The Quantitative and Qualitative Protection For Egyptian Water Sources

Dr.
safaa fatouh Gomaa The quantitative and qualitative protection for Egyptian water sources
The quantitative and qualitative

protection for Egyptian water
bodies
Prepared by
Dr.Safaa fatouh gomaa
PH.D. Law
Faculty of law- Mansoura University
Faculty member in Van Holland
University
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Dr.safaa fatouh Gomaa The quantitative and qualitative protection for Egyptian water sources
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to

Dr.Ashraf El-safty, who has supported
me generously towards research methods,
through his lectures, and invaluable
instructions, I thank him for his advices,
because he represent as a guide for me.
Really, I am indebted to Dr.Ashraf El-

safty who teaches me formatting of the
research.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 6
1.1. Problem Definition .......................................................................................................... 6
1.2. Stakeholders Analysis ..................................................................................................... 8
1.3. Conceptual Model ........................................................................................................... 8
1.3.1 Claims .......................................................................................................................... 9
1.3.2 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 10
1.3.2.1 Major questions ................................................................................................ 10
1.3.2.2 Minor questions ................................................................................................ 10
2. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 11

2.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.1 The water pollution overview in the world ………………………..……………………..……………14
2.1.2 Quantitative protection for Egyptian Nile River water………………..…….……………………17
2.1.3 Qualitative protection for Egyptian Nile River water………………….…………………………..17
2.1.4 The Role of technology in achieving the quantitative and qualitative protection for
water bodies…………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………..17
2.1.5 The Role of technology in combating pollution in management “corruption”……..20
2.2. Theories Defined ........................................................................................................... 20
2.2.1 India “Ganga River”…………………………………………………………………..………….…………………20
2.2.2 China “Shanghai Huangpu River" …..…………………………………………..……….…………………26
2.3 conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….31
3. CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH DESIGN…………………………………….32

3.1 Theoretical Framework…………………..………………………………………………………………….............32
3.2 Research Questions……………………………………………..…………………………………………………………34
3.2.1 Majorquestions………………………………………………………………………….........................34
3.2.3 Minor questions………………………………………………………………………………………….……….34
3.3 Hypothetical statement…………………………………………………………………..……………………………..34
3.4 Research Methodology………………………….……..……………………………………………………………….35
3.4.1 Research Design……………………………………………………………………………………………………..35
3.4.2 Data Collection……………………………………………………….….…………………….…………………….35
3.4.3 Sampling……………………………………………………………………………………………….……….……….36
CHAPTER 4: Data Analysis about the quantitative and qualitative protection for Egyptian
water sources bodies……………………………………………………………………………………………………….37
4.1 introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………….……37
4.2 The legal framework of achievement qualitative and quantitative protection for Egyptian
water bodies……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………..37
4.3 The political framework of achievement qualitative and quantitative protection for
Egyptian water bodies………………………………………………………………………………………………………..41
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4.4 The technological tools for achievement qualitative and quantitative protection for
Egyptian water bodies………………………………………………………………………………………………………..46
4.4.1 The importance of technological tools in water sectors………………………………………46
4.4.2 The water technologies examples in worldwide……………………..…………………………..48
4.5 The managerial framework for achievement qualitative and quantitative protection for
Egyptian water bodies………………………………………………………………………………………………..………52
CHAPTER 5: Interpretation Data about the quantitative and qualitative protection for
Egyptian water sources bodies…………………………………………………………………………………………60
5.1 Introduction………………………………….………………………………………………………………….……………60
5.2 Interpreting of Law 4 of 1994 concerning environmental protection & Law 48 for the Year
1982 regarding the Protection of the Nile and Waterways from Pollution……….……………….60
5.3 Interpreting international convention for Nile Basin countries…………..………………………..63
5.4 Interpreting the technological application in Egyptians water sectors………………….……..67
5.5 Interpreting the managerial framework responsible for Egyptians water bodies………...68
Chapter 6: Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………………….………….73
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 76
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: The proposed conceptual quantitative and qualitative protection for Egyptian water
sources...........................................................................................................................................9
Figure 2.1 the comparison between the River Nile and the largest Rivers in the world
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….…….12
Figure 2.2 The location of the Nile basin countries in the Africa continent…….........................13
Figure 2.3 The percentage of sources water pollution……………….…………..…………….….15
Figure 2.4 The most countries polluting oceans….……………………………….………….……16
Figure 2.5 The highest cities particulate polluting……………………………………...….…..…..16
Figure 2.6 Location map of India showing the Ganga River………………………....……………21
Figure 2.7 Map of India showing the route of the Ganga River………………..……………….…..22
Figure 2.8 sector wise breakup of grossly polluting industries…………......................................23
Figure 2.9 Location map of China showing the position of Shanghai………………….…...…….26

