requirements
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DEFINITIONS
 Non-Combustible Material is a material, which neither burns nor gives off

flammable vapours in sufficient quantity for self-ignition when heated to
approximately 750˚C,
 A Standard Fire Test is one in which the specimens of the relevant
bulkheads and decks are exposed in a test furnace to temperatures
corresponding approximately to the standard time-temperature curve.
 Main Vertical Zones are those sections into which the hull, superstructure,
and deckhouses are divided by “A” class divisions, the mean length of which
on any deck does not in general exceed 40m.
 Accommodation Spaces are those spaces used for public spaces, corridors,
lavatories, cabins, offices, hospitals, cinemas, games and hobbies rooms,
barber shops, pantries containing no cooking appliances and similar spaces.
 Public Spaces are those portions of the accommodation which are used for
halls, dining rooms, lounges and similar permanently enclosed spaces.
 Service Spaces are those spaces used for galleys, pantries containing cooking
appliances, lockers, mail rooms, store-rooms, workshops other than those
forming part of the machinery spaces, and similar spaces and trunks to such
spaces.
 Cargo Spaces are all spaces used for cargo (including cargo oil tanks) and
trunks to such spaces.
 Ro-Ro Cargo Spaces are spaces not normally subdivided and extending to
either a substantial length or the entire length of the ship in which goods can
be loaded and unloaded normally in a horizontal direction on rail or road cars,
vehicles including road or rail tankers, trailers, containers, pallets,
demountable tanks or in or on similar stowage units.
 Open Ro-Ro Cargo Spaces are ro-ro cargo spaces either open at both ends, or
open at one end and provided with adequate natural ventilation effective over
their entire length through permanent openings in the side plating or deckhead
to the satisfaction of the Administration.
 Closed Ro-Ro Cargo Spaces are ro-ro cargo spaces which are neither open
ro-ro cargo spaces nor weather decks.
 Weather Deck is a deck which is completely exposed to the weather from
above and from at least two sides.
 Special Category Spaces are those enclosed spaces above or below the
bulkhead deck intended for the carriage of motor vehicles with fuel in their
tanks for their own propulsion, into and from which such vehicles can be
driven and to which passengers have access.
 Machinery Spaces are all machinery spaces of category A and all other
spaces containing propulsion machinery, boilers, oil fuel units, steam and
internal combustion engines, generators and major electrical machinery, oil
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filling stations, refrigerating, stabilizing, ventilation and air-conditioning

machinery, and similar spaces, and trunks to such spaces.
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 Machinery spaces of category A

are those spaces and trunks to such spaces, which contain:
1. internal combustion machinery used for main propulsion; or
2. internal combustion machinery used for purposes other than main
propulsion where such machinery has in the aggregate a total power
output of not less than 375 kW; or
3. .any oil-fired boiler or oil fuel unit.
 Oil Fuel Unit is the equipment used for the preparation of oil fuel for delivery
to an oil-fired boiler, or equipment used for the preparation for delivery of
heated oil to an internal combustion engine, and includes any oil pressure
pumps, filters and heaters dealing with oil at a pressure of more than 0.18
N/mm2.
 Control Stations are those spaces in which the ship’s radio or main
navigating equipment or the emergency source of power is located or where
the fire recording or fire control equipment is centralized.
 Continuously Manned central control station is a central control station

which is continuously manned by a responsible member of the crew Central
control station
Control station in which the following control and indicator functions are centralized:
1. Fixed fire detection and alarm systems
2. Automatic sprinklers, fire detection and alarm systems
3. Fire door indicator panels
4. Fire door closures
5. Watertight door indicator panels
6. Watertight door closures
7. Ventilation fans
8. General/fire alarms
9. Communication systems including telephones
10. Microphones to public address systems
Fire Integrity requirements on Passenger vessels
These requirements specified as per two criteria:-

1) Risk of fire originating in that space.
2) Danger to that space from fire originating somewhere else.
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MIDSHIP SKETCHES OF MERCHANT SHIPS
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Container
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Oil Tanker
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Oil Tanker
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General Cargo Ship
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RO-RO Vessel
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Bulk Carrier
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SINGLE HULL VS DOUBLE HULL TANKERS
 In double hull tankers, the space between the two layers is used as dedicated
ballast tanks for ensuring ship’s stability. The ballast spaces extend for the full
length of the cargo carrying area, providing an extensive safety measure.
Single hull tankers do not have such ballast spaces.
 In comparison to single hull design, double hull design is said to have less
stability as it raises the centre of gravity and reduces the meta-centric height of
the ship. Moreover, there is a risk of loss of stability because of free surface
effects in cargo and ballast tanks. Single hull ships are considered more stable
as compared to double hull tankers.
 Corrosion is considered one of the main reasons for failure of hull structures in
tankers. Improper maintenance of ballast tank structures and failure to
maintain the integrity of protective coating and cathodic protection in ballast
tanks have lead to structural failure in the past. In double hull tankers, the
surface area of the tanks is more than double than that of single hull tanks.
Thus they require more maintenance during the operating life.
 Hull as compared to the ballast tanks of single hull ships, those of the double
bottom tanks are easily accessible because of their increased height and width.
This makes the work during inspection much easier. However proper
precautions must be taken into consideration while entering confined spaces of
ballast tanks.
 Structures of ballast spaces in double hull tankers are more susceptible to hull
fractures and minor failures as compared to single hull tankers. Double hull
tanker operators have often complained about cargo leakage into ballast tanks
as a result of stress concentration, fatigue, or construction defects.
 Tanker ships with single hull design often faced problems of leakage of ballast
water into cargo from ballast water pipes passing through cargo tanks. This
problem also increased the risks of pollution during ballasting and de-
ballasting from single hull tankers as leaking pipes passing through cargo
tanks can contaminate the clean ballast water. The double hull design removed
this problem with different piping systems passing through only the respective
tanks.
 The surface area of ballast tanks is higher in double hull ships as compared to
that of single hull. This is because of longer and narrower double bottom tanks
which increases the surface area two to three times as compared to single hull
tanks. However the design of the double hull ships makes the access to the
confined spaces of the tanks more difficult as compared to the spacious ballast
tanks of single hull ships.
 Stresses in the structure of double hull ships are much higher than that in
single hull ships. Thus double hull ships are more susceptible to minor
structural failures as compared to the single hull tankers. This can also be a
matter of concern during accidents which cause oil spill as a result of
structural failure.
 Ventilation is of utmost importance in double bottom tanks of double hull
tankers as they need inspection from time to time. As double bottom tanks are
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free from any internal structure, it is easy to access them. However, they are
not so friendly when it comes to close-up inspection, or accessing side tanks or
deck head areas; whereas though tanks of single hull are difficulty to access,
their confined areas much more ‘inspection friendly.’
HATCH COVERLESS CONTAINER SHIPS VS NORMAL CONTAINER

SHIPS
ADVANTAGES:
 The cargo handling is more efficient resulting in shorter time in port
 Guide rails hold the containers into place instead of time consuming
lashings
 No need of hatch covers (maintenance, weight, handling)
 There is a high freeboard resulting in a stronger construction
 Containers lashed to cellular vessels are less vulnerable to crew tampering
than containers on mixed-use cargo vessels, making them less of a risk
from the standpoint of port security.
ADDITIONALLY:-
 The considerable weight of hatch covers has been eliminated, thus increasing
the deadweight.
 The hatch covers were located high in the ship, their removal (removal of their
weight) significantly improves stability.
 The elimination of the hatch covers also excludes the need to open and close
same. This speeds up port turn-around time and has the potential for reducing
cargo operation costs.
 The fixed container guides do not terminate at the hatch coaming as in a
conventional container ship. Instead, they extend above the deck to the full
permissible height of the deck cargo. This provides better securing for the
containers stowed above deck and eliminates the need for manually installed
lashing cables or rods as is required when the on-deck containers are stowed
on top of the hatch covers.
 Individual vertical stacks of containers are always accessible totally
independent of the other stacks. This contrasts with a conventional container
ship where containers on deck must be moved to permit a hatch cover to be
lifted so as to give access to a container in a stack below deck.
 The maintenance of hatch covers, hatch clamps, coaming gaskets, and other
hatch securing gear becomes unnecessary.
 Less ventilation problems with reefer boxes in the holds
DISADVANTAGES OF THE HATCH-COVER-LESS DESIGN INCLUDE:
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 The high freeboard results in higher registered tonnage

 The price of the ship is high due to the amount of steel used and the complex
design process
 The absence of hatch covers means that rain water and overcoming seawater
can freely enter into the cargo hold. Therefore higher requirements of bilge
systems are applicable to open cargo holds
 Reduced space for carrying containers.
 Less flexibility for mixed stowage of containers of differing size
 Intermediate supports required for more than 10 tiers.
 The conventional design with hatch covers on the other hand also has
advantages:
 Large slot capacity which may be used to also carry empty containers.
 Faster loading and unloading of containers from the Larger capacity for
containers with dangerous goods, to be carried only on deck
 More flexibility for mixed stowage of 20' and 40' boxes
 No heavy hatch covers
 Proper design and analysis for lashing bridges required
 Errors with lashing may have disastrous, effects Higher investment cost
 The main problem of hatch-cover-less container ships is their increased
tonnage measurement in connection with their added freeboard as compared to
a ship with hatch covers.
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NECKING (ENGINEERING)
A polyethylene sample with a stable neck.
NECKING
In engineering or materials science, is a mode of tensile deformation where relatively

large amounts of strain localize disproportionately in a small region of the
material. The resulting prominent decrease in local cross-sectional area provides the
basis for the name "neck". Because the local strains in the neck are large, necking is
often closely associated with yielding, a form of plastic deformation associated
with ductile materials, often metals or polymers. The neck eventually becomes
a fracture when enough strain is applied.
FORMATION
Necking results from an instability during tensile deformation when a material's cross-
sectional area decreases by a greater proportion than the material strain hardens.
Considère published the basic criterion for necking in 1885. Three concepts provide
the framework for understanding neck formation.
1. Before deformation, all real materials have heterogeneities such as flaws or
local variations in dimensions or composition that cause local fluctuations
in stresses and strains. To determine the location of the incipient neck, these
fluctuations need only be infinitesimal in magnitude.
2. During tensile deformation the material decreases in cross-sectional area.
(Poisson effect)
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3. During tensile deformation the material strain hardens. The amount of

hardening varies with extent of deformation.
THE LATTER TWO ITEMS DETERMINE THE STABILITY WHILE THE
FIRST ITEM DETERMINES THE NECK'S LOCATION.
Graphical construction indicating criteria for neck formation and neck

stabilization.
Graphical construction for a material that deforms homogeneously at all draw

ratios.
The plots at left show the quantitative relation between hardening (depicted by the
curve's slope) and decrease in cross-sectional area (assumed in the Considère
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treatment to vary inversely with draw ratio) for a material that forms a stable neck
(top) and a material that deforms homogeneously at all draw ratios (bottom).
As the material deforms, all locations undergo approximately the same amount of
strain as long as it hardens more than its cross-sectional area decreases, as shown at
small draw ratios in the top diagram and at all draw ratios in the bottom. But if the
material begins to harden by a smaller proportion than the decrease in cross-sectional
area, as indicated by the first tangent point in the top diagram, strain concentrates at
the location of highest stress or lowest hardness. The greater the local strain, the
greater the local decrease in cross-sectional area, which in turn causes even more
concentration of strain, leading to an instability that causes the formation of a neck.
This instability is called "geometric" or "extrinsic" because it involves the material's
macroscopic decrease in cross-sectional area.
NECK STABILITY
As deformation proceeds the geometric instability causes strain to continue

concentrating in the neck until the material either ruptures or the necked material
hardens enough, as indicated by the second tangent point in the top diagram, to cause
other regions of the material to deform instead. The amount of strain in the stable
neck is called the natural draw ratio because it is determined by the material's
hardening characteristics, not the amount of drawing imposed on the material. Ductile
polymers often exhibit stable necks because molecular orientation provides a
mechanism for hardening that predominates at large strains.
The Nesting and Marking of Ship Parts Cut from Steel Plate
The methods presently used by U.S. shipbuilders for preparing, nesting and marking
plate parts are discussed. The use of existing computer technology is explored as a
means for improving these operations by conserving plate and reducing operating
costs. Appendices are included which list the advantages and disadvantages of both
the oxy-flame and plasma cutting processes, the use of special sized plate in hull
construction, and the basic features of a computerized parts nesting system.
OVER THE PAST 25 years, the shipbuilding industry has gone from full scale faired
hull design with manual part definition and preparation to the use of computerized
designs and computer assisted part preparation. During this period of growth, the
equipment and the computer systems adopted have varied from yard to yard to suit the
needs at the time of purchase. In addition, existing facilities and the historical mode of
operation has varied from yard to yard. Therefore, the methods for selecting plate
sizes, for nesting parts on the plate and the requirements for marking and labeling cut
parts vary from yard to yard.
In preparing this report, the above has been recognized. The various factors that play a
role in the final and successfully marked parts are discussed under the appropriate
headings. Introduction The nesting of parts cut from rolled plate has for many years
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been a subject of interest to the shipbuilder. Initially, during the period of full-scale
lofting and the manual development of shapes from the full-scale loft, nesting was
done manually, often on the production floor by laying out the parts on the plate.
During this period, many of the laid-out parts were cut by shears or by small, single-
torch, hand-guided machines.
The next step in the evolution of flame cutting led to the introduction of the 1/10-scale
loft and the production of 1/10-scale templates. With these templates it became
possible to produce nested 1/10-scale templates where the individual parts were
grouped on a scaled shape of the plate to be used. Photographic negatives of the nests
were then prepared at a further reduced scale. These negatives were projected on
plates fed through a dark projection tower. Operators marked the projected outline of
the shapes on the plate. Using the manually marked path, the parts were cut by a
manually guided, power or hand-operated torch. This required large burning areas and
multi-man single torch burning operations, the number depending on the ship
production needs. Because of the accumulation of tolerance errors encountered, many
parts were cut oversize and had to be trimmed to fit at assembly.
With the advent of the shape cutting machine, it became possible to produce cut plate
parts and, in particular, the smaller parts using a full-scale paper template and one or
more cutting torches, depending on the quantities of parts required. Introduction of the
electronic tracer in the 1940's made it possible to eliminate the hand-guided cutting
method and to quite accurately cut parts from full-scale templates with an
automatically guided template scanning device.
In the 1950's, it became possible to operate large coordinate driven flame cutting
machines from 1/10 or smaller scaled templates. This was accomplished through the
use of pilot machines equipped with photoelectric tracing heads that followed the
1/10-scaled templates or scaled projections of the original photo negatives. Here
again, through the manual arrangement of parts on the scaled plate shape, it was
possible to create a nest that improved plate utilization.
In the mid-1950's, the numerical control (N/C) of machine tools became practical,
first with positioning devices and then with contour-following devices. Programs for
these devices were originally prepared manually, and the necessary punched tape was
prepared by a manual hole-punching device and later by special typewriter machines.
As the numerical controls and machine hardware improved, manual programming
became impractical and industry identified a growing need for the development of
computer programming and the associated hardware. Because of the initial cost of
N/C controls and the associated hardware and the lack of software, the application of
N/C to shipbuilding took hold slowly. Initially, some users of the equipment, because
of the lack of computer software for defining shapes, operated from scaled drawings.
Tapes were prepared from these drawings through the use of point-to-point digitizers.
Even today, some yards continue to use paper templates and digitizers for some of
their programming needs.
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Through the years, there has been steady improvements made in the machine
hardware, in the N/C controls and in the associated program software. This has led to
the use of powerful, high-speed servo drives on the cutting machines. This, in turn,
has led to accelerated production through the use of the plasma cutting process and
the accurate high-speed plate marking at 200 to 300 inches per minute (ipm). During
the past few years, developments achieved through the use of minicomputers and
mainframe computers have further enhanced the performance of machines and
associated equipment to the point where some advanced systems operate from Direct
Numerical Control (DNC), and the use of punched tape has been completely
eliminated.
These developments have created an environment requiring improved nesting and

marking technology. This report has been prepared to help identify the problems and
to help pave the way to save both time and material through the use of efficient
computer-oriented methods for nesting, marking, and coding of flame-cut parts.
When preparing this list, preliminary nests of the parts required are usually made.
These parts fall into three general classifications as follows:
Class 1: These are the large parts that may be cut in direct image mode or both direct
and mirror image modes. On these parts, some layout marking is usually required for
referencing them to other parts on the ship's hull. In most shipyards today, these parts
are cut and prepared by large numerically controlled cutting machines.
Class 2: The low-quantity smaller parts such as intercostals, web frame sections,
equipment mounting brackets, etc.
Class 3: The high-quantity small parts such as brackets, clips, collars, and chocks that
are used throughout the construction of the hull.
These three categories can be divided into area groupings of the total plate used with
the following approximate values:
Class 1 72%
Class 2 24%
Class 3 4%
These classes will be further discussed in the following sections on the nesting,
cutting, and marking of cut plate items.
Cutting with the oxy-flame process
When using a large N/C flame cutting machine and the oxyflame process, it would
take 130 minutes to cut the parts shown in Fig. 1, giving a yield of 84 percent. The
total process time would break down as follows:
Plate handling time 15 min

Plate marking 10 min
Cutting time 130 min
Part and scrap removal 15 min
Total time 170 min
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When adding Class 3 parts to the nest, as shown in Fig. 2, the yield increases from 84
to 89 percent. The cutting time would increase from 130 min to 250 min, and the total
process time, including marking and handling, would become 332 min or about
double the time required in the first case (see Table 1). Here the scrap saving, valued
at approximately $105, when weighed against the reduced production of the machine,
might be questioned. See Fig. 3 for the dollar value of the steel. This helps explain
why the production of flame cut parts in many shipyards today is as follows:
Class 1 and most Class 2 parts are produced by the large numerically controlled
machines, which not only produce accurate parts, but which also do the plate layout
marking automatically. The Class 3 parts are produced in general by any one of the
five following methods which include:
1. Flame strip and shear.

2. Flame cut by multi-torch machine with optical template
scanner.
3. Flame cut by multi-torch machine with numerical control.
4. Plasma cut by single torch machine with numerical control.
5. Manual layout and use of single torch manually guided
machines.
With all but Nos. 3 and 4 above, these methods require a paper template, a wooden
template, or a manual layout. In Table 2, the results of a time study for producing
brackets by each of the above methods are listed. Usually, the material used to
produce these Class 3 parts is the drop-offs from the large N/C machine or machines.
In the study, the material cost indicated is for new plate.
The advantages and the disadvantages experienced with the use of the oxy-flame
cutting process are listed in Appendix 1. Cutting with the plasma process During the
past several years, advances made in the development of both hardware and software
have made it possible to very effectively produce steel ship parts with the plasma
cutting process. When using the plasma process for cutting the nests time required is
reduced considerably as shown in Table 1. Through the use of the plasma cutting
process and a good part nesting routine, significant savings can be realized in
producing a mix of Classes 1, 2, and 3.
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STRUCTURAL FIRE PROTECTION
DEFINITIONS
Accommodation Spaces
Accommodation spaces include:
 Public spaces
 Corridors and lobbies
 Public washrooms and toilet spaces
 Crew Cabins
 Passenger Cabins
 Offices
 Hospitals
 Dispensaries
 Cinemas
 Games Rooms
 Hairdressing salons and beauty parlours
 Isolated pantries containing no cooking appliances
 Dining rooms
 Lounges
 Shops
 Drying rooms having a deck area of 4m2 or less
 Isolated lockers and small storerooms having a deck area of 4m2 or less in
which flammable liquids are not stowed
 Cleaning gear lockers in which flammable liquids are not stowed
 Laboratories in which flammable liquids are not stowed
'A' Class Divisions
'A' class divisions are bulkheads and decks constructed of steel or other equivalent
material, capable of preventing the passage of smoke and flame to the end of the one-
hour standard fire test. They are insulated with approved materials such that the
average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more than 139oC above the
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original temperature, nor will the temperature at any one point, including any joint,
rise more than 180oC above the original temperature, within the time listed below:
Class "A-60" 60 minutes
'A' Class Fire Doors
The construction of all doors in 'A' Class bulkheads and the means of securing them
when closed should provide resistance to fire as well as to the passage of smoke and
flame, as far as practicable, equivalent to that of the bulkheads in which the doors are
situated. 'A' Class fire doors should be constructed of steel or other equivalent
material.
Approved Materials
Approved materials are those which have been approved by the Board of
Steamship Inspection and meet the test criteria described in the publication, TP439,
"Structural Fire Protection Standards: Testing and Approval Procedures".
'B' Class Divisions
'B' Class divisions are bulkheads, decks, ceilings and linings constructed of approved
non-combustible materials, capable of preventing the passage of flame to the end of
the first half-hour of the standard fire test. They have an insulation value such that the
average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more than 139oC above the
original temperature, nor will the temperature at any one point, including any joint,
rise more than 225oC above the original temperature, within the time listed below :
Class "B-15" 15 minutes
Class "B-0" 0 minutes
'B' Class Fire Doors

The construction of all doors in 'B' Class bulkheads and the means of securing them
when closed should provide resistance to fire as far as practicable equivalent to the
bulkheads in which the doors are situated. 'B' Class fire doors should be constructed
of approved non-combustible materials.
'C' Class Divisions
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'C' Class divisions are bulkheads, decks, ceilings and linings constructed of approved
non-combustible materials, which have no requirements relative to the passage of
smoke and flame nor the limiting of temperature rise.
'C' Class Doors
'C' Class doors are the type of doors required to be fitted in 'C' Class bulkheads. They
must be constructed of approved non-combustible materials.
Cargo Spaces
Cargo spaces are all spaces used for cargo including cargo oil tanks and any trunks
leading to and from such spaces.
Ceilings
Ceilings are horizontal divisions fitted near the deckhead of a space for the purpose of
decoration, acoustics or fire protection.
Combustible Materials
Combustible materials are materials which do not meet the criteria for non-
combustibility.
Continuous 'B' Class Ceilings and Linings
Continuous 'B' Class ceilings and linings are those ceilings and linings which
terminate only at a 'A' or 'B' Class division. Continuous 'B' Class ceilings may be used
in lieu of fitting 'B' Class bulkheads deck to deck in accommodation and service areas.
Control Stations
Control Stations include:

- Spaces containing emergency sources of power and lighting, including battery
rooms
- Spaces containing the ship's radio equipment
- Spaces used for the storage of smothering gas
- Wheelhouse and chart rooms
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- Control rooms for propelling machinery when located outside the propelling
machinery spaces
- Spaces containing fire control and recording equipment
- Spaces containing the operating controls for sprinkler and water deluge systems
- Spaces containing the emergency fire pumps
- Spaces containing the main navigation equipment
- Spaces containing centralized emergency public address system stations and
equipment.
- Trunks leading to and from the above spaces.
Dead End Corridors

Dead end corridors are passageways from which there is only one route of escape.
Draft Stops
Draft stops are divisions installed between ceilings or linings and the ship's structure.
The purpose of draft stops is to prevent the spread of smoke and flame in concealed
spaces.
Fire Dampers
Fire dampers are devices fitted to vent ducts that penetrate 'A' Class bulkheads and
decks, in order to maintain the fire integrity of the division and to prevent the spread
of smoke and flame to adjacent compartments through the ventilation system.
Fire Integrity
Fire integrity is the basic fire-resisting ability of a bulkhead or deck to remain intact
during a specified period, ie., 60 minutes for 'A' Class and 30 minutes for 'B' Class.
Furnishings
Furnishings are the contents of a room, such as desks, chairs, draperies, carpets, etc.
Intumescent Coatings
Intumescent coatings mean coatings which when heated are subject to a chemical
reaction called intumescence. This causes the coating to form into a multi-cellular
barrier which acts as a partial fire-shield. Intumescent coatings are not structural fire
insulations.
Machinery Spaces of Category "A"

Machinery spaces of category "A" are spaces and trunks to such spaces which contain
internal combustion machinery used for main propulsion, internal combustion
machinery for purposes other than main propulsion where such machinery has in the
aggregate a total power output of not less than 375kW, or any oil fired boiler or oil
fuel unit.
Machinery Spaces
Machinery spaces include:
- Machinery spaces of category 'A'
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- Spaces containing propelling machinery