Figure 2.10 Map of the Tai Lake basin showing the location of Shanghai………….…...….……27
Figure 2.11 Map of the Shanghai municipality and the Huangpu River system……….…….……27
Figure 2.12 Chart showing the organization of Environmental Protection in China………………29
Figure 3.1 The proposed theoretical framework……..………………………………….…………..32
Figure 4.1 Table of environmental laws……………………………………………………………….38
Figure 4.2 The bodies that follow the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation……….…………..54
Figure 4.3 Specialized parties/bodies assisting the ministry………………………………………...…55
Figure 4.4 Organization charts of the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI)…...…….54
Figure 4.5 the main bodies of the irrigation authority………………………………………………56
Figure 5.1 the required management functions in legal framework……………………………….62
Figure 5.2 Water and Land Resources in the Nile Basin………………………………………………64
Figure 5.3 the required management functions in political framework……………………………….66
Figure 5.4 the required management functions in technological application………………..….……..67
Figure 5.5 the required management tasks in managerial framework…………………………………72
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Problem Definition:
An agreement between Egypt and Great Britain was concluded in 1929
that related to the utilization of the waters of the Nile River and its
tributaries. An annual Egyptian water allocation of 48 billion cubic
meters and Sudan 4 billion cubic meters out of an estimated average
annual yield of 84 billion cubic meters was the conclusion of this
discussion. Utilization a veto power over building projects on the Nile
River or any of its tributaries was a right that was given to Egypt in the
1929 agreement to minimize any interference with the flow of water into
the Nile.
Bilateral agreement between Egypt and an independent Sudan signed in

1959 that effectively confirmed the terms of the 1929 Anglo-Egyptian
Treaty. The 1959 agreement give additional water allocations to both
Egypt and Sudan, in another meaning, Egypt‟s water allocation became
55.5 billion cubic meters, instead of, 48 billion cubic meters, and Sudan‟s
increased from 4 billion cubic meters to 18.5 billion cubic meters, but,
there are 10 billion cubic meters to account for seepage and evaporation.
But this bilateral agreement set the important provision that refer to the
case of an increase in average water yield that should be shared equally
between the two downstream riparian states. The 1959 agreement, like
the 1929 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, did not make any allowance for the
water needs of the other riparian states, such as Ethiopia, because it has
highlands supply more than 80 percent of the Nile River‟s flows water.
With more of years passed, other countries of the Nile River Basin as a
populations have increased, that lead to developing more waters capacity
that harvest from the Nile River, this position disagreements with the fact
that Egypt has the water rights which acquired through the 1929 and 1959
agreements, and that no construction project be constructed on the Nile
River or any of its tributaries without prior ratification from Cairo. So,
upstream riparian states such as Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia
set in contrary position with Egyptian water rights, especially, when these
countries have expressed that they are not obligated by these agreements
because they have never ratified signatures on this agreement. Julius
Nyerere, leader of Tanzania, declared that the Nile Waters Agreements
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made the harmful position for other upstream riparian states, because it
forced them to get Egyptian approval on their national development plans
to the scrutiny and supervision of Cairo, and that is against an
independent sovereign for these states. So these countries suggest, more
inclusive legal framework for controlling the Nile River Basin.
Leaders of Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan met in the Sudanese capital

Khartoum on March 23, 2015 to ratify an agreement that may resolve
various issues result from Ethiopia decision to construct a dam on the
Blue Nile‟s , The triple meeting between Abdel Fattah al-Sisi (Egypt),
Omar al-Bashir (Sudan), and Hale Mariam Desalegn (Ethiopia) has been
referred to “Nile Agreement helps to resolve conflicts over the
contribution of the waters of the Nile River”. However, this agreement
does not handle the reasonable allocation and utilization of the waters of
the Nile River among all riparian states.
Previous summarized views about the international agreement for Nile

River water suppose the plan to determination the allocations for all
riparian states, by organizing “how billion cubic meters that must
consume for each state”, that lead to the international protection for water
sources for all riparian states through controlling the consumption of
Nile River water.
This protection nominated “quantitative” that mean “How to protect the

quantity of Nile River water by determining the allocations”, so the
previous agreement ignore the qualitative protection that focus on “How
to protect the quality of Nile River water”.
Egyptian governmental organizations - or the leaders of Egypt-

interested to combat the war that start on its quantitative allocation of
Nile River water, but they doesn‟t concerned with another kind of war-
more dangerous-that relate to the quality of Nile River water, this war
may come from external members, in another meaning “riparian states”,
or from internal members “Egyptian people”, that share on the
elimination of the quality of.
Lack of qualitative protection for Egyptian Nile River water will effect by
passive way on Egyptian economy, because it will effect on the quality of
Egyptian agricultural products, which may be a great obstacle to Export.
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Lack of political settlement- no judgment- for the Egyptian River Nile

water‟s problem with its neighbors, may lead to the new kind of war that
aim to elimination of the quality of Nile River water, so the Egyptian
leaders must focus on the qualitative protection Egyptian Nile River
water by cooperation with its partners in Nile River.
The neglecting of the qualitative protection for Egyptian River Nile

water‟s problem will social development that relate to the health of
Egyptian people, because the pollution on the River Nile causes many
diseases such as “Renal failure, Hepatitis” for majority of Egyptian
people.
So the qualitative protection need to high strict “technological, and legal”

frame, that depends on the role of technology for achieve the quantitative
& qualitative protection for Egyptian River Nile water, through applying
the patent which set the solutions to reduce the high consumption, and set
the treatment for the contaminated water with low cost, but the legal one
rely on set the law which states the strict punishments “fines,
imprisonment” to every citizen, organization “public ,or private”
participate to elimination of the quality of Egyptian Nile River water.
1.2 stakeholder’s analysis:

Egyptian people, Riparian states, and Egyptian governmental bodies, are
major participants in required “quantitative and qualitative” protection for
Egyptian water sources, Egyptian people represents as major factor in
this protection, this people may be a source of “qualitative” protection, in
a contrary, may be a source of pollution, so this research will depend on
setting the legal frame of this protection, by establish the punishment for
everyone participate in pollution River Nile, Riparian states- Burundi,
the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda, with South Sudan- is a
second participant that must share in achieving the qualitative protection
by mandatory international convention which prevent any action help to
pollute River Nile, Egyptian governmental bodies- Ministry of Water
Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) that is responsible for protection of
Egyptian Nile River water - represent as engine for achieving qualitative
protection for Egyptian Nile River water by issuing strict rules that inhibit
any illegal action towards the Egyptian Nile River water.
1.3 Conceptual Model:
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The proposed conceptual model of quantitative and qualitative

protection for Egyptian water bodies as figure 1.1
Figure 1.1- The proposed conceptual quantitative and qualitative protection for Egyptian water
sources
Strict legal national

Rules
Qualitative
Mandatory and
quantitative
international
protection for
convention Egyptian
water bodies
Technological tools
Claim 1: Strict national legal Rules increases achieving qualitative and

quantitative protection for Egyptian water bodies:
Achieving qualitative protection for Egyptian water sources is through

setting the strict national Rules that punish everyone who help to
eliminate the quality of Egyptian water sources, such as “fines,
imprisonment, both of them”, these rules identifies the action that
represent a crimes against the Egyptian water sources, such as, “Dumping
the remnants of factories in the waters of the Nile”, throw sewage water
into the waters of the Nile River.
Effective application of strict national Rules represent as the Protective
shield for Egyptian water sources.
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Claim 2: Mandatory international convention increases achieving

qualitative and quantitative protection for Egyptian water bodies:
The strict national rules represents as the legal frame in Egypt as state,
but the mandatory convention is legal frame for Riparian states, the
mandatory convention play an important role to achieve qualitative
protection by setting legal text that prevent any violation against Nile
River water that effect on the quality of Egyptian water source.
Claim 3: Technological tools for increases achieving qualitative and

Hardware, software, and orgware are three types of classification for
technologies. Hard ware expresses physical tools; software, indicate to
required processes in using the technology; and organizational
technologies, or orgware, represent as the ownership and institutional
arrangements pertaining to a technology (Christiansen et al., 2011,
UNFCCC, 2014)., “Hardware in the water sector” is a structure such as
ponds, wells, reservoirs and rainwater harvesting equipment, while
„software in water sector” is applied techniques “ electronic programs,
patents,….etc.” to achieve the efficiency in water utilization ,for example,
water recycling techniques. But Institutional mechanisms, such as water-
user associations, are examples of orgware. Riparian states on Nile River
must encourage and implement all three technology types in a mutually
supportive manner, in order to achieve the sustainable qualitative
protection.
MjRQ How can achieve the qualitative and quantitative

protection for Egyptian water bodies?
MinRQ1: How can strict legal national Rules sustain achieving

qualitative and quantitative protection for Egyptian water bodies?
MinRQ2: How can Mandatory international convention sustain
achieving qualitative and quantitative protection for Egyptian
water bodies?
MinRQ3: How can technological tools sustain achieving

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction:
The sustainable development depends on- primarily- the sustainable
water sources, that means “what the importance of water”, the greatest
threaten that face Egypt nowadays, is a bad management for water
sources in Egypt, especially Nile River as a major source of water, the
management for water sources in Egypt miss the efficient tools that
represent as a major barrier to achieve the quantitative and qualitative
protection for Nile river. This study aimed to shed the light on “how to
achieve the qualitative and quantitative protection for Egyptian water
resources especially Nile River water”, this protection need to the
institutional and legislative frameworks that represent as a guide for the
members of water management, adding to shed the light on the role of
technology in achieving the quantitative and qualitative protection. This
study planned to explore “how Egypt will achieve its quantitative and
qualitative protection water resources in the future”, this study provide
the solution that help to overcome challenges in water sector, and feed the
available opportunities to safeguard Egyptian water sources, the
Egyptian planning for protect water source is inexperienced. Hence, the
opportunities that will be provided by this study, will remove the
challenges that face the decision-maker concerned with water resources
management for Egypt.
As explained previously about the history of Egypt‟s interest with Africa

countries, it can be said there are common strategic goals and objectives
that related to its national security. The right of independent for African
countries was supported by Egypt, because Egypt is enhancing liberation
movements to obtain their freedom (Mohamed, 2006). In 1990, Namibia,
and South Africa gained its independence with the Egyptian active
assistance of Egypt that provided the political solution instead of an
armed war, in 1993, Egyptian diplomacy Egypt plays a vital role in
helping to achieve independence for Eritrea by settlement problems with
South Sudan and Darfur. So Egypt has a vital position between African
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countries at political, economic, and cultural levels, especially in the Nile

Basin countries and in Sudan (Mohamed, 2006)
In 1956, When Egypt exposed to the tripartite aggression attack, Egypt

had also received the solidarity enhancement from African countries, in
1967 “Israeli aggression”, and also in the 1973 war “October victory”,
and most of the African countries provided the supporting to Egypt
(Hemdan, 1994)
The unique geographical location of African continent grant its peoples a