- Boiler spaces
- Spaces containing fuel oil units, steam or internal combustion machinery
- Spaces containing generators or electrical motors and auxiliaries (spaces containing
the emergency source of power are considered control stations)
- Oil fuel filling stations
- Spaces containing refrigeration machinery
- Spaces containing ventilation and air conditioning machinery
- Spaces containing steering gear machinery
- Spaces containing stabilizing machinery
- Trunks leading to and from the above spaces
Main Vertical Zones

Main vertical zones are sections into which the hull, superstructure and deckhouses
are divided by 'A' Class divisions the mean length of which on any one deck does not
in general exceed 40 metres. Where main vertical zoning is not practicable as in
special category spaces, equivalent protection must be obtained on the basis of a
horizontal zone concept.
Public Spaces
Public spaces are those spaces in accommodation areas that are used for dining rooms,
lounges, recreation rooms, libraries and similar enclosed spaces.
Penetrations
Penetrations are openings made in bulkheads or decks to allow the passage of pipes,
electric cables and ventilation ducts. For the purpose of structural fire protection,
these openings must be protected to maintain the fire integrity of the bulkhead or
deck.
Ro-Ro Cargo Spaces

Ro-Ro cargo spaces are spaces not normally subdivided in any way and extending to
either a substantial length or the entire length of the ship in which goods (packaged or
in bulk), in or on rail or road cars, vehicles (including road or rail tankers), trailers,
containers, pallets, demountable tanks or in or on similar stowage units or other
receptacles that can be loaded and unloaded normally in a horizontal direction.
Rooms Containing Furniture and Furnishings of Restricted Fire Risk

Rooms containing furniture and furnishings of restricted fire risk are those rooms
(whether cabins, public spaces, offices or other types of accommodation) in which:
a) All case furniture such as desks, wardrobes, bureaux, dressers, is constructed
entirely of approved non-combustible materials except that a combustible
veneer not exceeding 2mm may be used on the working surface of such
articles;
b) Al free standing furniture such as chairs, sofas, tables is constructed with
frames of non-combustible materials;
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c) All draperies, curtains and other suspended textile materials have, qualities of
resistance to flame not inferior to those of wool of mass 0.8kg/m2;
d) All soft floor coverings meet the test criteria described in TP439,"Structural
Fire Protection Standards:Testing and Approval Procedures".
e) All exposed surfaces of bulkheads, linings and ceilings have low flame spread
characteristics; and
f) All upholstered furniture meets an approved test criteria.
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Service Spaces
Service spaces include:
- Galleys
- Pantries containing cooking appliances
- Storerooms
- Workshops (other than those forming part of a machinery space)
- Laundries
- Drying rooms having a deck area of more than 4m2
- Mail and baggage rooms
Part 1
Page 7
- Paint and lamp rooms
- Trunks leading to and from the above spaces
Special Category Spaces

Special category spaces are enclosed spaces above or below the bulkhead deck
intended for the carriage of motor vehicles with fuel in their tanks for their own
propulsion, into and from which such vehicles can be driven and to which passengers
have access.
Stairways
Stairways are vertical means of escape between two decks. A stairway which
penetrates only one deck must be enclosed by bulkheads and a door at least at one
level. If it is necessary to have a stairway that penetrates more than one deck, a stair
tower is to be provided.
Stair tower
A stair tower is an enclosure which provides continuous fire shelter for a stairway
penetrating more than one deck.
Steel or other Equivalent Material

Means steel or any non-combustible material that by itself or when insulated has
structural and fire integrity properties equivalent to steel at the end of the applicable
exposure to the standard fire test.
Structural Fire Protection
Structural fire protection is a means of minimizing the probability of a major fire and
the resulting loss of life by designing the structure of the ship to confine any
outbreaks of fire to as small an area as possible. This is accomplished by specifying
fire endurance capabilities of structural boundaries. Additional items considered are
minor bulkheads and penetrations of structural boundaries.
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The following basic principles underline the requirements contained in the

Regulations and Standards pertaining to structural fire protection:
a) Division of the ship into main vertical zones by thermal and structural
boundaries (passenger ships);
b) Separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of the ship by
thermal and structural boundaries;
c) Restricted use of combustible materials;
d) Detection of any fire in the zone of origin;
e) Containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin;
f) Protection of the means of escape or access for fire fighting;
g) Ready availability of fire extinguishing appliances; and
(h) Minimization of possibility of ignition of flammable cargo vapour.
SUBMISSION OF PLANS
The following plans are required to be submitted to the Ship Safety Branch to reflect
the structural fire protection arrangements of each vessel.
2.1 Fire Zone Plan
2.1.1 The fire zone plan should be in the form of an outline general arrangement
drawing, drawn to a scale of not less than 1:100. The regulations being applied
and the area of operation should be indicated. Each interior compartment, and
exterior decks if designated for the mustering and embarkation of passengers is
to be identified by name and classified according to its fire risk into one of the
categories described in the tables contained in the applicable regulations. In the
case of cargo ships, the method of fire protection which is to be adopted i.e. IC,
IIC or IIIC, should be stated on the drawing. Main vertical zone and horizontal
zone boundaries should be clearly marked. All bulkhead and deck fire integrity
and insulation values are to be shown and the symbols used to indicate such
values are to be easily distinguishable. Figure 1 indicates an acceptable method
of presenting this information.
This plan should only contain the information described above. Past practice by
some shipbuilders and naval architects has been to submit drawings which
contain additional information such as installation details of fire insulation,
ventilation systems and fire extinguishing equipment. This practice will no
longer be accepted. Fire zone plans are not to be confused with fire control
plans which are intended for the guidance of ship's officers in a fire emergency.
Insulation Details
This plan should indicate the location and installation details for all structural fire
insulation and other types of insulation fitted, i.e. comfort and acoustic, including
details of vapour barriers where fitted. Each product is to be identified and the
methods of installation, thicknesses and other details for each product are to be in
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accordance with the conditions specified on the relevant certificate of approval issued
by the Board of Steamship Inspection.
Bulkhead, Ceiling, Lining and Draft Stop Details

This plan should indicate the location and installation details of all 'A' Class, 'B' Class,
and 'C' Class non-combustible bulkheads, ceilings, linings and draft stops. Each
product is to be identified and the methods of installation, thicknesses and other
details are to be in accordance with the conditions specified on the relevant certificate
of approval issued by the Board of Steamship Inspection.
Deck Covering Details

This plan should indicate the location and installation details for deck coverings both
fire-rated and non-fire-rated. Each product is to be identified and the methods of
installation, thicknesses and other details are to be in accordance with the conditions
specified on the relevant certificate of approval issued by the Board of Steamship
Inspection.
2.5 Ventilation System Details

This plan should indicate the arrangement of the ventilation ducts throughout the
vessel. It should also indicate the sizes, construction materials and thicknesses of
ducts, the extent and type of fire insulation fitted to ducts, location and details of
fire dampers and details of the closing devices for the main inlets and outlets.
2.6 List of Doors

This plan should indicate the location, type, dimensions and fire rating of each 'A'
and 'B' Class door or shutter which is to be fitted on the ship and an indication of
the doors provided with self-closing and central control releasing arrangements.
The names of the manufacturers of the doors and the appropriate certificate of
approval number should also be indicated.
2.7 Penetration Details

This plan should indicate the detailed arrangements when 'A' Class bulkheads
and decks and 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings and linings are penetrated by pipes,
electric cables and ventilation ducts.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Methods of construction and installation of such materials must be strictly in

accordance with those described in the certificate of approval and shown on the
manufacturer's approved drawings. No departure will be permitted without the
prior consent of the Board of Steamship Inspection.
3.2 Non-Combustible Materials

3.2.1 One of the basic principles of the Coast Guard's structural fire protection
philosophy is that the material from which the vessel is constructed should not
add to the fuel load available for combustion.
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3.2.2 This requires that the majority of materials of construction within the
accommodation and service spaces be non-combustible and must successfully
pass the tests described in TP439, "Structural Fire Protection Standards: Testing
and Approval Procedures" except for certain materials which are known to be
inherently non-combustible. The following materials fall under this category and
are accepted without testing:
a. Sheet glass, block glass, clay, ceramics and uncoated glass fibres;
b. All metals except magnesium and magnesium alloy;
c. Portland cement, gypsum and magnesite concretes having aggregates of
sand, gravel, expanded vermiculite, expanded or vesicular slags,
diatomaceous silica, perlite or pumice;
d. Woven, knitted or needle punched glass fabric containing not more than
2.5% lubricant.
3.3 Structural Fire Insulations
3.3.1 The basic element of bulkhead and deck construction is steel plate. Without
additional insulation, steel plate of the required thickness suitably stiffened can
be classified as an A-0 or B-0 division. Structural integrity, however, is not the
sole parameter upon which the structural fire protection system is dependent. To
prevent the spread of fire by radiant or conducted heat, some structural divisions
must also act as insulators to prevent the transmission of heat to the unexposed
side of the bulkhead or deck.
3.3.2 There are basically three ways to achieve this insulating capability on bare steel:
a. application of an approved structural fire insulation;

b. application of an approved bulkhead or ceiling panel; or
c. a combination of (a) and (b) above.
3.3.3 Materials which have been approved only for use as an insulation for 'A' Class
bulkheads should not be used as an insulation for 'A' Class decks and vice versa.
3.3.4 Structural fire insulations are to be tested in accordance with the tests for 'A'
Class bulkheads and decks described in TP439, "Structural Fire Protection
Standards: Testing and Approval Procedures".
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3.4 Bulkhead, Lining and Ceiling Panels
3.4.1 Generally, bulkhead, lining and ceiling panels are constructed of non-
combustible binder board or steel faced mineral wool. These panels may be
used in the construction of 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings and linings or as
components in 'A' Class bulkheads and decks when tested in accordance with
the tests described in TP439, "Structural Fire Protection Standards: Testing and
Approval Procedures".
3.5 Deck Coverings
3.5.1 Deck coverings fall into two categories, fire rated and non-fire-rated. Fire rated
deck coverings are materials which have been approved for use as an insulation
material in the construction of 'A' Class decks. Non-fire-rated deck coverings
consist of two types, primary and surface. Primary materials are normally in the
form of an underlay applied directly to the deck plating and are used for
levelling and smoothing. Surface materials are the exposed deck covering
materials fitted for decorative purposes. TP439, "Structural Fire Protection
Standards: Testing and Approval Procedures" describe the test requirements for
both fire-rated and non-fire-rated deck coverings.
3.5.2 Soft floor coverings such as carpets which are fitted in corridors, stairways and
spaces containing furniture and furnishings of restricted fire risk require to be
tested in accordance with TP439, "Structural Fire Protection Standards: Testing
and Approval Procedures.
3.5.3 Soft floor coverings which are fitted in spaces other than the type described
above should be to the satisfaction of the local surveyor who must satisfy
himself that the material fitted does not constitute a hazard.
3.6 Interior Finish Materials
3.6.1 The interior finish applied to shipboard compartments is important because the
spread of flame and the generation of smoke is dependent upon the properties of
the interior finish materials.
3.6.2 In passenger ships the following surfaces are to have low flame spread
characteristics:
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a. Exposed surfaces of bulkheads, linings, and ceilings in corridors and

stairway enclosures;
b. Exposed surfaces of bulkheads, linings, and ceilings in all accommodation
spaces, service spaces and control stations.
c. Surfaces in concealed or inaccessible spaces in accommodation spaces,
service spaces and control stations.
3.6.3 In cargo ships and tankers the following surfaces are to have low flame spread
characteristics:
a. Exposed surfaces of bulkheads, linings and ceilings in corridors and

stairway enclosures;
b. Exposed surfaces of ceilings in accommodation spaces, service spaces and
control stations;
c. (c) surfaces in concealed or inaccessible spaces in accommodation spaces,
service spaces and control stations.
3.6.4 The above requirements do not apply to furniture, furnishings, machinery and
similar items except where required by a specific regulation e.g. The Towboat
Crew Accommodation Regulations.
3.6.5 Where surfaces are required by the regulations to have low flame spread
characteristics, they should be tested in accordance with TP439, "Structural Fire
Protection Standards: Testing and Approval Procedures".
3.6.6 Where exposed surfaces of ceilings are required to have low flame spread
characteristics plastic light diffusers may be fitted in way of ceiling mounted
light fittings provided the fitting is enclosed in a steel housing. The total surface
area of the plastic diffusers in any one space should not exceed 20% of the total
ceiling area.
3.7 Vapour Barriers
3.7.1 Where insulations are exposed to oil and oil vapours they should be faced with a
vapour barrier of impervious material such as aluminum foil or plastic film.
Any joints should be sealed with a tape of compatible material having a
minimum width of 50mm. Details of and the method of applying the vapour
barrier material should be shown on the plan of insulation details described in
Part 2. In no case where a vapour barrier is fitted should the expanded metal
used to secure 'A' Class insulation be dispensed with.
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3.7.2 Where there is a risk of an 'A' Class insulation becoming damaged by the
shipping or unshipping of machinery or similar operations, then the vapour
barrier should be protected by a metal sheathing. The metal sheathing should be
attached to the structure independently of the 'A' Class insulation with a gap of
at least 25mm and the number and size of the means of securing the metal
sheathing should be kept to a minimum. Figure 2 shows an acceptable method
of installing the metal sheathing but any other similar method of attachment
may be considered.
3.8 Combustible Materials
3.8.1 In passenger ships, the total volume of combustible facings, mouldings,

decorations and veneers in any accommodation and service space should not
exceed a volume equivalent to a 2.5mm thick veneer on the combined area of
the walls and ceilings.
3.8.2 In cargo ships and tankers, non-combustible bulkheads, linings and ceilings
fitted in accommodation and service spaces may have a surface combustible
veneer not exceeding 2mm in thickness within any such space, except corridors
and stairway enclosures where the veneer should not exceed 1.5mm in
thickness..
CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT
4.1 GENERAL
4.1.1 The effectiveness of structural fire protection is dependent upon each material
or fitting being properly fitted and erected in the approved manner so that each
'A' or 'B' Class division is an effective barrier against fire.
4.1.2 Poor workmanship or lack of attention to detail, particularly with respect to

boundaries and intersections of 'A' and 'B' Class divisions and penetrations
through such divisions, may result in a fire breaking through a division in a very
short period of time.
4.2 'A' Class Insulations
4.2.1 'A' Class bulkheads

4.2.1.1 'A' Class bulkheads were originally required on passenger vessels for "fire
resisting" boundaries described as main vertical zones, spaced at intervals
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of 40 metres. Currently, 'A' Class boundaries are also required to contain

fires in high fire hazard areas such as machinery spaces, galleys and cargo
spaces in passenger ships, cargo ships and tankers. 'A' Class bulkheads
are also required to protect spaces such as control stations and stairway
enclosures.
4.2.1.2 'A' Class bulkheads, in some locations, are required to have insulating
capabilities. There are four types of 'A' Class bulkheads, each type being
alpha-numerically designated to indicate its fire integrity and insulation value,
i.e., A-60, A-30, A-15 and A-0.
4.2.1.3 'A' Class bulkheads are constructed of steel or other equivalent material.
Subject to any additional requirements for watertight or load bearing
structures, the minimum scantlings required for steel and aluminum alloy 'A'
Class bulkheads should be derived from the following tables and notes.
4.2.1.4 Scantlings of 'A' Class bulkheads should not be less than those derived from
the following tables and notes since these are based on the minimum
scantlings of the bulkhead specimens which are used to test 'A' Class
insulations. If bulkheads of lesser scantlings were to be used, the insulations
may not achieve the 'A' Class standards for which they were approved.
4.2.1.5 Steel 'A' Class bulkheads

(a) The spacing of stiffeners should not normally exceed 760mm;
(b) Where swedges are used to stiffen 'A' Class bulkheads the spacing should
not exceed 760mm.
Where stiffeners are spaced other than 760mm apart, the
stiffness and strength should be increased or decreased in direct proportion to
their spacing.
4.2.1.6 Where 'A' Class bulkheads are constructed of aluminum alloy, they should
have equivalent strength, stiffness and efficiency to that of steel bulkheads
having the same length or unsupported span.
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4.2.1.7 The following table gives the ratios which may be used to obtain these
equivalent values:
Plating thickness 1.4 x thickness of steel of aluminum alloy plating Modulus
(I/Y) of 2.35 x Modulus (I/Y) of aluminum alloy stiffeners steel stiffeners
Inertia (I) of aluminum 2.8 x Inertia (I) of lloy stiffeners steel stiffeners
4.2.1.8 An insulation for an 'A' Class bulkhead should cover the whole area of the
division and adjacent structures as indicated in paragraph 4.2.10 except that
it may terminate on top of the expanded metal or equivalent fitted over the
insulation incorporated in an 'A' Class deck covering of the same or higher
'A' Class standard provided that the 'A' Class deck insulation is fitted tightly
to the bulkhead plating as shown in Figure 3. However when an insulated 'A'
Class bulkhead terminates at the tank top or bottom shell plating, the
insulation should terminate 380mm above the tank top or bottom shell plating
to prevent the insulation absorbing any oil or water which may be on the tank
top or bottom shell plating. The lower edge of the insulation should terminate
at a flat bar welded to the bulkhead as shown in Figure 4.
4.2.1.9 Any pipe penetrations situated in the bulkhead below the flat bar need not be
insulated provided that the penetrations are constructed in accordance with
paragraph 4.2.13 .
4.2.1.10 Any cable penetrations situated in the bulkheads below the flat bar need not
be insulated except for those which are constructed of heat sensitive
materials. These should be insulated in accordance with the conditions
specified in the certificate of approval as indicated in paragraph 4.2.15.2
and the insulation protected by an oil and oil vapour barrier.
4.2.2 'A' Class decks
4.2.2.1 The insulation of decks for fire protection purposes can be accomplished by
two methods. The first method is to insulate the underside of the deck plating
with a structural fire insulation and the second method is to apply an
approved fire rated deck covering on the upper side of the deck.
4.2.2.2 'A' Class decks, in some locations, are required to have insulating
capabilities. There are four types of 'A' Class decks, each type being
alpha-numerically designated to indicate its insulating capability, i.e., A-60,
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A-30, A-15 and A-0.
4.2.2.3 When structural fire insulation is installed it should not terminate at the edge
of the deck, but should be carried around the adjacent structure for at least
380mm for steel (450mm for aluminum alloy) to prevent heat transmissions
as shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7.
4.2.2.4 If an approved fire rated deck covering is used as the insulating material,
care is to be taken for preventing heat transmission. Where the deck
covering is penetrated by steel, aluminum or 'B' Class bulkheads or other
structures or where it terminates at a boundary such as the ship's side,
deckhouse side or casing, the horizontal and vertical structure underneath
and adjacent to such penetrations and boundaries are to be insulated for
a distance of 380mm for steel (450mm for aluminum alloy) with an approved
'A' Class fire insulation as shown in Figure 6 and 7.
4.2.2.5 'A' Class decks are constructed of steel or other equivalent material. Subject
to any additional requirements for watertight or other load bearing structures,
the minimum scantlings required for steel and aluminum alloy 'A' Class decks
are to be derived from the following tables and notes:
4.2.2.6 Scantlings of 'A' Class decks should not be less than those derived from the
following tables and notes since these are based on the minimum scantlings
of the deck specimens which are used to test 'A' Class insulations. If decks
of lesser scantlings were to be used, the insulations may not achieve the 'A'
Class standards for which they were approved.
a. The spacing of beams should not normally exceed 760mm.
b. Where beams are spaced other than 760mm apart, the stiffness and
strength should be increased or decreased in direct proportion to their
spacing.
4.2.2.8 Where 'A' Class decks are constructed of aluminum alloy, they should have
equivalent strength, stiffness and efficiency to that of steel decks having the
same length or unsupported span.
4.2.2.9 The following table gives the ratios which may be used to obtain these
equivalent values:
Plating thickness 1.4 x thickness of steel
of aluminum alloy plating
Modulus (I/Y) of 2.35 x Modulus (I/Y) of
aluminum alloy beams steel beams
Inertia (I) of aluminum 2.8 x Inertia (I) of
alloy beams steel beams
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4.2.2.10 An insulation for an 'A' Class deck should cover the whole area of the
division and adjacent structures as indicated in paragraph 4.2.10. It should
not terminate at a ships side lining or deckhouse side lining or a bulkhead
lining except that a ceiling which is a component for an 'A' Class deck may
terminate at a lining fitted deck to deck which is a component of an 'A' Class
bulkhead as shown in Figure 13.
4.2.3 Mineral wool insulations
4.2.3.1 Mineral wool insulations should be stored in dry conditions before use and
hould be dry when attached to the ships structure.
4.2.3.2 The density of a mineral wool insulation is required to be within the range of
±10% of the density specified by the manufacturer and indicated on the
certificate of approval. Surveyors should check from the mass and volume of
several slabs or rolls that the density of an insulation lies within this range. A
surveyor who finds that the density of an insulation is outside this range
should contact Headquarters (AMSDD) for advice on what further action
should be taken.
4.2.3.3 Although water does not normally affect the insulating properties of 'A' Class
mineral wool insulations it could seriously corrode the steel pins and
expanded metal which secures the insulations to the structure. Therefore
surveyors should examine insulation which has been soaked with water and
if there are any signs of deterioration in the pins and expanded metal then
the insulation should be removed, the pins renewed as necessary, the
insulation replaced when dry if still in good condition or new insulation fitted,
and new expanded metal and spring steel washers fitted over the pins.
4.2.3.4 Insulation fitted in boiler rooms should be examined regularly as similar

deterioration may occur due to the high humidity in such spaces.
4.2.4 Securing insulations to structure
4.2.4.1 When mineral wool batts are used as the structural fire insulation, the batts
should be fitted tightly against all mating surfaces. Steel pins having a
diameter of 3mm and a length of at least 12mm longer than the thickness of
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the insulation, are to be welded to the steel bulkhead or deck and the
insulation impaled on the pins. In the case of aluminum bulkheads and decks,
stainless steel pins screwed into aluminum alloy bosses welded to the
structure are to be used. Galvanized steel expanded metal mesh sheets, 18
gauge x 38mm are to be placed over the surface of the insulation and held in
position by 38mm square or 38mm diameter spring steel washers pressed
firmly over the pins. To ensure that the insulation is anchored tightly against
the bulkhead or deck the pins are to be spaced at 300mm centres maximum.
However, adjacent to stiffeners and exposed ends, the spacing is to be as
shown in Figures 10 and 11.
4.2.4.2 As an alternative, surveyors may accept the insulation being secured by

means of welded steel pins bent at right angles over the expanded metal
mesh, the spring washers being dispensed with provided that the pins are at
least 40mm longer than the thickness of the insulation and pins in adjacent
rows are bent over in opposite directions. On no account should pins be bent
in the same direction since this may result in the expanded metal mesh
becoming detached from the insulation. The pins should be bent over at the
exposed surfaces of the insulation in order to maintain its thickness and
prevent a 'quilted' effect occurring. On aluminum alloy structures, the steel
pins should not be bent over at right angles as an alternative method of
securing the insulation since the thread in the bosses may be damaged in
the process of bending the pins.
4.2.5 Board type insulation material
4.2.5.1 For the purpose of this part, board type insulation material includes panels
consisting of mineral wool insulation faced with sheet steel.
4.2.5.2 The density of a board type panel or the core insulation in the case of a panel
consisting of mineral wool insulation faced with sheet steel is required to be
within the range of ±10% of the density specified by the manufacturer and
described on the certificate of approval. Surveyors should check from the
mass and volume of the boards or panels that the density of the board or
insulation lies within this range. A surveyor who finds that the density of an
insulation is outside this range should contact headquarters (AMSDD) for
advice on what further action should be taken.
4.2.5.3 Each board type insulation which has been approved as a component of an
'A' Class bulkhead should be fitted deck to deck except that it may terminate
on top of the insulating component of an 'A' Class deck covering as indicated
in 4.2.1.8 and as shown in Figures 8 and 12. In no case should
the board insulation terminate on any other type of deck covering. Stopping a
board type insulation at ceiling level and insulating the bulkhead between the
ceiling and the deckhead is acceptable provided the arrangement is as
shown in Figure 12.
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4.2.5.4 If a tween deck height exceeds the length of an 'A' Class board insulation the
length of the board may be increased by butt strapping an extension board of
the same material to it, the joint between the boards being tight. Straps
should be fitted in way of the joint on each side of the extended board and
should be of steel having a length equal to the width of the board less any
jointing profiles and width and thicknesses of 75mm and 0.07mm
respectively. The butt straps should be screwed and not through bolted.
4.2.5.5 Care should be taken to ensure that the board type panels used as the
insulating media for 'A' Class bulkheads are erected in accordance with the
approved manufacturer's drawings and in particular that the correct
thicknesses of boards and jointing profiles are used. The boards may be
faced on their exposed and concealed surfaces with a combustible material
of the prescribed thickness having low flame spread characteristics.
4.2.6 Electrical fittings on 'A' class linings
4.2.6.1 Lighting switches, power sockets and other electrical fittings and cables
leading to such fittings should be surface mounted on the unconcealed side
of linings which are the insulating media for 'A' Class bulkheads in order to
ensure that the insulation standards of the bulkhead are not impaired. The
cables may be uncovered or fitted in conduits or covered by omega profiles
of steel or other materials having surfaces with low flame spread
characteristics.
4.2.7 Ceilings which are components of 'A' Class decks
4.2.7.1 Ceilings which have been approved as components of 'A' Class decks
should be constructed in accordance with the manufacturer's approved
drawings. A ceiling should not be fitted closer to the deck plating than the
dimension quoted in the certificate of approval. The panels from which a
ceiling is constructed may be faced on their exposed and concealed
surfaces with a combustible material of the prescribed thickness having low
flame spread characteristics.
4.2.7.2 Hinged panels may be fitted in an 'A' Class ceiling in order to provide access
for the control and maintenance of fire dampers located above the ceiling
provided that the integrity and insulation standard of the ceiling is not
impaired, particularly when the ceiling incorporates an overlay of mineral
wool insulation.
4.2.7.3 A ceiling which is a component of an 'A' Class deck should not be