great control power, because it represent as the linkage between east and
west, north and south . The River Nile is the basic water center that
connects between Egypt and other African countries, especially those in
the Nile Basin. Achieving the qualitative and quantitative protection for
Egyptian water resources must be a one of the major important strategic
decision for the Egyptian Government.
“The Nile River is the world's longest river (figure 2.1); a total 4,132
miles from its source in the mountains of Burundi to downstream in the
Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is formed by three branches, the Blue Nile,
the White Nile, and the Atbara River. The White Nile rises from its
source in Burundi, passes through Lake Victoria, and flows into southern
Sudan. There, near the capital city of Khartoum, the White Nile meets up
with the Blue Nile which has its source in the Ethiopian highlands, near
Lake Tana. Over 53 percent of the Nile's waters come from the Blue Nile.
The two flow together to just north of Khartoum, where they are joined
by the waters of the Atbara, whose source is also located in the Ethiopian
highlands. Table 1 depicts the comparison between the River Nile and the
largest rivers in the world. (Figure 2.2) portrays the locations of the Nile
Basin countries in the African continent” (Egyptian Government, 2012)
Figure 2.1- The comparison between the River Nile and the largest Rivers in the world
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Figure 2.2- The location of the Nile basin countries in the Africa continent
The previous figures reflects the importance of Nile River for Egypt and
for African countries, so the protection for this Nile must be a major
strategic issue for African countries, but this protection depend on –
primarily- the efficient utilization for technology to achieve high level of
quality to water sources, and maintain the water proportions from Nile
without wasting (Mikhail& Yoder, 2008)
Water technologies provide the answer for a question “how to achieve

the quantitative and qualitative protection of Egyptian water sources”,
especially Nile River. Technologies employed to support quantitative and
qualitative improvement in the water sector, and may address two issues
“water quality, scarcity of water “and set the strategic decisions to make
integration between the water qualities” qualitative protection, scarcity of
water “quantitative protection” . (Nicol, 2012)
The adaptation of technologies in the water sector, need to highlighting

strategic plans for this adaptation, identifying the examples of
technologies in water sectors, collaborating between stakeholders in
planning, implementing, managing and formulating related policy, these
mixing will strengthen the success of adaptation water technologies that
achieve the quantitative and qualitative protection. (Osgood, 2011)
Technological application in water sector is enhanced by various

operations and organizational arrangements. Adaptation of water
technology include Technology Assessments which determine,
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technology requirements in water sector, and Technology Action Plans

that represents as execution of adaptation of water technology which
address to identify “targets, budgets and responsible stakeholders”, finally
controlling in Technology Action plans to ensure if “ the technological
application in water sector achieve the quantitative and qualitative
protection or not”.
The most important causes for water contaminants rose from human
activities, these activities are “microbial pathogens, nutrients, oxygen-
consuming materials, heavy metals and persistent organic matter, as well
as suspended sediments, nutrients, pesticides and oxygen-consuming
substances, much of it from non-point sources. Heat, which raises the
temperature of the receiving water, can also be a pollutant” (UNESCO,
2018).briefly, Water quality degradation around the world typically is
caused by pollutants.
UNESCO stated in their reports that “An increasing population suggests

a 10%-15% increase in the river input of nitrogen loads into coastal
ecosystems by projected food production needs. More than 80% of
sewage in developing countries is discharged untreated, polluting rivers,
lakes and coastal areas .(UNESCO, 2018).and High-income countries
that resulted from production many heavily polluting industries such as
leather and chemicals are a main cause for raising water pollution
globally. (UNESCO, 2018)
Moreover, Water pollution and production energy are tightly interlinked,

and both have negative “direct and indirect” consequences on the other.
The energy production effect on the amount of water required to produce
that energy, because the availability of water resources determine” how
much or how little” water can be secured the level of energy production.
So it represents as the challenge for quantitative protection. (United
Nations report, 2014).Remnants of energy production that throw in
water sources represented as major cause for water pollution in the world,
so the energy production represents as the challenge for qualitative
protection. In summary, Water pollution produced by human actions,
include:
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- Fertilizers from agricultural activities: fertilizers are utilized to

agricultural sector to increase the amount crops. There are three major
kinds of commercial fertilization are nitrogen, phosphate, and potash,
but the increased levels of nutrients such as “Nitrogen and
Phosphorous in a water body” often causes a reduction of Oxygen,
that result to reduce the quality of water.
- Sewage released into water sources increases the probability of
dangerous diseases.
- Industries Remnants: “Heavy metals, organic toxins, oils, nutrients
and solids discharged in large amounts with wastewater from
industry”.( Blueplanet, 2018)
- Dredging the ground, which will cause Sediment, added to a water
body, will increase cloudiness and therefore reduced levels of sunlight
depth in the water bodies which effect passively on plants grow.
- Litter, such as plastic bags, bottles and cigarette butts. As illustrated
in figure (2.3):
Figure 2.3- The percentage of sources water pollution
A researchers „team of many countries “United States , Australia” led by

Jenna Jambeck- an environmental engineer at the University of Georgia-
analyzed levels of plastic waste in the world's oceans. The results were
referred to “China and Indonesia” are the top sources of “plastic bottles,
bags and other rubbish clogging up global sea lanes”, according to a
report in The Wall Street Journal. The original source data can be
found here. As illustrated in figure (2.4) (McCarthy, 2018)
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Figure 2.4- The most countries polluting oceans
Source: (Wall Street Journal, 2018)
“In 2010, 8.8 million metric tons of mismanaged plastic waste came from
China with an estimated 3.53 million metric tons of it ending up in the
ocean. A total of 3.2 million metric tons of mismanaged plastic waste
came from Indonesia and it is estimated that 1.29 million metric tons
became plastic marine debris. The United States is also guilty of polluting
oceans with plastic, but at a much lower level than China. Annually, 0.11
million metric tons of waterborne plastic garbage comes from the United
States” (McCarthy, 2018)
These previous activities – that mentioned before- considers as real

challenges for qualitative protection to water bodies. As we showed
previously, Egypt has in sixth level at sources of water pollution by
remnants, in 2009 the statistics referred to the pollution in Egypt reached
to the disturbing position, which will cause the elimination of quality
water in River Nile as illustrated in figure (2.5):
Figure 2.5 the highest cities particulate polluting
Source: (Ranking America, 2009)

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El- Nahada Dam was a major threaten for Egypt, because it considers as
an aggression on Egyptian rights in water proportions from Nile River,
and represents as a challenge for quantitative protection for Egypt, But,
recently – El- Nahada Dam crisis, as external threaten, was resolved by
El- Sisi Declaration about “building treatment plant for waste water and
desalination”, but the crisis, as internal threaten, still exists, on account of
the bad conduct with Nile River water by Egyptian people that represent
as crimes against the quality and quantity of Nile River water.
In reality, El- Nahada Dam was settled, but attack on the quantitative,
and qualitative protection still exists, this attack finds its causes in “
wasting the Nile River water “ that represent as aggression on
quantitative protection”, as illustrated in following pictures:
El- Nahada Dam doesn‟t consider as challenge for qualitative protection,

so the challenges for qualitative protection is rising from internal sources,
not external, these challenges are “dumping the remnants of factories in
the waters of the Nile, drainage of wastewater in Nile waters, throwing
bodies of dead animals, dumping garbage in the Nile water,…etc.” And
pollution of Nile River water that consider as an aggression on qualitative
protection.
Water conservation is important more than saving water, technological

means aims to bringing together “water conservation, and saving it” , but
technology doesn‟t only aim to saving water, and conservation it, but it
target to solve water quality „s challenge, that occurs from the peoples
aggressive conduct on Egyptian water bodies.
Based on above, so we need to learn how to produce clean healthy water

and how to save water bodies by using technological tools. So we will
explore the means of water protection technology, and how to deal with
this, to achieve the quantitative and qualitative protection for water
bodies in Egypt.
The technological means in achieving quantitative protection for water

resources “water security” or water-saving are multiple; we will show a
17
few examples of some technology that applied across the world, and
successes to set a big impact on achieving quantitative protection for
water resources; Water-Saving Sprinkler Bodies: “Water Sense labeled
sprinkler bodies will help generate the right amount of water being
sprayed with a more uniform coverage” (Hydrofinity, 2018)
Water/Moisture Sensors:
“Water/moisture sensors that alert you when it detects either of the two,
some sensors and systems immediately shut off your water system to
prevent further damage and waste. Other appliances are hooked up to
your main water supply line and constantly track the water flow to
prevent the smallest of leaks before they become a problem. Leaks might
seem like they‟re out of your control because they‟re less obvious than a
toilet flushing or a running shower, but there are affordable ways to
prevent, track, and reduce leakage. Avoiding water damage is just an
added bonus”, Water Sense program has saved American consumers
more than $46 billion on their water and energy bills and it was just
announced in September, 2018 that it‟s about to become part of federal
law” (Hydrofinity, 2018)
Water-Saving Faucets:
“Inefficient faucet with a Water Sense labeled model could save 700
gallons of water per year, equal to the amount of water needed to take 40
showers. If consumer don‟t want to spring for a totally new faucet, you
can retrofit existing faucets with a Water Sense aerator to slow the flow
and conserve this precious resource. Most major faucet manufacturers
offer both of these water-saving options, so you shouldn‟t have trouble
making the switch”. (Hydrofinity, 2018)
There are other various technological methods that have been applied to
achievement qualitative protection for water resources “healthy water”,
such as; Toxicity monitoring; “monitoring water quality provides
empirical evidence to support decision making on health and
environmental issues, In the United States, an emphasis is placed on
monitoring for compliance with the Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking
Water Act, which are administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). Responsibilities for water-quality monitoring are spread
18
among many Federal, State, and local agencies; The U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) is a Federal non-regulatory science agency with water-
quality monitoring, assessment, and research responsibilities” (Myers,
2018)
Gas chromatography
“Various analytical methods have been developed for the determination

of water content. However, selection of the best method depends on the
nature of the sample to be analyzed, the amount of water present, and the
ultimate purpose of the information. Analytical approaches can differ
completely for solid versus liquid versus gaseous samples or for trace
versus moderate to high levels of water. A broadly useful technique that
can be used for most sample types is highly desirable. Traditionally, the
dominant approach for quantitating water has been Karl Fischer titration
(KFT) despite its well-known limitations and inaccuracies (1). Recent
developments in gas chromatography (GC) have elevated it to a position
to challenge KFT. This change is largely the result of the development of
new columns (based on ionic liquids) and detectors that are sensitive to
water (1−5). Additionally, the ease of using capillary GC by either direct
injection or in headspace formats greatly expands the types of samples
that can be analyzed. Ionic liquid stationary phases are known to have
good thermal stability, but they are also completely stable in the presence
of water and oxygen at high temperatures, so much so that humid air can
be used as a carrier gas. Obviously, a GC stationary phase that is used to
separate water from other substances cannot be altered or degraded by
water. Furthermore, the column must produce water peaks of good
efficiency and symmetry so that area integration is accurate and
reproducible. Finally, ionic liquid-based columns have optimal selectivity
for separating water from a wide variety of polar and nonpolar
substances” (Armstrong, 2017)
Lab-on-a-chip technologies
“Lab-on-a-chip technologies are an innovation that is rapidly finding use