penetrated by bulkheads and linings which are 'B' Class or 'C' Class
divisions or combustible divisions nor should it rely on support afforded by
such bulkheads and linings. The ceiling should be supported in accordance
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with the approved manufacturer's drawings at the ships side, deckhouse

side or 'A' Class bulkheads and also from the deckhead by steel hangers
and/or on the flanges of the top profiles of bulkheads and linings, the profiles
being supported by steel hangers from the deckhead. Figure 9 illustrates
such arrangements.
4.2.8 Sprayed insulations
4.2.8.1 The density of a sprayed insulation in its dried out condition is required to be
within the range of ±15% of the density specified by the manufacturer and
indicated on the certificate of approval.
4.2.8.2 The thickness of a sprayed insulation indicated in the certificate of approval

is a minimum thickness. Surveyors should use their discretion when checking
the thickness of a sprayed insulation and may accept small areas in which
the minimum thickness has not been achieved provided that the insulation in
these areas are deficient by no more than 3mm and the thickness over the
division is generally in excess of the minimum thickness.
4.2.9 'A' Class deck coverings
4.2.9.1 The preparation of the deck plating and the method of installing an approved
'A' Class deck covering are described in the certificate of approval and
shown on the approved manufacturer's drawing.
4.2.9.2 Linings which are the insulating media for 'A' Class bulkheads and decks
and linings which are 'B' Class or 'C' Class or are combustible should not
penetrate an 'A' Class overdeck insulation. In each case the bottom profile
should be fitted to the top of the 'A' Class insulation as shown on the
appropriate manufacturer's approved drawing. Combustible surfaces fitted
to an 'A' Class deck covering should not be laid under any bulkheads or
linings. Figure 8 illustrates such arrangements.
4.2.10 Boundaries, intersections and terminal points of thermal barriers
4.2.10.1 It is essential that the fire integrity and insulation value of insulated 'A' Class
divisions are maintained at the boundaries and terminal points of the division
and where the division is intersected by other structural members. The
method by which this may be achieved is by continuing the insulation along
the boundaries and intersections for a distance of not less than 380mm in the
case of steel structure and 450mm in the case of aluminum alloy structure.
The thickness of the insulation used in the continuation ribands should be the
same as that fitted over the plating of the division which is being insulated
and not as that of the insulation fitted over the stiffeners or beams. This
should apply to all structures at which the division terminates or which abuts
or intersects the division such as bulkheads or decks, ships side or
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deckhouse side, webs or girders and beams or stiffeners. It may be

necessary to fit ribands of insulation on the opposite side of the division to
that on which the insulation is fitted. When a division is insulated by means of
approved boards or panels, the continuation of the insulation may best be
achieved by the use of an approved mineral wool insulation having a
thickness corresponding to the same 'A' Class standard as that of the
division which is being insulated. Figures 5, 6, 7, 14 and 15 illustrate typical
arrangements to prevent heat transmission at boundaries, intersections and
terminal points.
4.2.10.2 The continuous ribands may be omitted in the following locations:

a. on the underside of a weather deck abutting a bulkhead which is being
insulated; and
b. on the upper side of a deck intersecting a bulkhead which is being
insulated except when the bulkhead is a machinery casing.
4.2.11 Approved manufactured systems for pipes penetrating 'A' Class bulkheads
and decks
4.2.11.1 Any approved manufactured system for pipe penetrations may be used for
pipes penetrating 'A' Class divisions subject to compliance with the
conditions specified in the certificate of approval and the details shown on
the manufacturer's approved drawing.
4.2.11.2 Bends in pipes should be arranged sufficiently clear of a bulkhead or deck

so as not to interfere with a pipe penetration. Pipe penetration systems are
normally tested on straight pipes and consequently they should not be fitted
round bends unless the certificate of approval indicates otherwise.
4.2.12 Acceptable non-manufactured systems for pipes penetrating 'A' Class

bulkheads and decks
4.2.12.1 When the piping is of steel or any other material having a melting point of
000°C or more either (a) or (b) should apply:
a) The pipe should be welded directly to the bulkhead or deck or
joined to a fitting of the same material which should be welded
or bolted to the bulkhead or deck. Where practicable, in the
case of an insulated bulkhead or deck the fitting should be of
sufficient length to ensure that bolted flanges are clear of the
insulation which is to be continued along the fitting for a
distance of 380mm from the bulkhead or deck. When
compression, push-in or similar joints are used, the length of
the portion of the piping or fitting which is welded or bolted to
the bulkhead or deck should not be less than 900mm with at
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least 400mm on the insulated side of the bulkhead or deck.

Figure 26 illustrates such arrangements.
b) When the pipe is not welded or bolted to the bulkhead or deck
as indicated in (a) then each pipe should be passed through a
steel circular conduit of 5mm minimum thickness which should
be welded to the bulkhead or deck. A nominal 20mm gap
should be provided between the pipe and the conduit which
should be packed tightly throughout its length with an A-60
standard insulation approved by the Board of Steamship
Inspection and sealed at each end with a suitable flexible
sealant.
The minimum length of the spigots should be as follows:-
 Outside Diameter Minimum Length of Spigot
 50mm or less 400mm
 150mm or more 900mm
 Lengths of conduits for intermediate diameters
 should be obtained by interpolation.
 Compression, push-in or similar types of joints should not be
 positioned within the spigot and should not be less than 900mm apart.
The conduit should be positioned such that at least 400mm of its
length is on the insulated side of the insulated bulkhead or deck as
shown in Figure 27.
4.2.12.2 When piping is of a material having a melting point less than 1000°C the
following should apply:
a) Bulkheads
Each pipe should be passed individually through a 900mm
long steel circular conduit of 5mm minimum thickness which
should be welded to the bulkhead. A nominal 20mm gap
should be provided between the pipe and the conduit which
should be packed tightly throughout its length with an A-60
standard insulation approved by the Board of Steamship
Inspection and sealed at each end with a suitable flexible
sealant. There should be no joints in the pipe within the length
of the conduit. The conduit should be positioned such that at
least 400mm of its length is on the insulated side of the
insulated bulkhead. Figure 28 illustrates such an arrangement.
b) Decks
Pipes penetrating decks should be treated as indicated in (a)
above except that when the piping extends vertically through
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more than one tweendeck, the vertical piping in alternate

tweendecks should be of steel irrespective of whether or not
the pipe is offset within its length.
4.2.13 Piping penetrating watertight 'A' Class bulkheads and decks
4.2.13.1 The piping should be of steel or any other material having a melting point of
1000°C or more and should be welded directly to the bulkhead or deck or
joined to a bulkhead or deck fitting of the same material which should be
welded or bolted to the bulkhead or deck as described in 4.2.12.
4.2.13.2 Compression, push-in or similar joints should not be used in piping systems
which penetrate watertight 'A' Class bulkheads and decks.
4.2.13.3 Piping which is of any material having a melting point of less than 1000°C
should not be used in piping systems which penetrate watertight 'A' Class
bulkheads and decks.
4.2.14 Insulating pipe penetrations
4.2.14.1 When the piping penetrations referred to in 4.2.12 and 4.2.13 pass through
insulated 'A' Class bulkheads and decks the insulation on the plating of the
bulkhead or deck should be continued along the piping or spigot for a
distance of not less than 380mm. Where a pipe has a bend close to the
division the 380mm should be measured along the inside of the bend. The
insulation should be secured effectively in place. See also 4.2.1.8 and
4.2.14.2 When a pipe penetration passes through an 'A' Class bulkhead or deck that
is insulated with a 'B' Class panel, the arrangement of insulation should be as
illustrated in Figure 29.
4.2.15 Electric cables penetrating 'A' Class bulkheads and decks

.1 Any approved manufactured cable transit may be used for electric cables
penetrating non-watertight 'A' Class bulkheads and decks subject to
compliance with the conditions described in the certificate of approval
issued by the Board of Steamship Inspection and the details shown on the
manufacturer's approved drawing. Figures 30 and 31 illustrate typical
installation arrangements.
.2 Alternatively the following procedures may be adopted:
The cables should be passed through steel conduits having a minimum
length of 450mm and a minimum thickness of 5mm which should be
welded
to the bulkhead or deck. The internal cross sectional area of the conduits
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should not exceed 0.05m2

A nominal distance of 20mm should be maintained between the cables and
between the cables and conduit. The space between the cables and between the
cables and the conduit should be packed tightly throughout the length of the
spigot with an A-60 insulation approved by the Board of Steamship Inspection
and the ends of the conduit sealed with a suitable flexible sealant. When the
bulkhead or deck is insulated the conduit may project up to 400mm on the
insulated side of the division but should not project more than 225mm on the
uninsulated side of the bulkhead or deck. The insulation on the bulkhead or
deck should be continued along the conduit and cables where applicable for a
distance of not less than 380mm. Where the bulkhead or deck is uninsulated
the conduit may project up to 400mm on either side. Figure 30 illustrates an
acceptable arrangement.
4.2.15.3 Cables which penetrate watertight bulkheads and decks should only be
passed through manufactured cable transits which have been approved by
the Board of Steamship Inspection for this purpose as indicated in the
certificate of approval.
4.2.16 Information required for approval
4.2.16.1 The following information is required to be submitted in order that the Board
of Steamship Inspection may issue a certificate of approval for use of a
material as the insulating medium for an 'A' Class bulkhead or deck:
a) a copy of the test report issued by the testing laboratory for each fire test carried
out in accordance with the applicable test procedure described in TP439,
"Structural Fire Protection Standards: Testing and Approval Procedures";
b) a sample of the material measuring approximately 100mm x

100mm for examination and record;
c) any trade literature which the manufacturer may have on the

material; and
d) two copies of a drawing showing the following information:
(i) in the case of a mineral wool or ceramic fibre insulation,

the drawing should show details of the insulation
including its name, reference number and/or letters,
thickness and density; an elevation of a part typical
bulkhead or upwards view of a part typical deck
showing the disposition of the pins; sections through a
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bulkhead in way of large and small stiffeners or a deck

in way of large and small beams; a large scale detail of
a welded steel pin or welded aluminum alloy boss and
screwed stainless steel pin, the galvanized steel
expanded metal and a spring steel washer. In the case
of an A-60 standard insulation the drawing should
incorporate a section showing the staggering of joints in
the two layers of insulation;
(ii) in the case of a board or panel type of bulkhead

insulation the drawing should show details of the board
or panel including its name, reference number and/or
letters, its dimensions and density and in the case of a
composite panel details of its components; air gaps
between the board or panel and the bulkhead plating
and between the board or panel and the stiffeners;
connections to the deck and deckhead and shipside or
deckhouse side; butt joints and joints for inside and
outside corners;
(iii) in the case of panels used in the construction of a

ceiling which is the insulating medium for an 'A' Class
deck the drawing should show details of a panel
including its name, reference number and/or letters, its
dimensions and density and, in the case of a composite
panel, its components; the hangers and framework
supporting the ceiling panels and dimensions of each
profile used in their construction; connections to the
ship's side or deckhouse side and to 'A','B','C' and
combustible bulkheads; the joint across a ceiling which
exceeds the maximum length of the panels; and the
arrangement in way of the boundary of an 'A' Class
deck which is clear of any 'A' Class bulkhead or the
ship's side or deckhouse side;
(iv) in the case of a sprayed insulation the drawing should

show details of any necessary preparatory work to be
carried out on the structure of the bulkhead or deck and
the coverage rate in square metres/litre and
corresponding dry film thickness of each coating which
is to be applied to the structure before the insulation is
sprayed; the mechanical retention; and the name
reference numbers and/or letters, thickness and density
of the insulation. The drawing should also indicate the
number of bags of dry mix of the insulation ingredients
which when mixed with water will cover one square
Page 86
metre of a bulkhead or deck at the correct thickness

and density;
(v the deck covering in way of the ship's

side, a steel bulkhead and a 'B','C' or combustible
bulkhead, a plan view of the deck covering showing the
various layers of the constituent materials cut away in
turn and sections through the deck covering in way of
penetrations such as pipes and ventilation ducts.
4.3 'A' Class Doors and Shutters
4.3.1 General
4.3.1.1 Doors and shutters
a) Every door and shutter assembly which is used to close

openings in 'A' Class bulkheads should be of an approved type
and its construction and method of installation should be in
accordance with the conditions specified in the certificate of
approval issued by the Board of Steamship Inspection and the
details shown on the manufacturer's approved drawing.
b) When a door or shutter is used to close an opening in an 'A'

Class bulkhead constructed of aluminum alloy it should be
fitted in a stiffened steel panel attached to the aluminum
bulkhead by 12mm diameter steel bolts spaced 300mm apart.
The steel plate should extend 450mm beyond the sides and
top of the frame of the door or shutter. The steel plate and bolts
should be suitably isolated from the aluminum alloy to the
satisfaction of the attending surveyor.
c) In no case should a primary or a surface deck covering be

fitted under an 'A' Class door or shutter. The sill plate, sill
channel or coaming, whichever is applicable should be welded
to the deck plating and such coverings stopped on each side
of it.
d) Grilles and louvres should not be fitted in 'A' Class doors or

shutters. If a hose port is fitted it should be self-closing and
constructed of material which is equivalent in fire resistance to
that of the door in which it is fitted. The hose port should be
150mm square and should be inset into the lower edge of the
door leaf, opposite the door hinges, or in the case of a sliding
door, nearest the opening.
.
4.3.1.2 Doors only
Page 87
a) A door should have the same or higher 'A' Class standard as the bulkhead in
which it is fitted.
b) A window having a clear glass area not exceeding 0.02 m2 may be fitted in the
upper half of an 'A' Class door provided that:
(i) it is positioned no closer than 150mm to any edge of
the door leaf;
(ii) the window is of toughened safety glass and the window
frame and glazing bar are of steel;
(iii) the door incorporating the window has been
successfully fire tested and a certificate of approval
issued and details of the window are shown on the
manufacturer's approved drawing.In no case should a
window be accepted in an 'A' Class door which does
not comply with these conditions.
4.3.1.3 Shutters only
a) In no case should a shutter be fitted in an 'A' Class bulkhead

other than a bulkhead of A-0 standard.
b) A drop-rolling shutter should be capable of automatic closure
after initial release.
4.3.2 Doors in spaces of high humidity
4.3.2.1 'A' Class doors which are fitted in the boundary bulkheads of boiler rooms,
refrigerated machinery spaces and similar spaces having atmospheres of
high humidity may be constructed of stainless steel instead of mild steel
without the necessity to retest the doors provided that all other materials and
details of construction are the same as shown on the manufacturer's
approved drawing.
4.3.3 Installation
4.3.3.1 Each door or shutter should be inspected by the attending surveyor to verify
as far as it can be determined that the door or shutter and its frame have
been constructed in accordance with the drawing referred to on the
identification plate and that the 'A' Class standard of the door or shutter is at
least the same as that of the bulkhead in which it is fitted.
4.3.3.2 The attending surveyor should satisfy himself that the bulkhead has
been
faired and adequately stiffened around any opening in which a door or
shutter is to be fitted in order to ensure that no stresses will be imposed on
the door or shutter and its frame which may cause them to distort and
become inoperable. It is not intended that the frame of a door or shutter
should form any part of such stiffening.
Page 88
4.3.3.3 Each door or shutter should be examined after it has been fitted to verify that:
a) the door or shutter and its frame have been properly fitted in
the bulkhead;
b) the clearances between the edges of the door or shutter and
its frame correspond reasonably with those shown on the
manufacturer's approved drawing; and
c) the latches or shootbolts of a door or shutter are properly
engaging the frame. The dimensions of the holes in a
doorframe in which the top and bottom latches or shootbolts
engage should be approximately 5mm greater than the
dimensions of the latches or shootbolts in order to cater for
minor movements of the door and its frame during service.
4.3.3.4 Opening and closing tests should be carried out on each door or shutter after
the closing devices have been positioned so that the attending surveyor may
be satisfied as far as is practicable that the door or shutter complies with the
appropriate regulations. These tests should be carried out whilst the ship is
in the upright position.
4.3.3.5 Sliding fire doors should have positive means of closing under all conditions.
It has become common practice to fit power assist systems to such doors to
make their operation easier for passengers, however, the fitting of such
systems is not to result in the removal of counterweights which are required
to ensure fail-safe operation of the doors.
4.4 'B' Class Bulkheads, Linings and Ceilings
4.4.1 Construction
4.4.1.2 Generally, 'B' Class bulkheads linings and ceilings are constructed of
individual panels joined together by a system of steel framing. 'B' Class
bulkheads are required by the regulations to extend from deck to deck and to
the shell or other boundaries unless continuous 'B' Class ceilings and linings
are fitted on both sides of the bulkhead, in which case they may terminate at
the ceiling or lining. Figures 16, 17 and 18 illustrate acceptable
arrangements. In passenger ships where continuous 'B' Class ceilings or
linings are fitted on both sides of the corridor bulkheads, the portion of the
bulkhead behind the ceiling or lining should be of a material which in
thickness and composition is acceptable in the construction of 'B' Class
bulkheads but meets 'B' Class integrity standards only insofar as is practical.
Figure 23 shows acceptable methods of compliance with this requirement.
4.4.1.3 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings and linings are required by the regulations to be
constructed of approved non-combustible materials which have been tested
and approved by the Board of Steamship Inspection in accordance with the
procedures described in TP 439, 'Structural Fire Protection Standards:
Testing and Approval Procedures'. The methods of erecting 'B' Class
bulkheads, ceilings and linings should be in accordance with the conditions
Page 89
described in the certificate of approval and the details shown on the

approved manufacturer's drawing
4.4.1.4 When a 'B' Class bulkhead or lining is required to be fitted deck to deck in a
tween deck the height of which exceeds the maximum length of the panel
from which the bulkhead or ceiling is constructed, the panels may be
increased by butt strapping extension panels of the same material to them,
the joint between the panels being tight. Straps should be fitted in way of the
joint on each side of an extended panel and should be of steel having a
length equal to the width of the panel less any jointing profiles and a width
Part 4
Page 18
and thickness of 75mm and 0.7mm respectively. The butt straps should be
screwed and not through bolted. The jointing profiles should be fitted deck to
deck.
4.4.1.5 When a 'B' Class bulkhead or lining is fitted deck to deck, closing
arrangements shall be fitted in way of structural members as shown in Figure
24.
4.4.2 Steel or aluminum alloy 'B' Class bulkheads
4.4.2.1 Subject to any additional requirements for load bearing structure, the
minimum scantlings required for steel or aluminum alloy 'B' Class bulkheads
should be the same as those for steel and aluminum alloy 'A' Class
bulkheads as derived from the table and notes in paragraphs 4.2.1.3 to
4.2.1.7.
4.4.2.2 The regulations require that the insulation of aluminum alloy 'B' Class
bulkheads should be such that the temperature of the aluminum alloy core
does not rise more than 200°C above the ambient temperature at any time
during a standard fire test of 30 minutes duration. This requirement applies
to 'B' Class bulkheads of both B-15 and B-0 standard.
4.4.2.3 Steel 'B' Class bulkheads of B-15 standard should be insulated to the same
standard as steel 'A' Class bulkheads of A-15 standard and aluminum alloy
'B' Class bulkheads of B-15 and B-0 standards should be insulated
respectively to the same standards as aluminum alloy 'A' Class bulkheads of
A-15 and A-0 standards unless a certificate of approval has been issued by
the Board of Steamship Inspection for the appropriate 'B' Class standard.
4.4.3 Termination of 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings and linings
4.4.3.1 A 'B' Class bulkhead, ceiling or lining should not terminate at another 'B'
Class bulkhead, ceiling or lining of lower standard, or a 'C' Class or
Page 90
combustible bulkhead, ceiling or lining.
4.4.4 Marking
4.4.4.1 Each panel used in the construction of a ‘B' Class bulkhead, ceiling or lining
should bear the identification marking as indicated on the appropriate
certificate of approval.
4.4.5 Bottom profiles
4.4.5.1 The steel angle or channel profiles which support the bottom edges of the
panels from which a "B' Class bulkhead or lining is constructed, should be
welded to the deck plating or connected to the expanded metal or equivalent
fitted over an 'A' Class deck covering by welding or steel fastenings as
shown on the approved manufacturer's drawing for the 'A' Class deck
covering. In no case should a 'B' Class bulkhead or lining penetrate an 'A'
Class insulation incorporated in an approved deck covering. Primary or
surface deck coverings which are combustible should not be laid under 'B'
Class bulkheads or linings. Figures 8, 19 and 20 illustrate such
arrangements.
4.4.6 Top profiles
4.4.6.1 The top edges of the panels from which a 'B' Class bulkhead or lining is
constructed should be housed in steel channel profiles with a gap between
the top edges of the panels and the inside of the webs of the channels in
order to prevent the panels being effected by any movement in the ship's
structure. The channel profiles supporting the top edges of the panels should
be welded to either:
a) the deckhead;
b) the bottom edge of the beams, the gaps between the beams
being plated-in or filled-in using the same panels from which
the bulkhead or lining is constructed;
c) the bottom edge of a continuous steel curtain plate having a
minimum thickness of 3mm. when the depth of curtain a plate
exceeds 450mm its lower edge should be flanged and it
should be stiffened to the satisfaction of the attending surveyor.
When the bulkhead or lining is of B-15 standard the curtain
plate should be insulated on one side with an 'A' Class mineral
wool insulation of A-15 standard attached to the curtain plate
by means of welded steel pins, expanded metal and spring
steel washers; or
d) steel hangers welded to the deckhead and having scantlings
and a spacing as shown on the approved manufacturer's
drawing from which the bulkhead or lining is constructed. When
Page 91
the distance between the top channel profile and the deckhead
is in excess of 500mm, the attending surveyor should consider
whether or not it is necessary to increase the scantlings of the
steel hangers in order to maintain the stability of the bulkhead
or lining particularly in a direction at right angles to the division.
The hangers may be omitted in the case of a lining which
terminates at a continuous 'B' Class ceiling provided that the
top channel profile of the lining is welded to the stringer which
connects the ceiling to the ship's side or deckhouse side and
'A' Class bulkheads respectively as shown on the approved
manufacturer's drawing for the ceiling panels.
4.4.6.2 In no case should the top channel profile be laid directly on top of the panels
from which a 'B' Class bulkhead or lining is constructed i.e. without an air
gap.
4.4.6.3 When a shipbuilder wishes to construct a 'B' Class bulkhead or lining by

erecting the panels before the steel hangers and channel profile, the gap
between the top edge of the panel and the inside of the profile should be
maintained by bonding strips of an 'A' Class mineral wool insulation to the
top edge of the panels at approximately 600mm spacing before fitting the
top channel profile. The strips of insulation should be bonded in place with
their fibres positioned vertically and their length should be 100mm, their width
equal that of the panels and their depth equal to the gap above the top edge
of the panels as indicated on the approved manufacturer's drawing.
4.4.6.4 The top channel profiles of 'B' Class bulkheads should be unperforated when
they support ceilings which are the insulating media for 'A' Class decks of A-
60 standard except for holes which are permitted for the passage of electric
cables as indicated in paragraph 4.4.11.
4.4.6.5 Figures 19 and 20 illustrate acceptable arrangements.
4.4.7 Access panels
4.4.7.1 Hinged panels may be fitted in a 'B' Class ceiling or lining in order to provide
access for the control and maintenance of fire dampers in ventilation ducting
positioned behind the ceiling or lining provided that the integrity and
insulation standards of the ceiling or lining are not impaired particularly in the
case of a ceiling overlaid with a mineral wool insulation. Each access panel
should be provided with a bolt or catch to keep it in the closed position
except that bayonet catches should not be used.
4.4.8 Lighting and ventilation fittings
4.4.8.1 Lighting fittings should preferably be surface mounted on a 'B' Class ceiling
Page 92
but when a fitting penetrates the ceiling it should be of steel or covered with a
steel box and fastened effectively to the ceiling in order to maintain the
integrity of the ceiling. When the ceiling is of B-15 standard the steel light
fitting should be covered by a mineral wool insulation which has been
approved by the Board of Steamship Inspection for an A-15 standard, the
insulation being effectively secured to the fitting or cover. Alternatively the
light fitting may be boxed in using a 'B' Class material having a thickness
appropriate to a B-15 standard. Ventilation fittings are to be protected in a
similar manner.
4.4.8.2 Figures 43 and 44 illustrate acceptable arrangements.
4.4.9 Cables inside panels or jointing profiles
4.4.9.1 Cables should not be fitted in ducts arranged in panels from which 'B' Class
bulkheads or linings are constructed or in the jointing profiles unless the
approved manufacturer's drawing for a particular panel shows otherwise. An
approved drawing will only indicate that cables may be so installed when a
bulkhead incorporating cables and switches has been successfully fire
tested. Only cables from switches and or power outlets located on the same
side of a bulkhead or lining should be led through a duct or profile.
4.4.10 Pipes penetrating 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings and linings
4.4.10.1 When pipes of steel or any other material having a melting point of 1000°C
or more pass through 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings or linings, they should be
fitted with collars made from the same material as that of the division. The
collars should be fitted on one side of the bulkhead only and adequately
screwed to the division. The collars should be a tight fit around the pipes in
order to maintain the integrity of the division. When compression, push-in or
similar joints are used, the length of the portion of the pipe which is to be
collared to the bulkhead should not be less than 900mm in order to ensure
that the integrity of the division is not impaired if there is movement in the
pipe and a joint separates adjacent to the division. Figures 35 and 36
illustrate these and other acceptable arrangements.
4.4.10.2 When pipes of any material having a melting point of less than 1000°C pass
through 'B' Class bulkheads, linings or ceilings, they should be fitted
individually in a steel circular conduit having a minimum thickness of 1.5mm.
Each conduit should be a close fit in the hole in the bulkhead, ceiling or lining
and should have a welded steel collar which is to be screwed to the
bulkhead, ceiling or lining. A nominal 20mm gap should be provided
between the pipe and the conduit which should be packed tightly through its
length with an A-60 standard insulation approved by the Board of Steamship
Inspection and sealed at each end with a suitable flexible sealant.
The minimum length of the conduits should be as follows:-
Page 93
 Outside Diameter Minimum Length of Conduit