in many fields. These are micro scale devices that attempt to miniaturize
analytical methods and mass-produce them utilizing the same techniques
that facilitate production in the computer chip industry. One of the
projects currently under development makes use of microfluidics and
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micro chemical techniques to sample and analyze water for a variety of

components. These types of devices are in effect miniaturized discrete
analyzers that test for specific substances. They can use a variety of
detection techniques. Recent projects have been initiated to morph this
technology from an independent handheld device to an online
configuration.These devices are reliant upon micro fluidic techniques to
draw samples and perform analyses. The distribution system is not a
friendly environment for such techniques. Attempts to pre-filter the
sample could alter the characteristics of the sample. Another issue is they
are discrete analyzers designed to detect specific analyses. They could be
thwarted by use of a toxin that the instrumentation was not designed to
detect” (Kroll, 2012)
The water resource protection management is an important tool than other

tools, such as “patents, equipment‟s,…etc.”, that achieve the quantitative
and qualitative protection, because the pollution in management
“corruption” is the most dangerous threaten that may cause of collapse of
quantitative and qualitative protection for water bodies in Egypt.
The role of technology doesn‟t limit to “how to prevent the pollution in

water bodies”, but it extend to “how to prevent the pollution in
management bodies (corruption)”, because, the technological
equipment‟s can‟t achieve the quantitative and qualitative protection for
water bodies in Egypt with corruption in management.
So, the role of technology is in many aspects; “achieving quantitative

protection for water resources “water security”, realizing qualitative
protection for water resources “healthy water” , combating the pollution
in management “corruption” “ honest water management
2.2. Theories Defined:
The importance of Ganga River comes from faithful culture for Indian
peoples, because it represents as faith and worships River for them,
especially Hindus consider as sacred water, there is the ethos perspective,
but the geographical one, Ganga basin is inhabited by 37 per cent of
India's population from eight states of India, and 47 % of the total Indian
irrigated area is located in the Ganga basin alone.
20
“The Ganga rises on the southern slopes of the Himalayan ranges (Figure
2.6) from the Gangotri glacier at 4,000 m above mean sea level. It flows
swiftly for 250 km in the mountains, descending steeply to an elevation
of 288 m above mean sea level. In the Himalayan region the Bhagirathi is
joined by the tributaries Alaknanda and Mandakini to form the Ganga.
After entering the plains at Hardiwar, it winds its way to the Bay of
Bengal, covering 2,500 km through the provinces of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
and West Bengal (Figure 1.2). In the plains it is joined by Ramganga,
Yamuna, Sai, Gomti, Ghaghara, Sone, Gandak, Kosi and Damodar along
with many other smaller rivers”. (Helmer & Hespanhol, 1997)
Figure 2.6 Location map of India showing the Ganga River
“The purity of the water depends on the velocity and the dilution
capacity of the river. A large part of the flow of the Ganga is abstracted
for irrigation just as it enters the plains at Hardiwar. From there it flows
as a trickle for a few hundred kilometers until Allahabad, from where it is
recharged by its tributaries. The Ganga receives over 60 per cent of its
discharge from its tributaries. The contribution of most of the tributaries
to the pollution load is small, except from the Gomti, Damador and
Yamuna rivers, for which separate action programs have already started
under Phase II of "The National Rivers Conservation Plan".(Helmer &
Hespanhol, 1997)
“The Ganga River carries the highest silt load of any river in the world
and the deposition of this material in the delta region results in the largest
river delta in the world (400 km from north to south and 320 km from
east to west). The rich mangrove forests of the Gangetic delta contain
21
very rare and valuable species of plants and animals and are unparalleled
among many forest ecosystems”. As illustrated in figure (2.7) (Helmer
& Hespanhol, 1997)
Figure 2.7 Map of India showing the route of the Ganga River
However the belief the Ganga river is "holy" one, but, it has not
prevented the pollution of the river. All the towns along its length
contribute to the pollution load; “more than 80 % of the total pollution
load (in terms of organic pollution expressed as biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD)) arises from domestic sources, i.e. from the settlements
along the river course. Due to over-abstraction of water for irrigation in
the upper regions of the river, the dry weather flow has been reduced to a
trickle. Rampant deforestation in the last few decades, resulting in topsoil
erosion in the catchment area, has increased silt deposits which, in turn,
raise the river bed and lead to devastating floods in the rainy season and
stagnant flow in the dry season. Along the main river course there are 25
towns with a population of more than011,111 and about another 23 towns
with populations above 50,000. In addition there are 50 smaller towns
with populations above 20,000. There are also about 100 identified major
industries located directly on the river, of which 68 are considered as
grossly polluting. Fifty-five of these industrial units have complied with
the regulations and installed effluent treatment plants (ETPs) and legal
proceedings are in progress for the remaining units. The natural
assimilative capacity of the river is severely stressed” (Helmer &
Hespanhol, 1997)
22
Based on above, the major sources of pollution of the Ganga River can be
summarized as follows. As illustrated in figure (2.8):
 Domestic and industrial wastes, domestic wastewater, and industrial
sewage.
Figure 2.8 sector wise breakup of grossly polluting industries
Source: UP Pollution Control Board Updated On 14 July, 2018
 Solid garbage
 Agricultural run-off containing residues of harmful pesticides and
fertilizers.
 Animal carcasses and half-burned and unburned human corpses
 Defecation
 Mass bathing and ritualistic practices (Helmer & Hespanhol, 1997)
The first step to achieving the qualitative protection for Ganaga River
launched from “C.P.C.B.” that refers to Central Pollution Control Board,
and it represents as responsible for monitoring environmental pollution;
this initiative undertook a whole scientific survey in0891 , in order to
identify river waters classification according to their best utilization. This
initiative which was reported, and consider as the first document that
compromised the Ganga Action Plan (GAP), GAP had details about
“land-use patterns, domestic and industrial pollution loads, fertilizer and
pesticide use, hydrological aspects and river classifications” (Helmer &
Hespanhol, 1997), the Ganga River‟s pollution that represent as a
dangerous threaten on Indian people‟s healthy forced on the Indian
Environment Ministry in 1984 formulating urgent intervention policy
from Central Ganga Authority “C.G.A ” under the chairmanship of the
Prime Minister.
23
In June 1985 The Ganga Project Directorate “G.P.D.” was found as a