 50mm or less 450mm
 150mm or more 900mm
 Lengths of conduits for intermediate diameters of pipe should be
 obtained by interpolation.
When a conduit is fitted in a 'B' Class bulkhead, ceiling or lining of B-15
standard it should be positioned that at least 400mm of its length is on one
side of the bulkhead, ceiling or lining. Compression, push-in or similar type
joints should not be positioned within the conduit and should not be less than
900mm apart. Figures 37 and 38 illustrate these and other acceptable
arrangements.
4.4.10.3 When a pipe penetrates a 'B' Class bulkhead, ceiling or lining of B-15
standard, the pipe or spigot should be insulated for a distance of 380mm
from the bulkhead, ceiling or lining with an A-15 standard insulation approved
by the Board of Steamship Inspection. Where a pipe has a bend close to the
division the 380mm should be measured along the inside of the bend.
4.4.11 Cables penetrating 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings and linings
4.4.11.1 Cables in conduits

Where up to three in number cables for lighting and power in cabins and
similar spaces penetrate 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings and linings they may
be fitted in a steel conduit having a minimum length of 450mm and of such an
internal diameter as to provide a close fit round the cables. The conduit
should be passed through a hole in the bulkhead, ceiling or lining having the
same diameter as the outside diameter of the conduit. The ends of the
conduit should be sealed with a suitable flexible sealant except that the
sealant need not be applied to the end of a conduit which is inside a switch
or outlet.
4.4.11.2 Cables in transits
Where cables other than those referred to in paragraph 4.4.11.1 penetrate a
'B' Class bulkhead, ceiling or lining they should be passed through transits
having a minimum length of 300mm and constructed of steel of 1.5mm
thickness. The internal cross sectional area of the transits should not exceed
0.05 square metre. The transits should be a close fit in the holes in the
bulkhead, ceiling or lining and should be attached to the bulkhead, ceiling or
lining by screwed steel angle or plate collars such that the integrity of the
bulkhead, ceiling or lining is not impaired. A nominal distance of 20mm
should be maintained between the cables and the cables and the transit and
the transit should be packed tightly throughout its length with an A-60
standard insulation approved by the Board of Steamship Inspection and the
ends of the transit sealed with a suitable flexible sealant.
Page 94
4.4.11.3 Conduits and transits which are fitted in 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings or
linings of B-15 standard should be insulated for a distance of 380mm from
the division with an A-15 standard insulation approved by the Board of
Steamship Inspection. The insulation should be effectively secured.
4.4.11.4 Figures 39 and 40 illustrate the above arrangements.
4.4.11.5 Cables on or in bulkheads or linings

Cables leading to switches and/or outlets should be surface mounted on 'B'
Class bulkheads or linings and they may be exposed, fitted in a conduit, or
covered. The cables may also be fitted in a duct within the panels from which
the bulkhead or lining is constructed or in the joining profiles subject to
compliance with paragraph 4.4.9.
4.4.12 Drawings
4.4.12.1 Each type of 'B' Class bulkhead system is approved on the basis of testing
together with the approval of detailed drawings showing the installation on
board the ship. These drawings should reflect the following:
a) vertical sections covering all pertinent installation details and
clearly depicting:
(i) deck and deckhead connections to the ship's
structure;
(ii) ceilings and lining connections;
(iii) draft stop connections;
(iv) dimensions and thicknesses of all retaining shapes,
etc.; and
(v) the type, size and spacing of all bolts and/or screws
used in the assembly of the panels or draft stops.
b) Horizontal sections covering all pertinent installation details
and clearly depicting all joints and connections.
c) Details of joint posts; corner posts and other retaining shapes
which should be at least 1.5mm thick steel except that these
shapes may be of 0.75mm steel sheets, double thickness, with
at least a 19mm lap into the panel unless having been tested
otherwise.
4.4.12.2 Drawings for 'B' Class ceilings should reflect similar details of construction
and installation as required for 'B' Class bulkheads.
4.5 Draft Stops
4.5.1 Where 'B' Class bulkheads terminate at ceilings and linings, this results in
void spaces being created above ceilings and between the linings and the
shell or deckhouse side. These void spaces must be fitted with both
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longitudinal and transverse draft stops every 14m to limit the maximum area
within the void space as shown on Figure 21.
4.5.2 Draft stops are required by the regulations to be constructed of noncombustible
materials.
4.5.3 Any of the following methods of construction may be used to construct draft
stops:
a) the extension of 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings or linings the
details of which are shown on the appropriate approved
drawing;
b) the extension of 'C' Class bulkheads, ceilings or linings;
c) 1mm thick minimum steel sheet, intermittently welded to the
structure, stiffened where necessary and attached to the top
profiles of bulkheads or fitted tightly to ceilings or linings. Any
lightening holes in the ship's structure which is used as part of
a draft stop should be plated over;
d) approved non-combustible board type materials supported by
steel flat bars or steel angle or channel profiles attached to the
ship's structure, bulkheads, ceilings or linings and fitted tightly
to such structures or divisions;
e) approved 'A' Class mineral wool insulation, not less than
25mm in thickness, faced on each side with galvanized steel
expanded metal mesh, 18 gauge x 38mm, the sheets of mesh
being tied together through the insulation by galvanized wire at
not more than 450mm spacing. The mesh on one side of the
insulation should be attached to the ship's structure and to the
'B' Class bulkheads or ceilings.
f) Figure 22 illustrates acceptable arrangements.
4.6 'B' Class Doors
4.6.1 General
4.6.1.1 Every door assembly which is used to close openings in 'B' Class bulkheads
should be of an approved type and its construction and method of installation
should be in accordance with the conditions specified in the certificate of
approval and the details shown on the manufacturer's approved drawing.
4.6.2 Attachment to bulkheads
4.6.2.1 A doorframe of a 'B' Class door assembly should not be screwed or bolted
to 'B' Class bulkheads constructed of board type materials because the
expansion of the steel frame could cause serious cracking in boards during a
fire situation which could result in an integrity failure of the bulkhead.
4.6.3 Ventilation openings
4.6.3.1 The 0.05m2
total net area limitation for openings in and/or under 'B' Class
doors is applicable to single and double leaf doors. In the case of a double
leaf door the limitation should apply to the whole door and not to each leaf
individually.
4.6.3.2 When a door is fitted with an escape panel the ventilation opening should be
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incorporated into it.

4.6.3.3 In addition to a ventilation grille being capable of manual closure from each
side of the door it may be closed by means of a spring actuated by the
melting of a fusible link or similar. In no case should the automatic means of
closing be accepted without the manual means of closure.
4.6.4 Escape panels
4.6.4.1 Escape panels should be constructed in accordance with the details shown
on the manufacturer's approved drawing and the panels should not exceed
410mm x 410mm in size. Where no details of an escape panel are shown on
Part 4
Page 26
the manufacturer's drawing, the door manufacturer should be requested to
submit details of the construction to Ship Safety Headquarters (AMSDD) for
consideration before use.
4.6.5 Locks
4.6.5.1 Every 'B' Class door fitted in a cabin bulkhead should be capable, when
locked, of being opened manually from the cabin side other than by means of
the key or key card.
4.6.5.2 Any 'B' Class door, other than a cabin door, which is fitted to an opening
forming part of an escape route should not be capable of being locked shut
except that when such a door is required to be locked shut by the owner for
any justifiable reason, keys should be provided on each side of the door in
glass fronted boxes fitted close to the door.
4.7 Construction of 'C' Class Bulkheads, Linings and Ceilings
4.7.1 Construction
4.7.1.1 Although the Board of Steamship Inspection does not issue certificates of
approval for 'C' Class bulkheads, linings and ceilings, they should be
constructed of approved non-combustible materials. Profiles used in the
construction of ‘C' Class bulkheads, linings and ceilings should be of steel or
aluminum alloy.
4.7.1.2 Any 'C' Class bulkheads constructed of aluminum alloy which are structural
bulkheads supporting 'A' Class decks are required to be insulated such that
the temperature of their structural core does not rise more than 200°C above
the ambient temperature when subjected to a standard fire test for the same
periods of time as required for the deck which they are supporting.
4.7.1.3 The use of glass in 'C' Class bulkheads or partitions should be kept to a
minimum because of the hazards which could be created if such bulkheads
or partitions were to collapse or shatter during a fire or other emergency
situation.
4.7.2 'A' Class overdeck insulations
4.7.2.1 A 'C' Class bulkhead or lining should not penetrate an 'A' Class overdeck
insulation incorporated in an approved deck covering. The bottom profile of
the bulkhead or lining should be attached to the expanded metal fitted over
the insulation by means of welding or steel fastenings whichever is
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applicable as shown on the manufacturer's approved drawing for the 'A'

Class deck covering. Figure 8 illustrates acceptable arrangements.
4.7.3 Deck coverings
4.7.3.1 Primary or surface deck coverings which are combustible should not be laid
under 'C' Class bulkheads or linings.
4.8 Aluminum Alloy Structures
4.8.1 The methods of insulating aluminum alloy structures are quite different from
those of steel for several basic reasons. When considering either steel or
aluminum alloy, 60 minutes is the longest period of time any assembly is
required to maintain its integrity under fire conditions. By examining the
standard time-temperature curve, we find that after 60 minutes the furnace
temperature is approximately 900°C. For steel bulkheads and decks, this
temperature is below the melting point of the steel, thus if a fire should occur
on either side of a steel division, structural integrity will be maintained.
Structural fire insulation, may be installed on either side of a steel division in
accordance with the conditions described on the certificate of approval. For
aluminum alloy, however, a different situation exists. To maintain its
structural
integrity under fire conditions for more than several minutes, the aluminum
alloy must be insulated to keep the aluminum alloy core temperature below
200°C. Although the melting point is much higher, failure of aluminum alloy
under loaded conditions may occur at this temperature.
4.8.2 Since it cannot be predetermined from which side fire exposure will occur,
insulation must be applied to the aluminum alloy so that it will be sufficiently
protected to withstand one hour fire exposure from either side, except in
cases where exposure from only one side is possible.
4.8.3 A steel plate (minimum thickness of 5mm) without insulation is rated as
Class A-0; however, an aluminum plate (minimum thickness of 7mm) must
have an insulation value (Fc) of .72 S to be rated as Class A-0. The Class
A-0 steel plate can be changed to Class A-15, A-30 or A-60 by adding some
predetermined thickness of approved structural insulation, but the aluminum
Class A-0 assembly, which already included some amount of structural
insulation, cannot be changed to Class A-15, A-30 or A-60 by the same
process.
Depending upon the configuration of the insulation and the aluminum alloy
plate, the insulating value of the assembly may increase or decrease. As a
result, bulkhead and deck assemblies can be constructed which will have
different fire endurance capability, depending upon which side of the
assembly is exposed to fire. TP439, "Structural Fire Protection Standards:
Testing and Approval Procedures" describes a variety of bulkhead and deck
assemblies, showing the total insulating value of the assembly (Ft), and the
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core insulating value (Fc) provided by the insulation on each side of the
aluminum plate. Simply stated, the (Fc) value determines whether the
assembly is 'A', 'B' or 'C' Class and the (Ft) value determines whether the
assembly can be rated Class A-0, A-15, A-30 or A-60.
4.8.4 When planning aluminum construction, formidable amounts of insulation may

be required to comply with the current regulations for structural fire
protection.
For example, consider that a common bulkhead separating two spaces is
required to be Class A-60. If a fire risk exists on either side of the bulkhead,
Class A-60 capability must be provided on both sides of the bulkhead.
4.9 Hinged or Portable Decks

Hinged or portable decks used for the carriage of vehicles should be
constructed of steel. Ramps connecting any decks which are used for the
carriage of vehicles should also be constructed of steel.
4.10 False Decks

False decks should be constructed of steel or other equivalent material
except that small areas in lounges and dining rooms used as dance floors
may be constructed of wood which should be included in the total volume of
combustible facings, mouldings etc. referred to in the regulations. A false
deck is any deck which is fitted above the level of a structural deck for any
purpose and is sometimes referred to as a false or raised floor. See also
paragraph 12.5.9.
4.11 Separation of Machinery Spaces from Other Spaces

Any insulated bulkhead or deck which separates any machinery space from
any other space should not be substituted by a cofferdam formed by
uninsulated bulkheads or decks even though the arrangement would
theoretically satisfy the regulations by treating the cofferdam as an
intervening void space. A cofferdam does not provide the same degree of
protection as an insulated division. This should also apply to any
arrangement involving a false deck (see paragraph 4.12).
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4.12 Means of Escape

4.12.1 General
4.12.1.1 The basic purpose of structural fire protection is to provide a life safety
system for the passengers and crew. The configuration of passageways,
stairways and doors is highly important to this system. Two means of escape
are necessary from all living and working areas. If one of the escape routes
requires using a watertight door, it is possible that this escape route could be
blocked in order to maintain the watertight integrity of the vessel. Therefore,
at least one escape route from all areas should be independent of watertight
doors. Additionally, the means of escape should be as far apart as possible.
This concept is intended to prevent any one incident from blocking both
escape routes.
4.12.2 Special category spaces
4.12.2.1 The stairways forming the means of escape from each special category
space should be suitably spaced in order to provide adequate coverage to
the whole of the space. One stairway should be provided for every 40m of
length and at least one stairway should be provided at each end of the space
and one stairway at approximately mid-length, each of which provides
continuous fire shelter in the form of a stairtower to the survival equipment
embarkation deck.
4.12.2.2 In ships fitted with two or more casings, the spacing of stairways providing
continuous fire shelter should apply to each casing.
4.12.3 Ro-ro cargo spaces
4.12.3.1 Ro-ro cargo spaces should be fitted with two means of escape one of which
shall provide continuous fire shelter in the form of a stairtower to the survival
equipment embarkation deck. The two means of escape should be situated
at opposite ends of the space. Additional means of escape may be
necessary in a space which extends over a considerable portion of the ship's
length.
4.12.4 Machinery spaces
4.12.4.1 The continuous fire shelter which is required by the regulations to be

provided for one of the two means of escape from each machinery space
should be regarded as a stairtower for the purpose of determining the 'A'
Class standards to which it should be insulated in way of adjacent spaces.
4.12.4.2 The shelter should extend from the floor plate level to a level at which there
is direct access into a space other than a special category space, which
provides a safe escape route to the survival equipment embarkation deck.
4.12.4.3 The shelter should be of sufficient cross sectional dimensions to provide
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unrestricted access within its height and should not be used for pipes, cables
ducts etc. except for cables serving light fittings within the shelter. The cross
sectional dimensions of the shelter should be increased in way of each
opening in order to provide a landing within the shelter and permit the door to
open without affecting a person who may be climbing the ladder.
4.12.4.4 An opening into the shelter should be provided at floor plate level and at each
flat or grating level within the height of the shelter except that such an opening
need not be provided at any flat or grating level at which there is a door in a
boundary of the machinery space which provides a safe escape route to the
survival equipment embarkation deck.
4.12.4.5 Each opening in the shelter should be fitted with a self-closing 'A' Class door
of the same 'A' Class standard as the part of the shelter in which it is fitted.
4.12.4.6 A control room situated within a machinery space should be provided with
means of escape which does not entail entering the machinery space. This
may be achieved by one of the following:
a) direct access into the continuous fire shelter; or
b) direct access into an adjacent space which provides a safe escape route to
the survival equipment embarkation deck.
4.12.5 Stairways
4.12.5.1 Stairways and stairtowers form the primary means of escape within the
vessel. As such, it is vital that these enclosures be designed to provide a
means of escape during a fire and also to prevent the spread of fire between
decks.
4.12.5.2 There are two basic arrangements specified by the regulations. The first
involves a stairway which only penetrates a single deck as shown in Figure 25.
Because this is a penetration of one deck, it is only necessary to provide a door
and enclosure bulkheads at one level. In this case, the stairway
enclosure should be protected in accordance with fire rating tables for decks
contained in the applicable regulations.
4.12.5.3 The second design involves a stairway which penetrates more than one deck
as shown in Figure 25. This type of stairway is considered a stairtower. A
stairtower is a continuous vertical trunk constructed to at least Class A-0
standard. In cargo ships and tankers where there are at least two means of
escape providing direct access to the open deck at every level, the
stairtower may be of Class B-0 construction.
4.12.5.4 The two designs described above are the only arrangements contemplated
by the regulations. Other designs which place several stairways, each of
which penetrates only a single deck, vertically above or adjacent to each
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other, are not considered equivalent to a stairtower and are not permitted by
the regulations.
4.12.5.5 Where a stairtower has no direct access to the survival equipment
embarkation deck, the corridors between the stairway and the embarkation
deck should be assumed to be part of the stairtower with its boundaries
having the appropriate 'A' Class standards accordingly.
4.12.5.6 Detailed requirements with respect to stairways and sloping ladders on

passenger ships are described in TP2237, "Equivalent Standards for Fire
Protection of Passenger Ships". At present there are no regulatory
requirements with respect to stairways and sloping ladders on cargo ships
and tankers. However, on such vessels the stairways and sloping ladders
should generally comply with the requirements for crew members described
in TP2237.
4.12.5.7 In no case should any escape route providing access for passengers to the
survival equipment embarkation deck incorporate a vertical or near vertical
ladder.
4.12.6 Protection of stairways
4.12.6.1 The treads, risers and backing plates, when fitted, of stairways should be
constructed of steel except that they may be constructed of aluminum alloy
when the structure is of aluminum alloy. Stairway enclosures constructed of
steel which are required to be insulated, may be insulated on either side but
when the enclosures are insulated on the inside measures should be taken to
prevent heat transmission through the boundaries in way of decks, landings
etc. Stairway enclosures constructed of aluminum alloy should be insulated at
least on their outside to the appropriate 'A' Class standard specified in the
regulations.
4.12.6.2 Escalators should be considered in all respects as stairways. Adequate area

should be provided in the enclosures at each end of an escalator in order to
avoid congestion and the doors in the enclosure bulkheads should be of
adequate width to permit passengers to disperse quickly. Due regard should
be paid to the design and position of controls so as to prevent unauthorized
use. However emergency stop controls should be provided in readily
accessible positions.
4.12.7 Elevator trunks in stairway enclosures

4.12.7.1 The boundaries and doors of an elevator trunk which is situated entirely
within a stairway enclosure are not required to meet any 'A' Class standard
provided that:
a) any boundary of the elevator trunk which forms part of the
stairway enclosure is an 'A' Class division of the appropriate
standard as specified in the regulations; and
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b) any opening in the elevator trunk which gives direct access to

any space situated outside the stairway enclosure is provided
with an approved door of the same 'A' Class standard as the
bulkhead as in which it is fitted.
4.13 Ventilation Systems (Passenger ships)
4.13.1 General
4.13.1.1 The ventilation systems serving the following spaces should be independent
of accommodation spaces, service spaces and control stations and should
be independent of each other:
a) stairway enclosures;
b) a galley;
c) machinery space;
d) a special category space;
e) a cargo space; and
f) a ro-ro cargo space.
4.13.1.2 Wherever practicable, the duct system from each ventilation fan should
remain within one main vertical or horizontal zone. Where of necessity, a
ventilation duct passes through a main vertical or horizontal zone division, a
fail safe automatic closing fire damper capable of being manually closed
from each side of the division, should to be fitted adjacent to the division
regardless of duct size.
4.13.2 Duct material
4.13.2.1 Ducts not less than 0.075 square metre in sectional area and all vertical
ducts of any cross sectional area serving more than a single between-deck
space are required to be of steel or other equivalent material. Where an
equivalent material such as aluminum alloy is used the inside and the outside
of the duct would need to be insulated to A-0 standard.
4.13.2.2 Ducts less than 0.075 square metre in cross sectional area are required to
be of non-combustible materials.
4.13.2.3 Short ducts, not exceeding 2 metres in length and with a cross sectional area
not exceeding 0.02 square metre may be constructed of combustible
material, subject to the following conditions:
a) the material should have low flame spread characteristics;
b) they may only be used at the end of a ventilation device;
c) they should not be situated less than 600mm along the duct,
from an opening in an 'A' or 'B' Class ceiling.
4.13.2.4 Vertical ducts which pass through more than one deck require to be
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insulated in accordance with the appropriate table in Schedule 'B' of