national operating body within the Indian Environment Ministry. The
G.P.D. represents as the secretariat to the C.G.A. and responsible for
implementation. The role of “G.P.D.” is coordination with involved
different ministries and appointment available funds for fully centrally-
sponsored plan. The program consider as investment that would achieve
the qualitative protection for Ganga river water. The plan was formally
launched on 01 June 1986. The major objectives were to ;( 1) divert the
wastes from urban settlements away from the river; (2) Treatment and
economical use of waste, as a means of assisting resource recovery.
(Helmer & Hespanhol, 1997)
Fourteen universities that located in Ganga River basin, participated in

this initiative to present the ordinated, integrated research program which
discussed these questions; what are the sources and nature of the Ganga
river‟s pollution, how to achieve the efficient utilization for the resources
of the Ganga for agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, forests, …..etc.,
How to survive water transport, and facilities it through Ganga River
(Helmer & Hespanhol, 1997)
The GAP as a first step in quality management water bodies, aimed to

quick and effective interventions to limit the damages of pollution, The
resultant report from this initiative was a unique, integrated profile of the
river, because it make a scan for the river , and determined the hot –spot
area that need to urgent intervention with quick& effective control, the
first phase of implementation included 25 cities that located in main river,
the source of pollution in these cities originate from ; untreated municipal
sewage, the industries remains “toxic, hard treat” (Helmer &
Hespanhol, 1997).
The major objectives of GAP divided to “short-term “, and “long-term”,

the first one is an improvement water quality, the second is an
improvement the environmental conditions along the river within the
strict legislative framework that ensure the effective execution for GAP.
The first legal principle” polluters –pays” as fines from aggressive action
from them that participate in increasing of pollution in Ganga River.
The role of technology was important. The using of technology in GAP

was largely necessary for achieving the quantitative and qualitative
24
protection for Ganga River. “Consequently, the sewers and pumping

stations and all similar municipal and conservancy works were executed
in each province by its own implementing agencies, according to their
customary practices but within the commonly prescribed specifications,
fiscal controls and time frames. The choice of technology for most of the
large domestic wastewater treatment plants was carefully decided by a
panel of experts, in close consultation with those external aid agencies
which were supporting that particular project. A parallel procedure was
adopted in-house for all other similar projects. For all the larger sewage
treatment plants the unanimous choice was to adopt the well-accepted
activated sludge process. For other plants trickling filters were considered
more appropriate. In smaller towns where land was available and the
quantity of wastewater was small, other options such as oxidation ponds
were chosen” (Helmet & Hespanhol, 1997)
“However, unconventional technologies like the rope bound rotating

biological contactors (RBRC), sewage irrigated afforestation, up flow
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) technology and plants for chromium
recovery from tannery waste-water were tried out with a fair degree of
success. Some of these new and simpler technologies, with their low-cost
advantages, will emerge as the large-scale future solution to India's
sanitation problems” (Helmet & Hespanhol, 1997)
The delegating to the state government agencies which had the

appropriate capabilities for actual implementation for project “GAP”, is a
main tool for achievement, these state governments are responsible for;
operating and maintaining the created assets under this project; evaluation
of each project„s parts that delivered by the implementing agency;
holding fiscal control by the G.P.D by its professional monitoring, as a
result, The progress in the first four years was satisfactory, but not great
success, because some of corruption actions in administration –as
expressed previously “pollution in management- was undertaken, such as;
The delays in the completion of major sewage treatment plants (STPs)
result from large capacity for domestic wastewater time in the country,
which refer to the poor planning for the project; the complexities of
decision-making, especially in the large STP projects, result from
conflict between opinion of many experts with the opinions of the
executing agency officials, who had to take the final responsibility that
refer to the lack of experienced manager in administration; the aid was
25
awarded on a turn-key basis by inviting global bids caused to remove

multi-stage process from the actual execution level, because it is on
account of the huge capital outlay, that indicate to lack of informed
decision; The procedural delays with mid-project decisions on some
issues of these turn-key contracts gave the contractors roots for
justify their own original delays, that represent as the core of
corruption. (Helmet & Hespanhol, 1997).
“The Huangpu River flows through the heart of Shanghai (Figure 2.9). It
supplies water to the 13 million people in the metropolis and is also
important for navigation, fishery, tourism and receiving wastewater.
Around the mid-1980s, about 70 per cent of the 5.5 × 106 m3 of
industrial wastewater and domestic sewage, mostly untreated or partially
treated, was being discharged directly, or through urban sewers, to the
Huangpu River and its branches. As the result, the Huangpu River
became very seriously polluted. The urban section of the Huangpu River
turned black and anoxic for about 100 days in the early 1980s and this
increased to more than 200 days in the 1990s”. ( Anon, 1990)
Figure 2.9 Location map of China showing the position of Shanghai
“Since 1979, the Shanghai Municipal Government has given much