TP2237, 'Equivalent Standards for Fire Protection of Passenger Ships'.
Where the decks have differing 'A' Class standards the duct shall be
insulated to the higher standard. Compliance with this requirement may be
achieved in the case of vertical ducts which are fitted with fire dampers by
insulating each fire damper to the extent shown in Figures 32 and 33.
4.13.3 Duct penetrations
4.13.3.1 Where ventilation ducts pass through 'A' Class bulkheads or decks, the
openings are required to be fitted with steel spigots unless the ducts passing
through the bulkhead or deck are of steel of an equivalent thickness. The
spigot shall have a thickness of at least 3mm and a length of at least 900mm.
When passing through bulkheads, this length shall be divided preferably into
450mm on each side of the bulkhead. These spigots shall be insulated to the
same fire integrity and insulation value as the deck or bulkhead through
which the duct passes. Figure 32 and 33 illustrate this arrangement.
4.13.3.2 Where ventilation ducts pass through 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings and
linings, the ducts are to be fitted with collars, steel spigots or sleeves. Steel
ducts and double skinned spiroducts, not exceeding 0.075 square metre in
cross sectional area should be collared to the division using steel collars.
Single skinned spiroducts and aluminum alloy ducts, not exceeding 0.075
square metre should be passed through a steel sleeve having a length and
thickness of 900mm and 1mm respectively, collared to the division using
steel collars. The gap between the sleeve and the duct should be effectively
packed with a non-combustible material and the ends sealed with a suitable
flexible sealant.
Steel ducts exceeding 0.075 square metre in cross sectional area should be
connected to a steel spigot having a length and thickness of not less than
900 mm and 3mm respectively collared to the division using steel collars or
passed through a sleeve of similar dimensions collared to the division. The
gap between the sleeve and the duct should be effectively packed with a
non-combustible material and the end sealed with a suitable flexible sealant.
Double and single skinned spiroducts and aluminum alloy ducts, exceeding
0.075 square metre should be passed through a sleeve having a length and
packed with a non combustible material and the ends sealed with a suitable
flexible sealant.
4.13.3.3 When any duct passes through a 'B' Class division of B-15 standard, the
ducts sleeves or spigots should be insulated on one side of the division for a
distance of at least 380mm from the division with an approved mineral wool
insulation of A-15 standard attached to the satisfaction of the attending
surveyor. Figures 41 and 42 illustrate acceptable arrangements.
Page 104
4.13.4 Fire dampers
4.13.4.1 Where a ventilation duct other than those mentioned in 4.13.1.2, passes
through an 'A' Class bulkhead or deck a fire damper which is capable of
being manually closed from each side of the division is to be fitted adjacent
to the division. Where the sectional area of the duct exceeds 0.075 square
metres, a fail safe automatic closing fire damper capable of being manually
closed from each side of the division, should be fitted adjacent to the
division.
4.13.4.2 The thickness of the steel coamings or spigots incorporating fire dampers for
closing openings in ventilation ducts should be obtained as follows:
Width or Diameter of Duct Minimum Thickness of Coaming
Up to and including 300mm 3mm,760mm and over 5mm. For widths or
diameters of ducts exceeding 300mm but not exceeding
760mm, the thickness of the coaming or spigot shall be obtained by
interpolation.
4.13.4.3 Although fire dampers are required by the regulations to be capable of being
manually operated from either side of a division, special consideration will
be given to operation from one side of the division only. For example, a fire
damper fitted to a duct serving a locked store room would only require to be
operable from outside the space.
4.13.4.4 Manual control of fire dampers is required to be by means of a handle

connected directly to the spindle of the damper blade and is to be independent
of and capable of overriding any automatic or remote means of control.
4.13.4.5 All fire dampers are to be provided with an indicator which shows whether
the fire damper is open or closed The open/closed indicator should be
connected directly to the damper blade and is to be independent of any
pneumatic or electrical control system. The "open" and "closed" position
markings are to be permanently attached to the outside of the damper housing.
4.13.4.6 In order to satisfy the requirements to operate a fire damper manually from
both sides of a bulkhead or deck as indicated in sub-paragraphs 4.13.1.2
and 4.13.3.1, a damper may be fitted on each side of the division within a
common coaming or spigot, the dampers being operated independently of
each other. Only one of the two dampers need be capable of being operated
automatically when automatic operation is required by the regulations. When
a duct has a large sectional area it may be necessary to increase the length
of the coaming or spigot beyond 900mm in order to accommodate the two
dampers within its length.
4.13.4.7 The damper blades must be positioned to ensure that any means of
Page 105
operating the damper is clear of the division or the insulation fitted to the
division. Since a coaming or spigot is required to be insulated to the same
standard as the division, the external fittings must be raised sufficiently clear
of the coaming or spigot to enable the insulation to be fitted and the damper
to be operated.
4.13.4.8 An access opening measuring 100mm x 100mm and fitted with a hinged
steel cover incorporating a locking device, is to be provided in the coaming
or spigot for inspecting the damper blade and for testing, inspecting and
replacing the means of automatically operating the damper.
4.13.4.9 When a fire damper is required to operate automatically, the means of

operation should be located inside the coaming or spigot such that it can be
activated by hot gases passing through the ventilation ducting. The means of
operation should be activated at temperatures within the range of 68° to 79°
inclusive except that in exhaust ducts serving spaces with high ambient
temperatures such as galleys and drying rooms the temperature at which the
means of operation is activated may be increased to not more than 30°
above the maximum deckhead temperature. When the means of operating a
fire damper automatically is a spring and fusible link, the link is required to
be capable of being released manually from outside the duct by withdrawing
the pin over which the link is hooked.
4.13.4.10 It is recognized that the closing of fire dampers could take a considerable
amount of time even if only one main vertical zone required to be "closed off".
In view of this, consideration should be given to the fitting of a system which
will allow their remote closing, either simultaneously or in groups from a
continuously manned control station. The system should be arranged so that
the fire dampers will automatically close when the ventilation fans are
stopped or the control system is disrupted.
4.13.4.11 Fire dampers are not required to be fitted in a duct which passes through a
space surrounded by 'A' Class divisions but has no openings into the space,
provided that the duct complies with the following:
(a) has the same thickness as the steel spigot referred to in subparagraph
(b) is adequately supported and stiffened; and
(c) is insulated to the same 'A' Class standard as the division through which it
passes or to the higher standard when the divisions have differing 'A' Class
standards. Figure 34 illustrates this arrangement. However, the dispensing
of fire dampers in this manner is not permitted when a duct passes through
a main zone division.
4.13.4.12 Not with standing sub-paragraph 4.13.3.10, when a duct serves spaces
bounded by 'A' Class divisions and which are situated on each side of
another space into which the duct has no openings, fire dampers are still
required at each end of the 'A' Class ducting in order to maintain the integrity
Page 106
of the two outer spaces from each other. Figure 34 illustrates this
arrangement.
4.13.4.13 Fire dampers are required to be tested in accordance with the procedure
described in TP439, "Structural Fire Protection Standards: Testing and
4.13.5 Means of closing main inlets and outlets
4.13.5.1 The main inlets and outlets of ventilation systems should be provided with
effective means of closure in the event of fire. Figure 45 illustrates
acceptable arrangements.
4.13.6 Spaces fitted with a gas fire extinguishing system
4.13.6.1 When the ventilation ducting serving a space or group of spaces which is
fitted with a fixed gas fire extinguishing system passes through any space not
served by the system, the ducting should be of steel and of 'A' Class gastight
construction.
4.13.7 Spaces in which fire extinguishing gas cylinders are stored
4.13.7.1 The ventilation system serving a space in which gas cylinders are stored
should not serve any other space and should be capable of freeing the space
of any gas which may leak from the cylinders. Any ducting of such a system
which passes through any other space should be of steel and of 'A' Class
gastight construction.
4.14 Ventilation Systems (cargo ships and tankers)
4.14.1 General
The ventilation systems serving the following spaces should be independent
of accommodation spaces, service spaces and control stations and should
be independent of each other:
(a) stairway enclosures;
(b) a galley;
(c) a machinery space;
(d) a cargo space; and
(e) a ro-ro cargo space.
4.14.2 Duct material
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4.14.2.1 Ventilation ducts are required to be of non-combustible materials.
4.14.2.2 Short ducts, not exceeding 2m in length and with a cross section area not
exceeding 0.02 square metre may be constructed of combustible material,
subject to the following conditions:
a. the material should have low flame spread characteristics;
b. they may only be used at the end of a ventilation device;
c. they should not be situated less than 600mm along the duct,
from an opening in an 'A' or 'B' Class ceiling.
4.14.3 Duct penetrations
4.14.3.1 Where ventilation ducts pass through 'A' Class bulkheads or decks, the
openings are required to be fitted with steel spigots unless the ducts passing
through the bulkhead or deck are of steel of an equivalent thickness. The
spigot shall have a thickness of at least 3mm and a length of at least 900mm.
When passing through bulkheads, this length shall be divided preferably into
450mm on each side of the bulkhead. These spigots shall be insulated to the
same fire integrity and insulation value as the deck or bulkhead through
which the duct passes. Figure 32 and 33 illustrate this arrangement.
4.14.3.2 Where ventilation ducts pass through 'B' Class bulkheads, ceilings and
linings, the ducts are to be fitted with collars, steel spigots or sleeves. Steel
ducts and double skinned spiroducts, not exceeding 0.075 square metre in
cross sectional area should be collared to the division using steel collars.
Single skinned spiroducts and aluminum alloy ducts, not exceeding 0.075
square metre should be passed through a steel sleeve having a length and
packed with a non-combustible material and the ends sealed with a suitable
flexible sealant. Steel ducts exceeding 0.075 square metre in cross sectional
area should be connected to a steel spigot having a length and thickness of
not less than 900 mm and 3mm respectively collared to the division using
steel collars or passed through a sleeve of similar dimensions collared to the
division. The gap between the sleeve and the duct should be effectively
packed with a non-combustible material and the end sealed with a suitable
flexible sealant. Double and single skinned spiroducts and aluminum alloy
ducts, exceeding 0.075 square metre should be passed through a sleeve
having a length and thickness of 900mm and 3mm respectively, collared to
the division using steel collars. The gap between the sleeve and the duct
should be effectively packed with a non combustible material and the ends
sealed with a suitable flexible sealant. Figures 41 and 42 illustrate the above
requirements.
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4.14.3.3 When any duct passes through a 'B' Class division of B-15 standard, the
ducts sleeves or spigots should be insulated on one side of the division for a
distance of at least 380mm from the division with an approved mineral wool
insulation of A-15 standard attached to the satisfaction of the attending
surveyor.
4.14.4 Fire dampers
4.14.4.1 Where a ventilation duct greater than 0.075 square metre in cross sectional
area passes through an 'A' Class bulkhead or deck, a fail-safe automatic
closing type fire damper which is capable of being manually closed from
each side of the division is to be fitted adjacent to the division.
4.14.4.2 The thickness of the steel coamings or spigots incorporating fire dampers for
closing openings in ventilation ducts should be obtained as follows:
Width or Diameter of Duct Minimum Thickness of Coaming
Up to and including 300mm 3mm
760mm and over 5mm
For widths or diameters of ducts exceeding 300mm but not exceeding
760mm, the thickness of the coaming or spigot shall be obtained by
interpolation.
4.14.4.3 Although fire dampers are required by the regulations to be capable of being
manually operated from either side of a division, special consideration will
be given to operation from one side of the division only. For example, a fire
damper fitted to a duct serving a locked store room would only require to be
operable from outside the space.
4.14.4.4 Manual control of fire dampers is required to be by means of a handle

connected directly to the spindle of the damper blade and is to be
independent of and capable of overriding any automatic or remote means of
control.
4.14.4.5 All fire dampers are to be provided with an indicator which shows whether
the fire damper is open or closed The open/closed indicator should be
connected directly to the damper blade and is to be independent of any
pneumatic or electrical control system. The "open" and "closed" position
markings are to be permanently attached to the outside of the damper
housing.
4.14.4.6 In order to satisfy the requirements to operate a fire damper manually from
both sides of a bulkhead or deck as indicated in sub-paragraph 4.14.4.1, a
damper may be fitted on each side of the division within a common coaming
or spigot, the dampers being operated independently of each other. Only one
of the two dampers need be capable of being operated automatically. When
a duct has a large sectional area it may be necessary to increase the length
of the coaming or spigot beyond 900mm in order to accommodate the two
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dampers within its length.

Part 4
Page 40
4.14.4.7 The damper blades must be positioned to ensure that any means of
operating the damper is clear of the division or the insulation fitted to the
division. Since a coaming or spigot is required to be insulated to the same
standard as the division, the external fittings must be raised sufficiently clear
of the coaming or spigot to enable the insulation to be fitted and the damper
to be operated.
4.14.4.8 An access opening measuring 100mm x 100mm and fitted with a hinged
steel cover incorporating a locking device, is to be provided in the coaming
or spigot for inspecting the damper blade and for testing, inspecting and
replacing the means of automatically operating the damper.
4.14.4.9 When a fire damper is required to operate automatically, the means of

operation should be located inside the coaming or spigot such that it can be
activated by hot gases passing through the ventilation ducting. The means of
operation should be activated at temperatures within the range of 68° to
79°C inclusive except that in exhaust ducts serving spaces with high ambient
temperatures such as galleys and drying rooms the temperature at which the
means of operation is activated may be increased to not more than 30°
above the maximum deckhead temperature. When the means of operating a
fire damper automatically is a spring and fusible link, the link is required to
be capable of being released manually from outside the duct by withdrawing
the pin over which the link is hooked.
4.14.4.10 Fire dampers are not required to be fitted in a duct which passes through a
space surrounded by 'A' Class divisions but has no openings into the space,
provided that the duct complies with the following:
(a) has the same thickness as the steel spigot referred to in subparagraph
(b) is adequately supported and stiffened; and
(c) is insulated to the same 'A' Class standard as the division
through which it passes or to the higher standard when the
divisions have differing 'A' Class standards. Figure 34 illustrates this
arrangement.
4.14.5 Means of closing main inlets and outlets
4.14.5.1 The main inlets and outlets of ventilation systems should be provided with
effective means of closure in the event of fire. Figure 45 illustrates
acceptable arrangements.
4.14.6 Spaces fitted with a gas fire extinguishing system
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4.14.6.1 When the ventilation ducting serving a space or group of spaces which is
fitted with a fixed gas fire extinguishing system passes through any space not
served by the system, the ducting should be of steel and of 'A' Class gastight
construction.
4.14.7 Spaces in which fire extinguishing gas cylinders are stored
4.14.7.1 The ventilation system serving a space in which gas cylinders are stored
should not serve any other space and should be capable of freeing the space
of any gas which may leak from the cylinders. Any ducting of such a system
which passes through any other space should be of steel and of 'A' Class
gastight construction.
4.15 Window and Sidelight Boxes
4.15.1 When a lining at the ship's side or deckhouse side is the insulating medium
for an 'A' Class division, a 'B' Class division or a 'C' Class division, the
opening in the lining in way of any window or sidelight should be effectively
boxed-in using the same material and thickness of the lining except that:
(a) when the lining is a 'B' Class division of B-0 standard or a 'C'
Class division, steel having a minimum thickness of 1.5mm
may be used to box-in the opening; and
(b) in the case of a vertical sliding window, the lower edge of the
box may be formed by the deck plating.
4.15.2 The construction of the boxes should be similar to that of the lining as shown
on the manufacturer's approved drawing and to the satisfaction of the
attending surveyor.
4.15.3 Window and sidelight boxes of fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) construction
may be fitted in addition to, but not instead of the non-combustible boxes and
in the case of passenger ships the FRP boxes should be included in the total
volume of combustible facings, moulding etc. referred to in the regulations.
4.15.4 Notwithstanding the requirements described above, when the structure is of
steel the non-combustible boxes may be dispensed with in:
(a) a space not exceeding 6 metres in length measured along the
lining at the ship's side or deckhouse side; or
(b) a space of any length containing furniture and furnishings of
restricted fire risk;
provided that in either case, the bulkheads and ceilings bounding the space
are carried to the ship's side or deckhouse side.
4.15.5 FRP window and sidelight boxes should not be fitted on tankers, around
windows and sidelights in the exterior boundaries of superstructures and
deckhouses referred to in sub-section 147(2) of Part IX of the Hull
Construction Regulations.
4.16 Restricted Fire Risk Furniture
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4.16.1 On passenger vessels, restricted fire risk furniture may be used in order to
reduce the fire rating values of bulkheads and decks. Case (built in) furniture
is required to be constructed entirely of non-combustible materials except for
working surfaces, where a combustible veneer not exceeding 2mm in
thickness is permitted. The remaining exposed surfaces of case furniture are
to have low flame spread characteristics.
4.16.2 Free standing furniture, such as chairs, tables or sofas, must have frames of
non-combustible materials. The frame is generally defined as the
components of structural support. The original type chair envisioned by the
regulations consisted of a steel frame with loose bottom and back cushions.
4.17 Special Category Spaces
4.17.1 By definition, special category spaces are enclosed spaces used for the
carriage of motor vehicles with fuel in their tanks for their own propulsion and
to which passengers have access. Partially enclosed or open decks used for
the carriage of motor vehicles with fuel in their tanks for their own propulsion
are not considered special category spaces but are subject to special
requirements. The fire rating of the boundaries of compartments adjacent to
such spaces are to be determined as follows:
(a) obtain the fire rating of the division from Tables 1 and 3 of
Schedule B Of TP2237 by classing the car deck area as a
category (11) space;
(b) reduce the fire rating obtained from the tables by one rating,
eg., if the rating obtained from the Tables is Class A-60, the
actual rating will be Class A-30.
4.18 Combined Galley and Mess Room
4.18.1 A galley and an adjoining mess room may be combined provided:

(a) the total area of the combined space does not exceed 50m2
(b) if the total area of the combined space exceeds 28m2 two
means of escape are to be provided; and
(c) the combined space is to be classified as a galley with respect
to the integrity of its boundaries.
4.19 Manual Sprinkler Systems on Vehicle Decks
4.19.1 The present regulations contained in Part III of the Hull Construction
Regulations describes the requirements for dividing the ship into main
vertical zones by "A" Class divisions and the fitting of a manually operated
sprinkler system on vehicle decks. Sub-section 42(4) of these regulations
allows water curtains to be fitted in lieu of the main vertical zone bulkheads in
a vehicle deck. The detailed requirements for the manually operated
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sprinkler system and the water curtains referred to above, are contained in
Schedule "VI" of the present Fire Detection and Extinguishing Equipment
Regulations.
4.19.2 In the case of passenger ships, the Keels of which were laid, were converted,
or were transferred to Canadian registry on or after March 22,1967, only
Method I of fire protection is to be adopted. The Board has authorized the
use of IMO resolution A.122(V) as being equivalent to the requirements of
Method I contained in Part III of the Hull Construction Regulations and the
detailed requirements of this resolution are contained in Part I of TP2237,
Equivalent standards for Fire Protection of Passenger Ships.
4.19.3 Section 7 of Part I of TP2237 describes the requirements for the protection
of vehicle spaces. The basic principle underlying this regulation is that as
normal main vertical zoning may not be practicable in this type of space,
equivalent protection must be obtained on the basis of a horizontal zone
concept and the provision of a manually operated, fixed pressure
waterspraying
system. Schedule VI of the draft Fire Protection, Detection and
Extinguishing Equipment Regulations describes in detail, the system
referred to above.
4.19.4 If an owner requests that water curtains be removed from existing ships, the
sprinkler system must be modified to comply with the requirements for a
manually operated, fixed pressure water-spraying system as described in
Schedule VI of the draft Fire Protection, Detection and Extinguishing
Equipment Regulations and the boundaries insulated as described in Part I
of TP2237.
4.20 Methods of Fire Protection for Cargo Ships and Tankers
4.20.1 One of the following methods of fire protection is required to be adopted in

the accommodation and service spaces of a cargo ship:
(a) Method IC. All internal divisional bulkheads are to be "A","B"

or "C" Class divisions and an automatic fire detection and
alarm system fitted.
(b) Method IIC. An automatic sprinkler system and an automatic
fire detection and alarm system fitted, generally with no
restriction on the type of internal divisional bulkheads.
(c) Method IIIC. An automatic fire detection and alarm system
fitted, generally with no restriction on the type of internal
divisional bulkheads except that the area of any
accommodation space or spaces bounded by "A" and/or "B"
Class divisions is not to exceed 50m2
. The Board may permit
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an increase in this area with respect to public spaces.

4.20.2 In all three methods, corridor bulkheads are required to be 'B' Class
divisions.
4.20.3 In the case of tankers, only Method IC is permitted.
4.21 Watertight and Weathertight Doors
4.21.1 Doors required to be both watertight and 'A' Class fire rated need only meet
the watertight requirements provided the door is not fitted with a combustible
gasket. Doors required to be both gastight and 'A' Class fire rated need only
meet the 'A' class requirements. Doors required to be both weathertight and
'A' Class fire rated in partially enclosed or open decks used for the carriage
of motor vehicles with fuel in their tanks for their own propulsion to which
passengers have access are to be specially considered. In general, they
need only meet the 'A' Class requirements provided the sill heights are in
accordance with regulatory requirements. However, depending on the
location and class of voyage, the fitting of weathertight doors may be
necessary.
4.22 Concealed or Inaccessible Spaces
4.22.1 The spread of flame in concealed areas is a matter of great concern.

Regulations require that surfaces including grounds in concealed or
inaccessible spaces in accommodation, service spaces and control stations
should have low flame spread characteristics. This requirement applies to
the surfaces of decks, bulkheads and linings which form the interior
boundaries of the concealed or inaccessible spaces.
4.23 Fire Control Plans
4.23.1 The requirements for fire control plans are described in Sections 40, 198
and 247 of the Hull Construction Regulations and also in Part 1(23), Part
II(25) and Part III of TP2237, "Equivalent Standards for the Fire Protection of
Passenger Ships". In each of the above references the items to be shown on
the fire control plans are clearly defined.
4.23.2 A review of fire control plans forwarded to Headquarters has indicated that
additional items ranging from lists of lifesaving equipment to details of
ladders and stairways are still being shown on these plans. These additional
items detract from the main purpose of the fire control plan which is to
provide clearly marked information for the use of the ship's officers and shore
based fire fighters in a fire emergency, and therefore should not be shown.
4.23.3 The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has recognized that the use of
universally understood symbols would greatly increase the usefulness of fire
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control plans, both for the ship's crew and the shore-based fire fighters. IMO
has adopted a set of such symbols and has urged member Governments to
recommend their use to shipowners, shipbuilders and naval architects. In
view of this the Ship Safety branch recommends their use on the fire control
plans required by the regulations.
4.23.4 Copies of the IMO symbols have been distributed to Ship Safety offices and
to the industry.
4.23.5 Fire control plans should not be submitted to Headquarters for approval but
should be checked against the ship during the 'first inspection'. When the
attending surveyor is satisfied that the contents of the plan are accurate, he
should notate the plan with the statement "VERIFIED CORRECT", followed
by his name and date. If any changes are made to the ship which should be
reflected on the fire control plan, the owner should be requested to have it
modified accordingly and verified by the attending surveyor. The plan should
be again notated by the attending surveyor as described above.
4.24 Use of Polyurethane and Other Organic Foam Materials
4.24.1 The use of polyurethane and other organic foam as an insulation material is
restricted to non-passenger ships and is only to fitted in low fire risk areas
such as fish holds, cargo holds, or refrigerated spaces. Under no
circumstances are these materials to be used in machinery spaces, galleys,
accommodation spaces, control stations or other similar spaces where a fire
hazard may exist. The detailed requirements for the fitting of this material is
described in Technical References No.8.
4.25 Windows
4.25.1 The requirements for 'A' Class integrity does not generally apply to windows
fitted in the exterior boundaries of the ship. However, windows fitted in way
of lifeboat, liferaft and lifesaving chute launching areas are to be fire rated.
Fire rated windows are required to be tested in accordance with the procedure
described in TP439, "Structural Fire Protection Standards: Testing and
4.26 Tankers - Protection of Exterior Boundaries
4.26.1 Part IX of the Hull Construction Regulations requires that the exterior
boundaries of superstructures and deckhouses of tankers receive special
consideration with respect to fire insulation and openings.
4.26.2 The exterior boundaries of superstructures and deckhouses which enclose

accommodation areas including any overhanging decks supporting
accommodation areas require to be insulated with an 'A-60’ insulation on the
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parts which face the cargo tank area and on the side parts for a distance of
at least 3 metres.
4.26.3 Each 3 metre minimum length of insulated side part of the superstructure and
deckhouse is to be measured horizontally and parallel to the centre line of the
ship as illustrated in Figure 46.
4.26.4 Any overhanging decks supporting accommodation should be insulated for

the whole of its length. An overhanging deck would best be insulated on the
upper side using an approved 'A-60' deck covering rather than applying
insulation to the underside where it would be exposed to the weather as
illustrated in Figure 47.
4.26.5 Any step in the exterior boundaries of superstructures and deckhouses which
is not an overhanging deck requires to be insulated with an 'A-60’ insulation
on the parts which face the cargo tank area and on the side parts for a
distance of at least 3 metres.
4.26.6 Doors, air inlets and other openings are not permitted to be fitted in the parts
of the exterior boundaries of superstructures or deckhouses facing the cargo
tank area and on the sides for a distance of at least 5 metres.
4.26.7 Doors giving access to cargo control stations, provision rooms or store
rooms may be fitted within the areas described in 4.26.6 provided that such
a space does not give access to accommodation spaces, service spaces
and control stations. When an access door is allowed to be fitted to such a
space, the boundaries of the space, including the deckhead but excluding
the boundary facing the cargo tank area should be insulated to an A-60
standard as shown in Figure 48. The boundaries of such a space situated
forward of the cargo tank area need not be insulated when it is a
superstructure or deckhouse which does not enclose accommodation and
the space does not give access to any service space or control station.
4.26.8 Windows and port lights within the area described in 4.24.6, except
wheelhouse windows are to be of the fixed non-opening type.
4.26.9 Port lights in the first tier on the main deck within the area described in
4.26.6 should be provided with inside covers of steel having a minimum

thickness of 1.5 mm.
4.27 Ships Transferred to Canadian Registry
4.27.1 As stated in Section 16 of the Hull Inspection Regulations, "Steamships

transferred from registry elsewhere than in Canada to Canadian registry are
deemed to be "new ships".......".
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4.27.2 Past experience has shown that ascertaining the standard of structural fire
protection fitted on the ship has often been a difficult and lengthy task,
particularly with respect to the identification of fire rated and non-combustible
materials.
4.27.3 Surveyors should make every attempt to obtain the necessary drawings
reflecting the structural fire protection arrangements fitted on the ship
together with any data which can positively identify the materials of
construction. If the materials can not be positively identified, replacement with
approved materials or testing of samples of the materials fitted to ascertain
their fire rating will be required.
4.27.4 In summary, prospective buyers of foreign registered ships should be

advised of our regulatory requirements with respect to structural fire
protection and the implications of non-compliance.
APPENDIX 1
ILLUSTRATIONS
The following sketches are intended for guidance only, and in no way change or
modify regulatory requirements, or the details of construction and installation for
approved products, described in the appropriate certificate of approval and shown on
the manufacturers approved drawing(s).
Page 117
Ship Building Materials :
DEFINITIONS
• Tensile Strength: It is the amount of tensile (stretching) stress a material can

withstand before breaking or failing.
• Ductility: It is a measure of the degree to which a material can strain or
elongate between the onset of yield and eventual fracture under tensile
loading. The extent to which the bar stretches before rupture is a measure of
the metal’s ductility which is expressed as the percentage elongation.
• Hardness: It is the resistance of a material to localized deformation. The term
can apply to deformation from indentation, scratching, cutting or bending.
• Toughness: It describes the way a material reacts under sudden impacts.
Toughness is the resistance to fracture of a material when stressed. It is
defined as the amount of energy that a material can absorb before rupturing,
and can be found by finding the area underneath the stress-strain curve. It can
be defined as the work required to deform one cubic inch of metal until it
fractures. It is the ability of a material to resist the start of permanent distortion
plus the ability to resist shock or absorb energy.
• Brittle Fracture: It is the fracture of a metal caused by lack of ductility due to
low temperature.
• Fatigue: it is development and propagation of cracks in a metal due to number
of repeated alternating stresses.
• Limits of Proportionality: It is the highest stress prior to which deformation
increases proportionally to the load applied.
• Yield Point: It is the amount of stress in a solid at the onset of permanent
deformation. The yield point, *alternatively called the elastic limit*, marks the
end of elastic behavior and the beginning of plastic behavior. When stresses (
less than the yield point) are removed, the material returns to its original
shape.
• Ultimate Tensile stress: It is the max stress that a material can withstand
while being stretched or pulled before failing or breaking.
• Modulus of Elasticity: It is a measure of stiffness of an elastic material. Also
called the Young’s Modulus is the ratio of Stress to strain and is denoted by
the letter “E”.
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E = stress / strain
 Stress: Stress (σ) is force per unit area and can be expressed as
σ=F/A
– tensile stress - stress that tends to stretch or lengthen the
material
– compressive stress - stress that tends to compress or shorten the
material
– shearing stress - stress that tends to shear the material
 Strain: Strain (ε ) is the change in dimension divided by the original

value of the dimension - and can be expressed as
ε = dL / L )
where
– ε = strain (m/m) (in/in)
– dL = elongation or compression (offset) of the object (m) (in)
– L = length of the object (m) (in)
Stress Strain Curve
Hook’s Law
It States - For an elastic body, strain is proportional to stress. When the body changes
shape within the elastic limits, the ratio of stress/strain remains constant and is equal
to “E” and the curve if plotted would be a straight line.
E = stress / strain
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STEEL
Manufacture:
 Iron ore is crushed to convert into small uniform pieces, passed through air
blast to remove dust and light impurities, washed to remove soluble
impurities and finally passed over a magnetic separator to separate ferrous
and non-ferrous materials.
 Now the lumps are separated from the fines and called iron concentrate,
which consists of 65-75% of iron and the rest is iron oxides.
 To change the concentrates to refined iron, it is reduced. Carbon is used as
the reducing agent.
 Purpose of reducing agent:
1. To emit heat to melt the ore.
2. To remove oxides.
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 IRON CONCENTRATE IS MELTED IN FURNACE TO

APPROXIMATELY 1700 degree C, WITH SUITABLE COMPOSITION OF
COKE AND LIMESTONE. Limestone works as flux whereas coke is used as
reducing agent and used to remove the oxides from the concentrates.
 Impurities like Sulphur and Phosphorus reduce the strength of steel therefore
shipbuilding steel should not have more than 0.5% content of either of these.
 Method to manufacture Steel:
Steel is manufactured by reducing the impurities in iron except carbon. The
percentage of carbon in iron determines the type of steel produced. It ranges
from 0.1% for mild steel to 1.8% for some hardened steels.
Most of the molten iron from a Blast Furnace is used to make one of a number
of types of steel. There isn't just one substance called steel - they are a family
of alloys of iron with carbon or various metals.
Impurities in the iron from the Blast Furnace include carbon, sulfur,
phosphorus and silicon. These have to be removed.
 Removal of sulfur: Sulfur has to be removed first in a separate process. Magnesium

powder is blown through the molten iron and the sulphur reacts with it to form
magnesium sulfide. This forms a slag on top of the iron and can be removed.
Mg+S→MgS(7)(7)Mg+S→MgS
 Removal of carbon: The still impure molten iron is mixed with scrap iron (from
recycling) and oxygen is blown on to the mixture. The oxygen reacts with the
remaining impurities to form various oxides. The carbon forms carbon monoxide.
Since this is a gas it removes itself from the iron! This carbon monoxide can be
cleaned and used as a fuel gas.
 Removal of other elements: Elements like phosphorus and silicon react with the
oxygen to form acidic oxides. These are removed using quicklime (calcium
oxide) which is added to the furnace during the oxygen blow. They react to form
compounds such as calcium silicate or calcium phosphate which form a slag on top of
the iron.
Properties of good shipbuilding Steel.
1) Carbon Content between 0.15% - 0.33%.

2) Suitable for flame cutting and easily welded.
3) Should be ductile.
4) Homogenous composition to prevent weaknesses in the metal.
5) High Yield Point or higher than Ultimate Breaking Stress.
6) Resistant to corrosion.
7) Available at reasonable cost.
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Types of Iron
• PIG IRON: Is a raw material for cast iron and wrought iron. It is formed by
treating sponge iron, DRI (Directly Reduced Iron) so that it looses its affinity
for water and becomes more stable.
• CAST IRON: is produced by melting pig iron with layers of coke and
limestone and poured into moulds to cast it in a desired shape.
– The carbon content is high (2-4%).
– Has high strength but is brittle.
• WROUGHT IRON: It is manufactured by melting pig iron with silica in a
coal fired furnace.
– It is then drawn or beaten into shape while hot after which a heat
treatment is given.
– The final product is extremely ductile and free from brittleness and
used for anchors, cables etc.
• STEEL: Addition of carbon to iron, forms iron carbide or Cementite.
Cementite lies with iron molecules side by side and has pearl like appearance
hence called Pearlite.
Types of Steel
• Mild Steel:
– It has low carbon content (<0.3%).
– Used for structural material.(beams, plates, bars etc.)
• Medium carbon steel:
– Has carbon content from 0.3% to 0.5%.
– Used in chisels, knives, saw blades etc.
• High Carbon Steel:
– Has carbon content from 0.5% - 0.7%.
– Used as insulation for fire resistant divisions and reefer tanks in reefer
vessels.
High Tensile Steel
• It has greater tensile strength for equivalent thickness even at low
temperatures. Used in large tankers and ore carriers. It is denoted by ‘H’
against various grades of steel, eg. AH, BH, CH ….. etc.
 Advantages:
• Reduction in scantlings.
• Reduced lightship displacements.
• Greater tensile strength even at low temperatures.
 Hazards:
• After corrosion the reduction in thickness for HTS as a percentage of
original thickness is greater thus leaving the plate weaker than ordinary
plate.
• Reduced scantlings can prove dangerous for the strength of the ship.
Page 122
Two main types of steels are used in ship building;

1) Mild Steel
2) High Tensile Steel (HTS)
Testing of steel
The basic tests are:-

1. Tensile Test
2. Bend Test
3. Hardness Test
4. Impact Test
5. Creep Test
6. Fatigue Test
Tensile Test
• Carried in tensile test machine. A load is applied hydraulically to draw apart

the ends of the test piece. This test is done to determine elongation, yield
point, Limits of proportionality and ultimate breaking stress of steel.
Tensile Strength = maximum Load / Original cross sectional area.
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Bend Test
A test bar or plate is bend through 180 deg till the ends are parallel. The bend area is
closely inspected for cracks or fractures. This is done to determine the ductility of the
metal.
Hardness Test
• A load is applied to dent the surface of the metal. This is done to determine the
ability to withstand wear and tear.
Brinell Number is an indicator of Hardness.

Brinell Number = Load in newtons/area of indentation in mm2
Page 124
Impact Test
• Charpy V-notch machine is used. A heavy striker at the end of a pendulum

provides a blow which breaks the specimen placed at the bottom of the
pendulum’s swing. This is done to determine the ability of the metal to
withstand fracture under shock loads.
Creep Test :
This test is similar to Tensile Test
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Fatigue Test
• The specimen is subjected to number of alternating stresses and the number

that produces the fracture at given value of stress is noted. This is done to
determine the ability of the metal to withstand repeatedly applied stresses.
Heat treatment of Steel

Four basic treatments of steel:-
1. Annealing
2. Normalising
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
Annealing
• PROCESS:
– THE METAL IS HEATED TO ABOUT 200-300 C ABOVE THE

CRITICAL POINT. AFTER BEING HELD FOR A WHILE AT THIS
TEMPERATURE (FOR THE TRANSFORMATION TO BE
COMPLETE), IT IS COOLED SLOWLY AT A RATE OF AROUND
500 C PER HOUR. THE COOLING MAY BE DONE IN THE
FURNACE OR IN SOME MEDIUM e.g. A SAND BATH, WHICH
REDUCES THE RATE OF COOLING.
• PURPOSE
– TO IMPART
– SOFTNESS
– ELASTICITY
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– DUCTILITY
– TO RELIEVE ANY INTERNAL STRESSES
Normalising
• PROCESS
– THE METAL IS HEATED TO 300-500 C ABOVE THE CRITICAL
POINT AND ALLOWED TO COOL IN STILL AIR.
• PURPOSE
– TO RESTORE TO THE ORIGINAL PROPERTIES TO A METAL

– TO CORRECT THE STRUCTURE OF OVERHEATED STEEL
– TO RELIEVE THE STRESSES AND IMPROVE THE
MACHINABILITY OF CARBON AND LOW ALLOY STEELS BY
MAKING THEM LESS HARD
– TO HARDEN AND STRENGTHEN STEEL THAT HAS
SOFTENED.
Hardening
• PROCESS
– THE METAL IS HEATED TO 200-300 C ABOVE THE CRITICAL

POINT AND THEN QUENCHED. QUENCHING IS THE PROCESS
OF COOLING THE STEEL RAPIDLY FROM THE
TEMPERATURE TO WHICH IT HAS BEEN HEATED. THIS IS
DONE BY IMMERSING THE METAL IN A QUENCHING BATH.
THESE BATHS MAY BE AIR, WATER, OILS, BRINE, MOLTEN
SALTS ETC.
• PURPOSE
– TO INCREASE THE HARDNESS OF A METAL TO MAKE

CHISELS, DRILL BITTS ETC
Tempering
• PROCESS
– TEMPERING CONSISTS OF HEATING THE METAL TO ABOUT
2500 C, RETAINING THIS TEMPERATURE FOR A PERIOD
DEPENDING UPON THE MASS AND DEGREE OF TOUGHNESS
REQUIRED AND THEN QUENCHING OR COOLING IN AIR.
• PURPOSE
– TO RELIEVE THE STRESS AND BRITTLENESS FROM STEEL
AND MAKE IT DUCTILE WITHOUT LOSING HARDNESS I.E.TO
INCREASE TOUGHNESS.
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Aluminium in Ship Building

Advantages
• Corrosion resistant. Aluminum has the additional advantage of superior

resistance to corrosion, since it corrodes over 100 times more slowly than
conventional structural carbon steel used to build ships.
• Non Magnetic. Aluminum being non-magnetic in nature, does not affect
various electronic equipments especially the magnetic compass
• Lighter than steel, thus saving almost up to 60% of the deadweight. Thus
resulting in passenger caring capacity (in case of passenger ships) and
improved stability. Lower hull weight requires less power, resulting in saving
of energy and require smaller space and size of machinery.
Disadvantages
• Max Yield Strength: Aluminum alloys cannot meet the maximum yield
strengths required in certain shipbuilding applications—only high-strength,
low-alloy steels meet these strength requirements.
• Cost: Aluminum costs roughly five times more than steel.
• Low Melting Point: Aluminum has a very low melting point (659 C) as
compared to steel(1500 C).
• Welding: Difficulty in welding. The aluminium alloy in molten state readily
absorbs oxygen and causes excessive corrosion thus weakening the metal.
Thus welding is done in a gas shield and only MIG/TIG welding process is
suitable.
Joining Aluminium to Steel (Corrosion Control Method)
• Aluminium is joined to steel, eg. In case of aluminium superstructure, through

either Bolting or Welding. Precautions have to be taken to prevent corrosion
as the two metals in presence of water will set up a galvanic cell which will
result in aluminium becoming annode and getting eaten up
1. BOLTING:
The aluminium plate is bolted to steel with nuts and bolts but with packing of
insulated material between the two. This is to prevent the setting up of Galvanic Cell.
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2. Welding:
– TIG or MIG welding process is used.
There is use of bimetallic metal (half aluminium and half steel) also called Transition
Bar (TriClad).
TIG or MIG welding process is used.
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert

gas (TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a non-
consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas (argon or helium), and a filler
metal is normally used, though some welds, known as auto-genous welds, do not
require it. A constant-current welding power supply produces electrical energy, which
is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors
known as a plasma.
GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-
ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process grants
the operator greater control over the weld than competing processes such as shielded
metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for stronger, higher quality
welds. However, GTAW is comparatively more complex and difficult to master, and
furthermore, it is significantly slower than most other welding techniques. A related
process, plasma arc welding, uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more
focused welding arc and as a result is often automated
THE EXTRACTION OF IRON
Extracting iron from iron ore using a Blast Furnace

The common ores of iron are both iron oxides, and these can be reduced to iron by
heating them with carbon in the form of coke. Coke is produced by heating coal in the
absence of air. Coke is cheap and provides both the reducing agent for the reaction
and also the heat source. The most commonly used iron ores are
hematite, Fe2O3Fe2O3, and magnetite, Fe3O4Fe3O4.
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The Blast Furnace

The significant reactions occuring within the Blast Furnace can be described via the
following steps showing how the reducing agent varies depending on the height in the
furnace (i.e. on the Temperature).
At 500 °C
3Fe2O3 +CO →
2Fe3O4 + CO2
Fe2O3 +CO →
2FeO + CO2
At 850 °C
Fe3O4 +CO →
3FeO + CO2
At 1000 °C
FeO +CO → Fe +
CO2
At 1300 °C
CO2 + C → 2CO
At 1900 °C
C+ O2 → CO2
FeO +C → Fe +
CO
The air blown into the bottom of the furnace is heated using the hot waste gases from
the top. Heat energy is valuable, and it is important not to waste any. The coke
(essentially impure carbon) burns in the blast of hot air to form carbon dioxide - a
strongly exothermic reaction. This reaction is the main source of heat in the furnace.
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The reduction of the ore
At the high temperature at the bottom of the furnace, carbon dioxide reacts with
carbon to produce carbon monoxide. It is the carbon monoxide which is the main
reducing agent in the furnace. In the hotter parts of the furnace, the carbon itself also
acts as a reducing agent. Notice that at these temperatures, the other product of the
reaction is carbon monoxide, not carbon dioxide. The temperature of the furnace is
hot enough to melt the iron which trickles down to the bottom where it can be tapped
off.
The function of the limestone
Iron ore is not pure iron oxide - it also contains an assortment of rocky material that
would not melt at the temperature of the furnace, and would eventually clog it up. The
limestone is added to convert this into slag which melts and runs to the bottom. The
heat of the furnace decomposes the limestone to give calcium oxide.
This is an endothermic reaction, absorbing heat from the furnace. It is therefore
important not to add too much limestone because it would otherwise cool the furnace.
Calcium oxide is a basic oxide and reacts with acidic oxides such as silicon dioxide
present in the rock. Calcium oxide reacts with silicon dioxide to give calcium silicate.
The calcium silicate melts and runs down through the furnace to form a layer on top
of the molten iron. It can be tapped off from time to time as slag. Slag is used in road
making and as "slag cement" - a final ground slag which can be used in cement, often
mixed with Portland cement.
Cast iron
The molten iron from the bottom of the furnace can be used as cast iron. Cast iron is
very runny when it is molten and doesn't shrink much when it solidifies. It is therefore
ideal for making castings - hence its name. However, it is very impure, containing
about 4% of carbon. This carbon makes it very hard, but also very brittle. If you hit it
hard, it tends to shatter rather than bend or dent. Cast iron is used for things like
manhole covers, guttering and drainpipes, cylinder blocks in car engines, Aga-type
cookers, and very expensive and very heavy cookware.
Steel
Most of the molten iron from a Blast Furnace is used to make one of a number of
types of steel. There isn't just one substance called steel - they are a family of alloys of
iron with carbon or various metals. More about this later . . .
Steel-making: the basic oxygen process
Impurities in the iron from the Blast Furnace include carbon, sulfur, phosphorus and
silicon. These have to be removed.
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1. Removal of sulfur: Sulfur has to be removed first in a separate process.

Magnesium powder is blown through the molten iron and the sulphur reacts
with it to form magnesium sulfide. This forms a slag on top of the iron and
can be removed.
2. Removal of carbon: The still impure molten iron is mixed with scrap iron
(from recycling) and oxygen is blown on to the mixture. The oxygen reacts
with the remaining impurities to form various oxides. The carbon forms
carbon monoxide. Since this is a gas it removes itself from the iron! This
carbon monoxide can be cleaned and used as a fuel gas.
3. Removal of other elements: Elements like phosphorus and silicon react

with the oxygen to form acidic oxides. These are removed using quicklime
(calcium oxide) which is added to the furnace during the oxygen blow.
They react to form compounds such as calcium silicate or calcium
phosphate which form a slag on top of the iron.
TYPES OF IRON AND STEEL
Cast iron has already been mentioned above. This section deals with the types of iron
and steel which are produced as a result of the steel-making process.
1. Wrought iron: If all the carbon is removed from the iron to give high purity
iron, it is known as wrought iron. Wrought iron is quite soft and easily
worked and has little structural strength. It was once used to make decorative
gates and railings, but these days mild steel is normally used instead.
2. Mild steel: Mild steel is iron containing up to about 0.25% of carbon. The
presence of the carbon makes the steel stronger and harder than pure iron.
The higher the percentage of carbon, the harder the steel becomes. Mild steel
is used for lots of things - nails, wire, car bodies, ship building, girders and
bridges amongst others.
3. High carbon steel: High carbon steel contains up to about 1.5% of carbon.
The presence of the extra carbon makes it very hard, but it also makes it
more brittle. High carbon steel is used for cutting tools and masonry nails
(nails designed to be driven into concrete blocks or brickwork without
bending). You have to be careful with high carbon steel because it tends to
fracture rather than bend if you mistreat it.
4. Special steels: These are iron alloyed with other metals. For example:
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iron mixed special properties uses include

with
stainless chromium and resists corrosion cutlery, cooking utensils, kitchen sinks,
steel nickel industrial equipment for food and drink
processing
titanium titanium withstands high gas turbines, spacecraft
steel temperatures
manganese manganese very hard rock-breaking machinery, some railway
steel track (e.g. points), military helmets
Layout of a Ship yard
STOCKYARD
MARSHALLING ADMINISTRATION
AREA AND OFFICE
PLATE
PREPERATIO
PLATE AND
SECTION
MARKING AND
MACHINING
SUB -ASSEMBELIES
ENGI FITTING OUT
NE BASIN
UNIT SHOP
FABRICATION
SHOP
OUTFIT
TRADE
No.1 No.2
Berth Berth
RS
 Steel plates and section are stored in Stockyard
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 They are fed into individual shot/grit blasting and priming machines for
cleaning and coating them with suitable primer.
 Plates are marked and cut and bend into suitable dimensions and shape. Edge
preparation of plates for welding is done at this stage.
 The various steel parts in plates and sections are welded together to form sub-
assemblies then assemblies and then units. (Sub assembly is several pieces of
steel making up a two dimensional part and weighing up to about 5 tonnes,
which together with other subassemblies will form a unit. Assemblies consist
of larger usually 3 dimensional structures of plating and sections weighing up
to 20 tones. Units are complex built up sections of a ship, example complete
forward end including the collision bulkhead, and can weigh up to 100
tonnes.).
 Finally the units are joined together to form a ship.
Ship Building Process Explained
Marine engineers, navigating officers and other staff working on ships are mostly
concerned about day to day operations and even though they are very familiar with
their jobs, yet there is an aspect of ship life which does not involve the onboard
members and this is about building a new ship, but involves naval architects,
designers and other shore working staff.
Invite Tenders and Quotations
The first step in a ship building process is to get the bid proposal from several ship
builders. The ship builders make a proposal based on the request given by the client.
The bid proposal is very important because the client decides to give the contract or
not as per this proposal. The proposal is basically the rough idea of how the ship is
going to be, the time it will take to build the ship and the costs involved in the same.
Reach An Agreement
The next step in the ship building process is to discuss the specifications and get to an
agreement. Once the bid proposal is accepted the ship builder and the client get
together to decide the specifications of the ship. The details and the specifications
help to decide what the final price of the ship is going to be. Once all these details like
the ship building process and the layout is decided the agreement is made between the
two parties and all the legal formalities and agreements are completed.
Different Design Phases
Performance Design
Another important point in the ship building process is to make the performance
design of the ship. One of the most important factors in a ship design is speed. Before
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actually starting to make any designs or the real thing, ship models are testing in a test
tank, wherein these models are used to measure the speed of the real ship if the hull is
formed in a particular manner. Apart from other things which matter in ship design, if
the hull is not formed in the desired manner, the real ship would not achieve the
desired speed so this stage is necessary in ship design.
After the initial formalities and the tank testing phase, the design phase begins to take
shape. The design is basically done in three sub phases namely the basic design,
detailed design and production design. These designs basically differ in their level of
details and refinement.
Basic design
It is mainly concerned with making the ship comply to the requirements of the client
in terms of its load carrying capacity of whatever nature and type of ship it is, say for
example a bulk carrier, tanker etc, the fuel storage and consumption capacity, ship
stability and so forth. All these factors are interlinked and also related to the previous
discussed factor of ship speed.
Detailed Design
After the basic design, comes the next stage of detailed design and this involves more
details that the first step and in this stage the basic design model is made more
detailed. This is more of a practical implementation stage. In this stage it is ensured
that the ship is built more accurately and as per the design. The designers ensure that
they make a ship that will be as close to the original specifications given. If there is
anything that they feel will not be as per the original design they will have to inform
the client. They ensure that the performance ability of the ship is not compromised.
Production Design
The production design stage further goes a step into the details and the actual
drawings of the components are made from which the field staff can actually produce
the various components. It must however be remembered that not everything is build
from scratch but mainly the body of the ship is built and other major components are
purchased from third party suppliers and fitted to the ship to complete the
construction. This includes but not limited to components such as the main engine,
generators, and most other auxiliary equipment.
Order Materials
Once all the above steps are done and the plan is more or less prepared the ship
builder moves to the next very important stage. In this stage the materials are ordered
as per the specifications given. There is a lot of material that is used in the ship
building process. Acquiring these materials on time and within the given dates will
ensure that the delivery dates are made and the procurement are in order.
Sponsored Links
Production Plan
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Now all the preparation for the ship building is done and even the material is
acquired. Now the next stage is making the production plan. This is very critical. This
is mainly because a lot of things have to be coordinated in order to ensure that the
production goes as per schedule. The job assignments must be done in a realistic
manner so that the targets can be reached. The plan should also be a little flexible as
this will ensure that the targets can be reached easily. It is important that the delivery
of the goods happen on time and the production goes on as per the plan.
Steel Cutting
Cutting and processing is the next very important stage in the ship building process.
In this stage steel plates are cut and they are processed as per the blue print that was
prepared in the design stage. The steel plates are heated and they are bent so that they
can be curved. Making the correct shapes take a lot of expertise and this also is a very
critical function in the ship building process. A slight mistake in this can jeopardize
the whole plan.
Plate Assembly
Now the next stage is of assembly. In this stage the cut steel plates and the processed
components are assembled. The assembly is mostly done block by block. This ensures
that the manufacturing efficiency is maximized. The assembly is carried out in a
phase by phase manner. The first is the small scale assembly, followed by mid scale
assembly and in the end the large scale assembly is done.
Pipes & Wires

The one of the most vital stages in the ship building is installation of the rigging
articles. In this the assembled blocks are joined and huge blocks are made. In this
stage pipes, electric wires and wires are installed. To enhance the efficiency of the
manufacturing process and to ensure the efficiency of the dockyard this is done. These
rigs are in place until the block is docked on to the ground.
Mounting of Blocks
Mounting of huge blocks is the next stage in the ship building process. In this stage
huge blocks are installed onto the ship using the rigs and cranes. This stage is vital as
this must be done as per the specifications. Sometime as many as ten blocks need to
be joined. After joining them we have to be assured that he dimensions remain the
same. It is the biggest challenge for the engineers to ensure that the design and the
final product is the same.
Launching
Now that the ship is all set the launching stage is the next. In this stage the dock is
filled with water so that the ship can float in it. At this stage the ship slowly moves
into the sea. It is a thrilling sight for all those who were involved in building the ship.
It is a special day. The ship builders ensure that they celebrate this day. It may take
months to get to see this day. Well this is not it there is a vital stage yet to be done.
This is called the operation at the quay. In this stage the hull that was launched is
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quality checked. Each and every part and system that is installed in the ship is
checked to ensure that all is in place.
Sea Trial Run

The next stage is of the trial run. As the name itself suggests this is a sea trial that is
taken by the ship builder to ensure that the ship is perfect and in operational
conditions. All the instruments and the speed of the ship are checked at this stage.
This is to ensure that the ship is exactly as per the specifications. As we already
mentioned speed of the ship is very critical for meeting the client’s satisfaction.
Final Delivery
Now that all is in place the final stage of the ship building comes. This is called the
delivery stage. In this stage the ship is delivered to the client. The captain, the chief
engineer and the crew prepare for the ships maiden voyage which is indeed a very
special day for all. All those involved in the making now can only wish that the ship
always sails smoothly.
These are the various stages that are involved in a ship building process. By following
these steps we can ensure that the ship building is completed in time and smoothly.
Ship building is a tough job and a lot of hard work is involved. Both the planning and
the execution are equally important in the ship building process. This is also a very
good example of team work.
ORGANIZATION IN A SHIPYARD
The function of a shipyard is the production of completed ships in accordance with

the shipbuilder’s undertakings. The raw materials for construction and finished items
to be installed on board are delivered there. The labour force in the yard consists of
various workmen—steelworkers, welders, shipwrights, joiners, plumbers, turners,
engine fitters, electricians, riggers, and painters.
Management is headed by a chairman and a board of directors, consisting usually of
about 6 to 12 members from the technical, commercial, and secretarial departments,
with one or more representing outside interests. The chief departments are the design,
drawing, and estimating offices, planning and production control, the shipyard
department—responsible for construction up to launching—and the outside finishing
department, which is responsible for all work on board after launching. Other
departments are responsible for buying and storekeeping and the yard maintenance.
The construction of the hull is only one of a shipbuilder’s responsibilities. As soon as

a contract is placed, he must negotiate with subcontractors for the supply of items that
shipyards do not produce—the electric power plant, propulsion machinery, shafting
and propellers, engine-room auxiliaries, deck machinery, anchors, cables, and
furniture and furnishings. Production planning and control is therefore a complex
undertaking, covering subcontracts, assembly, and installation, in which costs must be
kept as low as possible.
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Basic Design of the Ship
An owner requires a ship which will give him the best possible returns for his initial
investment and running costs. This means that the final design should be arrived at
taking into account not only present economic considerations, but also those likely to
develop within the life of the ship.
With the aid of computers it is possible to make a study of a large number of varying
design parameters and to arrive at a ship design which is not only technically feasible
but, more importantly, is the most economically efficient.
Preparation of the Design
The initial design of a ship proceeds through 3 stages:

1. Concept design.
2. Preliminary design.
3. Contract design
A Concept design:
Provide sufficient information for a basic techno-economic assessment of the

alternatives to be made. It specifies ship type, deadweight, type of propulsion, service
speed.
A Preliminary design:
1. Refines and Analyses the agreed concept design,

2. Fills out the arrangements and structure and aims at optimizing service
performance.
3. General Arrangement plan is discussed.
4. Preliminary Body Plan is made, sufficient to allow the evaluation of the
stability and of the cargo capacities.
5. Prevision of the propulsive power
6. Estimation of the lightship weight
7. Estimation of ship cost
A Contract design:
Details the final arrangements and systems agreed with the owner and satisfies the
building contract conditions.
The following info is made ready at this stage:
1. Ship Specification
2. General Arrangement
3. Body Plan, with enough detail to allow the manufacture of scaled models for
testing in hydrodynamic towing tanks.
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4. Classification drawings of the structures (midship section, typical bulkheads,

shell expansion, bow and stern structures)
5. Stability and longitudinal resistance computations
6. Diagrams of the main piping systems (cargo, ballast, bilge, firefighting, etc.)
After the Design is Finalized
Once the design is finalized a lines plan is made. This plan is a scale drawing of the
molded dimensions of the ship in plan, profile and section. The lines plan (lines
drawing) consist of projections of the intersection of the hull with a series of planes.
The planes are equally spaced in each of the three dimensions. These set of planes are
mutually perpendicular or orthogonal in nature.
1. Plan view – Half Breadth Plan

2. Profile View – Sheer Plan
3. Section view – Body Plan
The Body Plan
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 Planes parallel to the front and back of the imaginary box are called stations.
 There are three important stations.
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 The intersection of the stem of the ship at the design water line is called
Forward Perpendicular (FP).
 The intersection of the stern at design waterline (immersed transom) or the
rudder stock is called the Aft Perpendicular (AP).
 The station midway between the perpendiculars is called the midships
stations.
 Each station plane will intersect the ship's hull and form a curved line at the
points of intersection. These lines are called sectional lines and are all
projected onto a single plane called the Body Plan.
The body plan takes advantage of the ship's symmetry. Hence only half the section
is show; the sections forward of amidships are drawn on the right side, and the
sections aft of the amidships are drawn on the left side. The amidships section is
generally shown on both sides of the body plan. The vertical line in the center
separating the left and right half of the ship is called the centerline.
The ship’s length between forward and aft perpendiculars is divided into 10
equally spaced divisions or stations numbered 1 to 10. Transverse section of
the ship at various stations are drawn to give a drawing known as Body Plan.
Since the vessel is symmetrical, half sections are given. The stations 0 to 5
representing after half of the ship are shown on the left side of the plan and the
forward section on the right side of the plan.
The Sheer Plan
A plane that runs from bow to stern directly through the center of the ship and parallel
to the sides of the imaginary box is called the centerline plane. A series of planes
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parallel to one side of the centerline plane are imagined at regular intervals from the
centerline. Each plane will intersect the ship's hull and form a curved line at the points
of intersection. These lines are called buttock or butt lines and are projected onto a
single plane called the Sheer Plan. Each buttock line shows the true shape of the hull
from the side view for some distance from the centerline of the ship. The centerline
plane shows a special butt line called the profile of the ship.
The profile or sheer plan shows the general outline of the vessel , any sheer of the
deck, the deck position and the waterlines. The stations are shown as vertical parallel
lines. Additional stations may be used at forward and aft ends, where the section
change is considerable.
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The Half Breadth Plan
The bottom of the box is a reference plane called the base plane. The base plane is
usually level with the keel. A series of planes parallel and above the base plan are
imagined at regular intervals, usually at every meter. Each plane will intersect the
ship's hull and form a line at the points of intersection. These lines are
called waterlines and are all projected onto a single plane called the Half-Breadth
Plan.
Each waterlines shows the true shape of the hull from the top view for some elevation
above the base plane.
The water lines referred to here has nothing to do with where the ship actually floats.
There waterlines are the intersection of the ship's hull with some imaginary plane
above the base plane.
Since ships are symmetric about their centerline they only need be drawn for the
starboard or port side, thus the name Half-Breadth Plan.
The half breadth plan shows the shape of the waterlines and the deck formed by the
horizontal planes at various waterline height from the keel, this plan is usually super
imposed on sheer plan.
Finally The initial line plan is drawn for the design and checked for fairness (meaning
all the lines must run evenly and smoothly. There must also be exact correspondence
between dimensions shown for a particular point in all three different views. This
fairing operation was done by Loftsman but now it is carried out on computers.
After fairing , a final line plan is prepared and table of offsets is compiled for use in
producing the ship’s plate and frames. After the compiling of the table of offsets, the
loftsman will start lofting.
Lofting
Lofting is a drafting technique (sometimes using mathematical tables) whereby

curved lines are generated, to be used in plans for streamlined objects such as aircraft
and boats. The lines may be drawn on wood. The technique can be as simple as
bending a flexible object, such as a long strip of thin wood or thin plastic, so that it
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passes over three non-linear points and scribing the resultant curved line, or plotting
the line using computers or mathematical tables.
It is used to draw and cut pieces for hulls and keels, which are usually curved, often in
three dimensions. Loftsmen at the mould lofts of shipyards were responsible for
taking the dimensions, and details from drawings and plans and translating this
information into templates, battens, ordinates, cutting sketches, profiles, margins and
other data. Since the early 1970s computer-aided design (CAD) became normal for
the shipbuilding design and lofting process.
Lofting is the transfer of a Lines Plan to a Full Sized Plan. This helps to assure
that the boat will be accurate in its layout and pleasing in appearance. There are
many methods to loft a set of plans.
The first step is to lay out the grid, mark the Base Line along the length of the paper
or plywood sheet. Then nail Battens every 12 inches (or more in some cases) where
the station lines are to be set as a mark for the perpendicular line, which is marked
with a T-square
The second step is to mark the points from the table of offsets. All measurements off
the table of offsets are listed in Millimeters or the Feet, Inches and Eighths. The
points are plotted at each station then use a small nail and a batten to Fair (draw with a
fair curve) the ship's lines.
Once the fairing is completed then steel is joined in subassemblies, assemblies and
then finally units. These units are welded together in the fitting out basin to complete
the ship.
Using Computer Aided Designs and Manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
Ship designs are now days made by computer aided process and thus many computer
aided design (CAD) systems are available like TRIBON, FORAN, Autoship etc. The
information provided by these designs are integrated into computer aided
manufacturing (CAM) systems. Production information is provided directly for use by
computer numerical control (CNC) machines. Thus the production process of cutting
and shaping plates and section, panel assemblies etc can be done automatically with
the help of computer.
A wire-frame model is a visual presentation of a three-dimensional (3D) or physical
object used in 3D computer graphics. It is created by specifying each edge of the
physical object where two mathematically continuous smooth surfaces meet, or by
connecting an object's constituent vertices using straight lines or curves. The object is
projected onto a display screen by drawing lines at the location of each edge. The
term wire frame comes from designers using metal wire to represent the three-
dimensional shape of solid objects. 3D wire frame allows to construct and manipulate
solids and solid surfaces. Using a wire-frame model allows visualization of the
underlying design structure of a 3D model. Traditional two-dimensional views and
drawings can be created by appropriate rotation of the object and selection of hidden
line removal via cutting planes.
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When greater graphical detail is desired, surface textures can be added automatically
after completion of the initial rendering of the wire frame. This allows the designer to
quickly review solids or rotate the object to new desired views. Wire-frame models
are also used as the input for computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
There are mainly three types of 3D CAD models. Wire frame is one of them and it is
the most abstract and least realistic. Other types of 3D CAD models are surface and
solid. This method of modeling consists of only lines, points and curves defining the
edges of an object.
Method for creating 3D wireframe
Extrusion is a technique for creating a 3D wire-frame model by copying a 2D profile

and extending it to a depth defined by the operator. The result is a 3D wireframe of
the profile.
1. Rotation produces wire-frame models by rotating a cross section or profile of
the part about an axis. It is similar to extrusion except it is swept about an axis.
2. Extrusion with scale technique consists of defining the depth along with the
facility of enlarging scale uniformly.
3. Using primitive shapes to build models.
Wire Frame Model of an Oil Tanker
Plate Nesting
This involves shaping and cutting of steel plates to a particular shape using manual
methods or automatic methods like CAM. Computer aided machinery uses
Numerically Controlled (NC) system. Nesting refers to the process of laying out
cutting patterns to minimize the raw material waste.
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Numerical Control(NC)
NC system is one in which a machine is operated and controlled by insertion of
Numerical Data. Numerical Data is a sequence of numbers which fully describes the
part to be produced. Additionally certain instructions can be fed in to a CAM for
operating it automatically. These instructions are also fed numerically in to the
computer.
Once the numbers are fed then there is a reading device which converts these numbers
into electrical impulses. These electrical impulses become control signals for various
parts of the machine which produces the desired finish product. The input data to the
cutting machine goes from CAM system. If several parts are to be cut from a single
plate, these parts are nested or economically fitted into the plate from where the parts
are going to get cut, before the actual cutting starts. This is helpful in avoiding the
wastage.
 Some machines can access only half of the material at a particular time; the
machine automatically flips the sheet over to allow the remaining half to be
accessed;
 Shearing may be permitted only in certain areas of the sheet due to limitations of
the machinery
 Different quality areas that must match corresponding quality levels required for
different parts;
direction;
Once the plate is nested then the parts can be joined and sub-assemblies can be
prefabricated. Sub assemblies and assemblies can be joined to form a unit. These
units are put together or assembled to form a complete ship.
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Attachment 1 - international convention for the safety of life at sea, 1974

Anexo
Capítulo ii-1 - construction - subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical
installations
Parte b - subdivision and stability (*)
Regra 13 - Openings in Watertight Bulkheads
a) The number of openings in watertight bulkheads shall be reduced to the minimum

compatible with the design and proper working of the ship; satisfactory means
shall be provided for closing these openings.
b) (i) Where pipes, scuppers, electric cables, etc. are carried through watertight
subdivision bulkheads, arrangements shall be made to ensure the integrity of the
watertightness of the bulkheads.
(ii) Valves and cocks not forming part of a piping system shall not be permitted in
watertight subdivision bulkheads.
(iii) Lead or other heat sensitive materials shall not be used in systems which
penetrate watertight subdivision bulkheads, where deterioration of such
systems in the event of fire would impair the watertight integrity of the
bulkheads.
c) (i) No doors, manholes, or access openings are permitted:
(1) in the collision bulkhead below the margin line;
(2) in watertight transverse bulkheads dividing a cargo space from an
adjoining cargo space or from a permanent or reserve bunker, except as
provided in paragraph (1) of this Regulation.
(ii) Except as provided in sub-paragraph (iii) of this paragraph, the collision
bulkhead may be pierced below the margin line by not more than one pipe
for dealing with fluid in the forepeak tank, provided that the pipe is fitted
with a screwdown valve capable of being operated from above the bulkhead
deck, the valve chest being secured inside the forepeak to the collision
bulkhead.
(iii) If the forepeak is divided to hold two different kinds of liquids the
Administration may allow the collision bulkhead to be pierced below the
margin line by two pipes, each of which is fitted as required by sub-
paragraph (ii) of this paragraph, provided the Administration is satisfied that
there is no practical alternative to the fitting of such a second pipe and that,
having regard to the additional subdivision provided in the forepeak, the
safety of the ship is maintained.
d) (i) Watertight doors fitted in bulkheads between permanent and reserve bunkers
shall be always accessible, except as provided in subparagraph (ii) of paragraph
of this Regulation for between deck bunker doors.
(ii) Satisfactory arrangements shall be made by means of screens or otherwise to

prevent the coal from interfering with the closing of watertight bunker doors.
e) Within spaces containing the main and auxiliary propelling machinery including
boilers serving the needs of propulsion and all permanent bunkers, not more than
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one door apart from the doors to bunkers and shaft tunnels may be fitted in each
main transverse bulkhead. Where two or more shafts are fitted the tunnels shall be
connected by an inter-communicating passage. There shall be only one door
between the machinery space and the tunnel spaces where two shafts are fitted and
only two doors where there are more than two shafts. All these doors shall be of
the sliding type and shall be located so as to have their sills as high as practicable.
The hand gear for operating these doors from above the bulkhead deck shall be
situated outside the spaces containing the machinery if this is consistent with a
satisfactory arrangement of the necessary gearing.
f) (i) Watertight doors shall be sliding doors or hinged doors or doors of an
equivalent type. Plate doors secured only by bolts and doors required to be closed
by dropping or by the action of a dropping weight are not permitted.
(ii) Sliding doors may be either: hand-operated only, or
power-operated as well as hand-operated.
(iii) Authorized watertight doors may therefore be divided into three Classes:
Class 1 - hinged doors;
Class 2 - hand-operated sliding doors;
Class 3 - sliding doors which are power-operated as well as hand-operated.
(iv) The means of operation of any watertight door whether power-operated or not
shall be capable of closing the door with the ship listed to 15 degrees either
way.
(v) In all classes of watertight doors indicators shall be fitted which show, at all
operating stations from which the doors are not visible, whether the doors are
open or closed. If any of the watertight doors, of whatever Class, is not fitted so as
to enable it to be closed from a central control station, it shall be provided with a
mechanical, electrical, telephonic, or any other suitable direct means of
communication, enabling the officer of the watch promptly to contact the person
who is responsible for closing the door in question, under previous orders.
g) Hinged doors (Class 1) shall be fitted with quick action closing devices, such as
catches, workable from each side of the bulkhead.
h) Hand-operated sliding doors (Class 2) may have a horizontal or vertical motion. It

shall be possible to operate the mechanism at the door itself from either side, and
in addition, from an accessible position above the bulkhead deck, with an all
round crank motion, or some other movement providing the same guarantee of
safety and of an approved type. Departures from the requirement of operation on
both sides may be allowed, if this requirement is impossible owing to the layout of
the spaces. When operating a hand gear the time necessary for the complete
closure of the door with the vessel upright, shall not exceed 90 seconds.
i) (i) Power-operated sliding doors (Class 3) may have a vertical or horizontal
motion. If a door is required to be power-operated from a central control, the
gearing shall be so arranged that the door can be operated by power also at the
door itself from both sides. The arrangement shall be such that the door will close
automatically if opened by local control after being closed from the central
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control, and also such that any door can be kept closed by local systems which
will prevent the door from being opened from the upper control. Local control
handles in connexion with the power gear shall be provided each side of the
bulkhead and shall be so arranged as to enable persons passing through the
doorway to hold both handles in the open position without being able to set the
closing mechanism in operation accidentally. Power-operated sliding doors shall
be provided with hand gear workable at the door itself on either side and from an
accessible position above the bulkhead deck, with an all round crank motion or
some other movement providing the same guarantee of safety and of an approved
type. Provision shall be made to give warnings by sound signal that the door has
begun to close and will continue to move until it is completely closed. The door
shall take a sufficient time to close to ensure safety.
(ii) There shall be at least two independent power sources capable of opening and
closing all the doors under control, each of them capable of operating all the doors
simultaneously. The two power sources shall be controlled from the central station
on the bridge provided with all the necessary indicators for checking that each of
the two power sources is capable of giving the required service satisfactorily.
(iii) In the case of hydraulic operation, each power source shall consist of a pump
capable of closing all doors in not more than 60 seconds. In addition, there shall
be for the whole installation hydraulic accumulators of sufficient capacity to
operate all the doors at least three times, i.e., closed-open-closed. The fluid used
shall be one which does not freeze at any of the temperatures liable to be
encountered by the ship during its service.
j) (i) Hinged watertight doors (Class 1) in passenger, crew and working spaces are
only permitted above a deck the underside of which, at its lowest point at side, is
at least 2.13 metres (7 feet) above the deepest subdivision load line.
(ii) Watertight doors, the sills of which are above the deepest load line and below
the line specified in the preceding sub-paragraph shall be sliding doors and may
be hand-operated (Class 2), except in vessels engaged on short international
voyages and required to have a factor of subdivision of .50 or less in which all
such doors shall be power-operated. When trunkways in connexion with
refrigerated cargo and ventilation or forced draught ducts are carried through more
than one main watertight subdivision bulkhead, the doors at such openings shall
be operated by power.
k) (i) Watertight doors which may sometimes be opened at sea, and the sills of which
are below the deepest subdivision load line shall be sliding doors. The following
rules shall apply:
l) (1) when the number of such doors (excluding doors at entrances to shaft tunnels)
exceeds five, all of these doors and those at the entrance to shaft tunnels or
ventilation or forced draught ducts, shall be power-operated (Class 3) and shall be
capable of being simultaneously closed from a central station situated on the
bridge;
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(2) when the number of such doors (excluding doors at entrances to shaft tunnels)
is greater than one, but does not exceed five,
(a) where the ship has no passenger spaces below the bulkhead deck, all the
above-mentioned doors may be hand-operated (Class 2);
(b) where the ship has passenger spaces below the bulkhead deck all the above-
mentioned doors shall be power-operated (Class 3) and shall be capable of
being simultaneously closed from a central station situated on the
bridge;
(3) in any ship where there are only two such watertight doors and they are into
or within the space containing machinery, the Administration may allow
these two doors to be hand-operated only (Class 2).
(ii) If sliding watertight doors which have sometimes to be open at sea for the
purpose of trimming coal are fitted between bunkers in the between decks
below the bulkhead deck, these doors shall be operated by power. The
opening and closing of these doors shall be recorded in such log book as may
be prescribed by the Administration.
(l) (i) If the Administration is satisfied that such doors are essential, watertight
doors of satisfactory construction may be fitted in watertight bulkheads
dividing cargo between deck spaces. Such doors may be hinged, rolling or
sliding doors but shall not be remotely controlled. They shall be fitted at the
highest level and as far from the shell plating as practicable, but in no case
shall the outboard vertical edges be situated at a distance from the shell
plating which is less than one-fifth of the breadth of the ship, as defined in
Regulation 2 of this Chapter, such distance being measured at right angles to
the centre line of the ship at the level of the deepest subdivision load line.
(ii) Such doors shall be closed before the voyage commences and shall be
kept closed during navigation; and the time of opening such doors in port and
of closing them before the ship leaves port shall be entered in the log book.
Should any of the doors be accessible during the voyage, they shall be fitted
with a device which prevents unauthorized opening. When it is proposed to
fit such doors, the number and arrangements shall receive the special
consideration of the Administration.
m) Portable plates on bulkheads shall not be permitted except in machinery spaces.

Such plates shall always be in place before the ship leaves port, and shall not be
removed during navigation except in case of urgent necessity. The necessary
precautions shall be taken in replacing them to ensure that the joints shall be
watertight.
n) All watertight doors shall be kept closed during navigation except when
necessarily opened for the working of the ship, and shall always be ready to be
immediately closed.
o) (i) Where trunkways or tunnels for access from crew accommodation to the
stokehold, for piping, or for any other purpose are carried through main transverse
watertight bulkheads, they shall be watertight and in accordance with the
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requirements of Regulation 16 of this Chapter. The access to at least one end of

each such tunnel or trunkway, if used as a passage at sea, shall be through a trunk
extending watertight to a height sufficient to permit access above the margin line.
The access to the other end of the trunkway or tunnel may be through a watertight
door of the type required by its location in the ship. Such trunkways or tunnels
shall not extend through the first subdivision bulkhead abaft the collision
bulkhead.
(ii) Where it is proposed to fit tunnels or trunkways for forced draught, piercing
main transverse watertight bulkheads, these shall receive the special consideration
of the Administration.
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SHIP DESIGN COMPUTER AIDS
Rendering or image synthesis is the automatic process of generating a photorealistic

or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or 3D model (or models in what collectively
could be called a scene file) by means of computer programs. ... The term
"rendering" may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene.
'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video
editing program to produce final video output. Rendering has uses
in architecture, video games, simulators, movie or TV visual effects, and design
visualization, each employing a different balance of features and techniques.
There are two categories of rendering: pre-rendering and real-time rendering. The
striking difference between the two lies in the speed at which the computation and
finalization of images takes place.
1. Real-Time Rendering: The prominent rendering technique using in interactive

graphics and gaming where images must be created at a rapid pace. Because user
interaction is high in such environments, real-time image creation is required.
Dedicated graphics hardware and pre-compiling of the available information has
improved the performance of real-time rendering.
2. Pre-Rendering: This rendering technique is used in environments where speed is

not a concern and the image calculations are performed using multi-core central
processing units rather than dedicated graphics hardware. This rendering technique
is mostly used in animation and visual effects, where photorealism needs to be at
the highest standard possible.
For these rendering types,the three major computational techniques used are:
1. Scanline
2. Raytracing
3. Radiosity
4.
Lofting is a drafting technique (sometimes using mathematical tables) whereby
curved lines are generated, to be used in plans for streamlined objects such as aircraft
and boats. The lines may be drawn on wood and the wood then cut for
advanced woodworking. The technique can be as simple as bending a flexible object,
such as a long strip of thin wood or thin plastic, so that it passes over three non-linear
points and scribing the resultant curved line, or plotting the line
using computers or mathematical tables.
Lofting is particularly useful in boat building, when it is used to draw and cut pieces
for hulls and keels, which are usually curved, often in three dimensions. Loftsmen at
the mould lofts of shipyards were responsible for taking the dimensions, and details
from drawings and plans and translating this information into
templates, battens, ordinates, cutting sketches, profiles, margins and other
data.[1]Since the early 1970s computer-aided design (CAD) became normal for the
shipbuilding design and lofting process.
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NESTING : In manufacturing industry, Nesting refers to the process of laying out

cutting patterns to minimize the raw material waste. Examples include manufacturing
parts from flat raw material such as sheet metal. To minimize the amount of scrap raw
material produced during cutting, companies use proprietary nesting software.
Such efforts can also be applied to additive manufacturing, such as 3D printing. Here
the advantages sought can include minimizing tool movement that is not producing
product, or maximizing how many pieces can be fabricated in one build season. One
difference from nesting of cut pieces is that 3D parts often have a cross section that
changes with height, which can cause interference between adjacent parts as they are
built up
 Some machines can access only half of the material at a particular time; the
machine automatically flips the sheet over to allow the remaining half to be
accessed;
 Shearing may be permitted only in certain areas of the sheet due to limitations of
the machinery;
Nesting software may also have to take into account material characteristics, such as:
 Different quality areas that must match corresponding quality levels required for
different parts;
direction;
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD)
Is the use of computer systems (or workstations) to aid in the creation, modification,
analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase the
productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications
through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. CAD output is
often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing
operations. The term CADD (for Computer Aided Design and Drafting) is also used.
CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict the
objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall
appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just shapes. As in the
manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must
convey information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances,
according to application-specific conventions.
CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or
curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space.
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CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications,

including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial
and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more.
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
Is the use of software to control machine tools and related ones in

the manufacturing of workpieces. This is not the only definition for CAM, but it is the
most common; CAM may also refer to the use of a computer to assist in all operations
of a manufacturing plant, including planning, management, transportation and
storage. Its primary purpose is to create a faster production process and components
and tooling with more precise dimensions and material consistency, which in some
cases, uses only the required amount of raw material (thus minimizing waste), while
simultaneously reducing energy consumption. CAM is a subsequent computer-aided
process after computer-aided design (CAD) and sometimes computer-aided
engineering (CAE), as the model generated in CAD and verified in CAE can be input
into CAM software, which then controls the machine tool. CAM is used in many
schools alongside Computer-Aided Design (CAD) to create objects.
NUMERICAL CONTROL
Can be defined as a form of programmable automation in which process is

controlled by numbers,letters and symbols. In NC,the numbers form a programme of
instructions designed for a particular workpart or job. When job changes the program
of instruction changes.
In fabrication, computer numerical control (CNC) or simply numerical
control (NC) is the automated control of machiningtools (drills, boring tools, lathes)
by means of a computer, in which a NC machine operates on a piece of material
(metal, plastic, wood, ceramic, or composite) to transform it to precise specifications.
NC machines combine a motorized tool and a motorized platform with a control
system, and operate by way of a computer which 1) accepts graphical computer-aided
design (CAD) files, and 2) transforms the input CAD file into a sequential program of
machine control instructions, which are then executed.
HIDDEN LINE REMOVAL :
Solid objects are usually modeled by polyhedra in a computer representation. A face

of a polyhedron is a planar polygon bounded by straight line segments, called edges.
Curved surfaces are usually approximated by a polygon mesh. Computer programs for
line drawings of opaque objects must be able to decide which edges or which parts of
the edges are hidden by an object itself or by other objects. This problem is known
as hidden line removal.
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Models, e.g., in computer-aided design, can have thousands or millions of edges.

Therefore, a computational-complexity approach, expressing resource requirements,
such as time and memory, as the function of problem sizes, is crucial. Time
requirements are particularly important in interactive systems.
Hidden Line - when outline of an object is to be displayed - similar to clipping a line
segment against a window - most surface algorithms can be applied for hidden line
elimination.
Hidden Line Removal - assumes that objects are modeled with lines. - lines are
created where surfaces meet - if only the visible surfaces are drawn, the invisible lines
are automatically eliminated.
In hidden-line removal, edges or other vectors in the model that are obscured by
visible surfaces are omitted from the display of the image, or displayed as dashed
rather than full lines. An alternative name for the technique is visible line
identification. Some of the common hidden line algorithms are
 Floating horizon
 Image space
 List priority
 Object space
 Ray tracing
 Roberts Warnock
Hidden-line removal :
An algorithm used in computer graphics to determine which lines should not be

visible when a three-dimensional surface is displayed.
The Different Forms and Processes of Metal Cutting
When ordering metal, most people specify a particular size and shape of the material,
and the processes employed to ensure that the raw metal meets this specification are
varied and broadly flexible. Since metal is, by definition, extremely tough and
therefore difficult to cut, a range of devices and measures have had to be developed,
each of which is the best option for a particular type of metal or desired shape. Often,
small sections of the metal will need to be removed, in order to make holes for
screws, bolts and so on.
The most basic means of cutting metal are based upon manual tools, which is to say
smaller cutting devices which can be operated by hand.
 The most basic of these is probably a hacksaw, a saw similar to that which would
normally be used to cut through wood, but in this case constructed of steel which
is strong enough for its’ sharpened teeth to work through metal.
 Chisels can also be used to take off unwanted bits of metal, either cold chisels or
those, such as a ‘hardy chisel’ on an anvil, which are forced through metal when
it has been heated and softened.
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 Shears are scissor-like devices with blades made from carbon steel, which are
capable of cutting through 18 gauge aluminium, 24 gauge mild steel and 26 gauge
stainless steel.
For jobs which are too large or deal with materials which are too robust to make
manual metal cutting a practical proposition, machine cutting has to be applied, and
this comes in various different forms.
Turning
Turning is a process via which the sharp point of a cutting tool is applied to the metals
surface as it is rapidly spun by a device such as a lathe, thus removing the top layer of
metal to a pre-determined size.
Drilling
Drilling, on the other hand, consist of a drill bit which is applied to the metal using a
combination of force and rotation, and which therefore cuts through it. Thus, a hole of
the required size will be cut right through the metal in question.
Grinding
When the surface of the metal has to be smooth and of a very high quality a grinding
machine may be used. A grinding machine consists of an abrasive wheel which turns
while in contact with the metal, thus wearing the surface down.
Welding or Burning Technologies
Welding or burning technologies work by the application of heat to the surface of the
metal, bringing it up to a temperature at which it will soften and then break along a
carefully delineated line.
Laser
The first such technology to be considered is the form of laser cutting. A laser is an
intensely concentrated beam of light which can be reduced to a tiny point of very high
temperature and controlled in a way which means that complex and very exact shapes
can be cut out of the metal. Often, the laser will be controlled by a computer which
has the pattern required programmed into it. The accuracy and focus of the laser
beam results in a very clean cut and a top rate finish.
Flame
Another device which operates along similar lines, using a gas flame which reaches a
temperature of some 3,500 degrees centigrade, is an oxy acetylene cutter. This heats
the metal up to melting point and then directs a stream of oxygen onto the spot, thus
causing the metal to burn and melt along the required line.
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Plasma
A technique which is more contemporary than either of these is plasma cutting. A

plasma torch pumps either oxygen or an inert gas out of the nozzle at high speed
whilst simultaneously sending an electrical arc through the gas, thus creating plasma
which is hot enough to melt the metal whilst also moving quickly enough to blow any
molten metal away, thus creating a clean cut. The most up to date and lightweight
plasma cutters are capable of reaching levels of accuracy similar to those achieved by
laser cutting.
Water Jet
The remaining type of technology used to cut metal accurately is erosion technology.
This is technology which mimics the effect of water upon metal in the natural
environment, but does so at a highly accelerated rate. Water jet cutting is particularly
useful since it doesn’t rely on the creation of heat to cut through the metal, and can
therefore be used on metal which may be sensitive to the effects of heat. A water jet
cutter slices through the metal using a highly concentrated jet of water or, on
occasion, water with the addition of an abrasive substance.
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(i) Where trunkways or tunnels for access from crew accommodation to the
stokehold, for piping, or for any other purpose are carried through main transverse
watertight bulkheads, they shall be watertight and in accordance with the
requirements of Regulation 16 of this Chapter. The access to at least one end of
each such tunnel or trunkway, if used as a passage at sea, shall be through a trunk
extending watertight to a height sufficient to permit access above the margin line.
The access to the other end of the trunkway or tunnel may be through a watertight
door of the type required by its location in the ship. Such trunkways or tunnels
shall not extend through the first subdivision bulkhead abaft the collision
bulkhead.
(ii) Where it is proposed to fit tunnels or trunkways for forced draught, piercing main
transverse watertight bulkheads, these shall receive the special consideration of
the Administration.
Vertical ducts (L.S. Regulation 62(2)) 13.9.5.1 For the purpose of L.S. Regulation
62(2)
a vertical duct is a duct which passes through more than one deck. This regulation
requires vertical ducts to be insulated as required by the tables in Schedule 2 to
MSN 1667(M). Compliance with this regulation may be achieved in the case of
vertical ducts which are fitted with fire dampers immediately above each ‘A’
Class deck by insulating each damper coaming to the ‘A’ Class standard of the
deck through which the duct passes to the extent shown in figure 12.7.
Vertical ducts having a cross sectional area not exceeding 0.02m2 which pass through
‘A’ Class decks other than those which are main zone divisions, are not required to be
fitted with fire dampers. Such vertical ducts MSIS012/CH 13/REV 1.01/PAGE 10
should be insulated to the same ‘A’ Class standard as the decks throughwhich they
pass by continuing the insulation fitted to the deck plating along the ducts for a
distance of not less than 380mm from the deck plating.
Ducts of not less than 0.075m2 cross sectional area and all vertical ducts are required
by paragraph 1 of Schedule 3 to MSN 1667(M) to be constructed of steel or other
equivalent material. Where an equivalent material such as aluminium alloy is
contemplated the shipbuilder should be informed that the inside and outside of such
ducts would need to be insulated to A-0 standard.
What is creep? Creep may be defined as a time-dependent deformation at elevated

temperature and constant stress. It follows, then, that a failure from such a condition
is referred to as a creep failure or, occasionally, a stress rupture. The temperature at
which creep begins depends on the alloy composition. For the common materials
used in superheater and reheater construction, Table I (see below) gives the
approximate temperatures for the onset of creep. It should be pointed out that the
actual operating stress will, in part, dictate or determine the temperature at which
creep begins.
The end of useful service life of the high-temperature components in a boiler (the
superheater and reheater tubes and headers, for example) is usually a failure by a
creep or stress-rupture mechanism. The root cause may not be elevated temperature,
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as fuel-ash corrosion or erosion may reduce the wall thickness so that the onset of
creep and creep failures occur sooner than expected.
However, regardless of the cause, the failure will exhibit the characteristics of a creep
or stress rupture. Indeed, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code recognizes creep
and creep deformation as high-temperature design limitations and provides allowable
stresses for all alloys used in the creep range. One of the criteria used in the
determination of these allowable stresses is 1% creep expansion, or deformation, in
100,000 hours of service. Thus, the code recognizes that over the operating life, some
creep deformation is likely. And creep failures do display some deformation or tube
swelling in the immediate region of the rupture.
Figure 1. Schematic creep curve. Courtesy Babcock & Wilcox.
At elevated temperatures and stresses, much less than the high-temperature yield
stress, metals undergo permanent plastic deformation called creep. Figure 1 shows a
schematic creep curve for a constant load; a plot of the change in length verses time.
The weight or load on the specimen is held constant for the duration of the test. There
are four portions of the curve that are of interest:
 An initial steep rate that is at least partly of elastic origin, from point "0" to
point "A" in Figure 1.
 This is followed by a region in which the elongation or deformation rate
decreases with time, the so-called transient or primary creep, from region "A"
to "B" of Figure 1. The portion from point "0" to point "B" occurs fairly
quickly
 The next portion of the creep curve is the area of engineering interest, where
the creep rate is almost constant. The portion from "B" to "C" is nearly linear
and predictable. Depending on the load or stress, the time can be very long;
two years in a test and several decades in service.
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 The fourth portion of the creep curve, beyond the constant-creep-rate or linear
region, shows a rapidly increasing creep rate which culminates in failure.
Even under constant-load test conditions, the effective stress may actually
increase due to the damage that forms within the microstructure.
Without going into a detailed discussion of the atom movements involved in creep
deformation, suffice it to say that creep deformation occurs by grain-boundary sliding.
That is, adjacent grains or crystals move as a unit relative to each other. Thus, one of
the microstructural features of a creep failure is little or no obvious deformation to
individual grains along the fracture edge.
The first two stages will not leave any microstructural evidence of creep damage.
Somewhere along the linear portion of Figure 1, the first microstructural evidence of
damage appears as individual voids or pores. The location of these first voids or holes
varies, often noted at the junction of three or more grains, occasionally at nonmetallic
inclusions. These individual voids grow and link to form cracks several grains long,
and finally failure occurs. The ultimate rupture is by a tensile overload when effective
wall thickness is too thin to contain the steam pressure.
Since creep deformation occurs by grain-boundary sliding, the more grain boundary
area, the easier creep deformation will be. Creep deformation and creep strength are a
grain-size sensitive property. Thus a larger grain size improves creep strength. For
austenitic stainless steels, SA213 TP321H for example, the code requires a grain size
of #7 or coarser, to assure adequate creep strength. The elevated temperatures where
creep occurs lead to other microstructural changes. Creep damage and microstructural
degradation occur simultaneously. For carbon steels and carbon-1/2 molybdenum
steels, iron carbide will decompose into graphite. For the low-alloy steels of T-11 and
T-22, the carbide phase spheroidizes. Thus, creep failures will include the degraded
microstructures of graphite or spheroidized carbides along with the grain-boundary
voids and cracks characteristic of these high-temperature, long-time failures.
While creep failures are expected for superheaters and reheaters operating at design
conditions, deviations from these parameters will promote early failures. The steam
temperature always varies some from individual tube to tube, and the design allows
for this variability. However, when the range of temperatures is larger than accounted
for, the hottest tubes fail sooner than expected. A more likely cause of premature
failure is the slow increase in tube-metal temperatures due to the formation of the
steam-side scale.
Steam reacts with steel to form iron oxide along the ID surface of the tube.
The microstructures themselves will show the grain-boundary sliding and the resultant
creep cracks or voids. For stainless steels, the microstructures are similar in that the
failure is by grain-boundary-sliding and crack formation.
In a superheater or reheater tube, often the very first sign of creep damage is
longitudinal cracks in the steam-side scale. As creep deformation expands the tube
diameter, the brittle ID scale cannot follow the expansion. Cracks develop in an axial
or longitudinal direction which is perpendicular to the principle hoop stress. With
time, the tube continues to expand, and these cracks widen. This wide crack shortens
the path from steam to steel; iron oxide forms preferentially at the tip of the crack, as
there is less oxide thickness to protect the steel; and a cusp forms within the steel
tube. The cusp acts as a notch or a stress raiser, reducing the local wall thickness.
Page 161
Creep voids form here, often before any other obvious grain-boundary damage
appears elsewhere within the microstructure. With continued high-temperature
operation, creep cracks grow from the cusp and ultimately weaken the cross section to
the point where failure occurs.
Creep failures are characterized by:
1. bulging or blisters in the tube
2. thick-edged fractures often with very little obvious ductilit
3. longitudinal "stress cracks" in either or both ID and OD oxide scales
4. external or internal oxide-scale thicknesses that suggest higher-than-
expected temperatures
5. intergranular voids and cracks in the microstructure
Table I
Initial Creep Temperature
For superheaters and reheaters, the scale that forms is essentially magnetite alloyed
with chromium, molybdenum, manganese, and silicon from the alloy steels of T-11
and T-22. For waterwalls, the iron oxide may be contaminated with impurities from
the boiler water and corrosion debris from the pre-boiler circuits of condenser and
feedwater heaters. In any event, the thermal conductivity of the steamside scale is
about 5% of the thermal conductivity of the steel tube. Thus, an effective insulating
layer forms and prevents proper cooling of the tube metal by the steam. The net effect
of the scale is to raise the tubemetal temperature. Depending on the scale thickness,
which is dependent on the time and temperature of operation, tube-metal temperature
increases of 25 - 75oF are likely. Such a large increase raises tubemetal temperatures
beyond the safe design range. These elevated temperatures result in increased creep
deformation rates, more rapid oxidation and corrosion (thinner walls and higher
stress) and hasten the onset of creep failures. An increase of 60oF (from 1040oF to
1100oF for example) will decrease creep life by 90%. An increase of 60 oF due to
steam-side scale formation in a superheater or reheater is not unusual.
Carbon steel....................... 800oF

Carbon + 1/2 Molybdenum............ 850oF
1-1/4 Chromium-1/2 Molybdenum...... 950oF
2-1 /4 Chromium-1 Molybdenum....... 1000oF
Stainless steel.................... 1050oF
Page 162
Work Hardening, also known as Strain Hardening or Cold Working, is

the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs
because of dislocation movements and dislocation generation within the crystal
structure of the material. Many non-brittle metals with a reasonably high melting
point as well as several polymers can be strengthened in this fashion. Alloys not
amenable to heat treatment, including low-carbon steel, are often work-hardened.
Some materials cannot be work-hardened at low temperatures, such as indium,
however others can only be strengthened via work hardening, such as
pure copper and aluminum.
Work hardening may be desirable or undesirable depending on the context. An
example of undesirable work hardening is during machining when early passes of
a cutter inadvertently work-harden the workpiece surface, causing damage to the
cutter during the later passes. Certain alloys are more prone to this than
others; superalloys such as Inconel require machining strategies that take it into
account. An example of desirable work hardening is that which occurs
in metalworking processes that intentionally induce plastic deformation to exact a
shape change. These processes are known as cold working or cold forming processes.
They are characterized by shaping the workpiece at a temperature below
its recrystallization temperature, usually at ambient temperature. Cold forming
techniques are usually classified into four major groups: squeezing, bending, drawing,
and shearing. Applications include the heading of bolts and cap screws and the
finishing of cold rolled steel. In cold forming, metal is formed at high speed and high
pressure using tool steel or carbide dies. The cold working of the metal increasing the
hardness, yield strength, and tensile strength.
Page 163
Necking, in engineering or materials science, is a mode of tensile deformation where

relatively large amounts of strain localize disproportionately in a small region of the
material. The resulting prominent decrease in local cross-sectional area provides the
basis for the name "neck". Because the local strains in the neck are large, necking is
often closely associated with yielding, a form of plastic deformation associated
with ductile materials, often metals or polymers.]The neck eventually becomes
a fracture when enough strain is applied.
FORMATION
Necking results from an instability during tensile deformation when a material's cross-
sectional area decreases by a greater proportion than the material strain hardens.
Considère published the basic criterion for necking in 1885. Three concepts provide
the framework for understanding neck formation.
1. Before deformation, all real materials have heterogeneities such as flaws or
local variations in dimensions or composition that cause local fluctuations
in stresses and strains. To determine the location of the incipient neck, these
fluctuations need only be infinitesimal in magnitude.
2. During tensile deformation the material decreases in cross-sectional area.
(Poisson effect)
3. During tensile deformation the material strain hardens. The amount of
hardening varies with extent of deformation.
Page 164
The latter two items determine the stability while the first item determines the neck's
location.
NECK STABILITY
As deformation proceeds the geometric instability causes strain to continue

concentrating in the neck until the material either ruptures or the necked material
hardens enough, as indicated by the second tangent point in the top diagram, to cause
other regions of the material to deform instead. The amount of strain in the stable
neck is called the natural draw ratio[4] because it is determined by the material's
hardening characteristics, not the amount of drawing imposed on the material. Ductile
polymers often exhibit stable necks because molecular orientation provides a
mechanism for hardening that predominates at large strains.
Page 165

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Phase 2 –

STCW WATCHKEEPING STANDARDS

WATCHKEEPING ARRANGEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES TO BE

SECTION A-VIII/2 OF THE STCW CODE

Part 2 - Voyage planning

Planning prior to each voyage

Verification and display of planned route

Deviation from planned route

Part 3 – Watchkeeping principles in general

.9 Watchkeeping personnel shall notify the master/chief engineer

Principles applying to watchkeeping generally

Protection of marine environment

Part 4-1 - Principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch

1. The officer in charge of the navigational watch is the master’s representative

.3 Detecting ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks, debris

.10 Rudder and propeller control and ship manoeuvring characteristics;

Taking over the watch

.2 Position, course, speed and draught of the ship;

Performing The Navigational Watch

1. The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:

Watchkeeping under different conditions and in different areas

22. When restricted visibility is encountered or expected, the first responsibility of

Coastal and congested waters

Navigation with pilot on board

28. If the master considers it necessary a continuous navigational watch shall be

Part 4-3 - Principles to be observed in keeping a radio watch

Regulations and the SOLAS Convention;

Performing the radio watch

86. The radio operator performing radio watchkeeping duties shall:

Taking over the watch

relieved, except when ordered otherwise by the master or chief engineer

Part 5-1 - Taking over the deck watch

Part 5-3 - Performing the deck watch

100. The officer in charge of the deck watch shall:

.1 Make rounds to inspect the ship at appropriate intervals;

Part 4-5 - Watch in port on ships carrying hazardous cargo

Part 4-6 - Cargo watch

THE ENGINEERING WATCH

3.1 General principles

3.2 Protection of marine environment

3.3 Watch arrangements

3.4 Taking over the watch

3.5 Performing the watch

or repairoperations to be performed during the engineering watch. The officer

3.6 Watchkeeping under different conditions and in different areas

implemented and, in addition, that auxiliary machinery used for manoeuvring is

Coastal and congested waters

4.1 General principles

4.3 Performing the watch

4.3.2 Officers in charge of the engineering watch must:

5 Guidance on keeping a Watch

5.1 Particular guidance may be necessary for special types of propulsion

CAD CAM IN SHIP CONSTRUCTION

METHOD FOR CREATING 3D WIREFRAME

WIRE FRAME MODEL OF AN OIL TANKER

NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC)

CARPY V-NOTCH TEST

Is the process of treating workpieces to cryogenic temperatures (i.e. below −190 °C

APPLICATIONS OF CRYOGENIC HARDENING

 Aerospace & Defense: communication, optical housings, weapons platforms,

FIRE STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

BASIC PRINCIPLES / FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRE

1. Division of ship into main vertical zones by thermal and structural