attention to the integrated pollution control of the Huangpu River. In the
late 1970s to the early 1980s, environmental legislation and standards
were stipulated for ambient water quality and effluent, and institutions for
enforcement were created. In 1982, an overall survey of pollution
sources, ambient water quality and hydrology of the major water bodies
was carried out. In the mid-1980s, the Huangpu River pollution control
26
plan was drawn up, following which financial resources were pooled,
locally and from abroad, for major investment projects, particularly for
the development of an infrastructure for the new water supply intake and
for wastewater pollution control. Progress in this plan is described below.
The city of Shanghai is situated in the Yangtze River (Chiang Jiang) delta
plain on the south side of the Yangtze River, within the Tai Lake (Taihu)
Basin” (Figure 2.10) ( Anon, 1990)
Figure 2.10 Map of the Tai Lake basin showing the location of Shanghai
“The total area of Greater Shanghai is 6,340.5 km 2, of which about 140
km2 are classified as urban and consists of 10 central districts. The rest of
the area includes two satellite towns‟ and 01rural counties. The Huangpu
River runs through the city from south west to north east and finally
enters the Yangtze River at Wusong Kou” (Figure 2.11) ( Anon, 1990)
Figure 2.11 Map of the Shanghai municipality and the Huangpu River system
In 1985, the pollution source survey referred to the rivers that received
the high amount of industrial wastewater were:
• The Huangpu River and its minor tributaries: 71 per cent.
• The Suzhou River, the largest tributary: 10 per cent.
27
• The Yangtze River, Hangzhou Bay and East Sea: 19 per cent. (Qu-
Geping, 1991)
This survey indicate to; 58 % of the industrial wastewater was distracted

directly to rivers and the rest was distracted to sewers, and about 70 per
cent % of the sewage collected by sewerage systems was drained
indirectly to rivers and to the estuary of the Yangtze River (Qu- Geping,
1991)
“The annual run-off from rural areas within the web of the Huangpu
River is estimated to be 1.5 × 109 m3, bringing 4,600 tonnes of nitrogen
and 900 tonnes of phosphorus to the rivers and lakes each year. A new
source of pollution is livestock manure. In 1992, 7.2 × 106 tonnes of
livestock manure and other wastes were generated” (Qu- Geping, 1991)
There are four features to the pollution of the Huangpu River. First, there
are a large amount of organic substances of wastewater discharged to the
Huangpu River, which create a significant demand for dissolved oxygen
in the water; second, “about 81 % of the total waterways in the city are
polluted”; third, the urban section, particularly, in Nanshi Water
Treatment Plant and the Yangpu Water Treatment Plant, has a hifh
amount of pollution ; Finally, “the tidal nature of Huangpu River restricts
the release of organic pollutants to downstream stretches” (Qu- Geping,
1991)
In 1978 the National People's Congress stipulated the Environmental

Protection Law of China, and authorize for creating agencies for the
conduct of environmental protection. Then, the law for the control of
pollution was enacted by the Chinese Government. Around the mid-
1980s, “environmental quality standards (EQSs) for surface water and
effluent standards for industrial wastewater were promulgated”. (Qu-
Geping, 1991)
All levels of government agencies; including central, provincial,
prefecture, municipal, district and county in China, apply environmental
protection requirement that was established in laws, for example;
“Shanghai, comprises the municipal environmental protection bureau,
several district environmental protection bureau, a center for
environmental monitoring, a number of district monitoring stations, a
research institute and several pollution levy collection offices in the
28
districts” (Figure 2.12) (Shanghai Municipal Urban Construction

Design Institute, 1993)
Figure 2.12 Chart showing the organization of Environmental Protection in China
Functional departments or divisions of environmental protection in

China, were created in government ministries “industrial, agricultural,
urban construction and military”, to deal with pollution problems. These
environmental units consider a self-monitoring and enforcement.
(Shanghai Municipal Urban Construction Design Institute, 1993)
“Shanghai EPB has recognized the control of heavy metal pollution to be

a priority since the late 1970s. In the early 1980s, Shanghai EPB
centralized all the scattered electroplating enterprises into just a few
locations. Their wastes were treated on site with joint treatment methods.
As a result, the reduction in heavy metal waste has exceeded 95 percent
since the mid-1980s. Organic pollution is widely distributed amongst
many industrial sectors in Shanghai; Nevertheless, Shanghai took strong
measures against the major polluters in the city. Several pulp mills,
responsible for about 25 per cent of the biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) in the Huangpu River, were closed down in the 1980s. Pre-
treatment is now widely practiced by industries producing concentrated
organic effluent, such as food and pharmaceutical industries. The
29
relocation of scattered industrial units to industrial parks is very much

encouraged in Shanghai. Pollution control in new and expanding projects
has been quite successful by state-owned enterprises in Shanghai. In the
1980s, the compliance rate of state enterprises with requirements for EIA
and the three "simultaneous actions" reached 100 per cent in Shanghai.
Due to the successful control of new pollution sources and some major
polluters, the pollution load from industry in 1990 did not increase
relative to pollution in the mid-1980s, although industrial productivity
increased four-fold” (Shanghai EPB, 1985)
Despite the successes that achieved , the water quality of the Huangpu
River remains very poor because a large amount of remaining organic
substances are still left untreated, because of developing a strategy for
controlling industrial organic pollution is complicated and requires
integrated planning with domestic wastewater control.
The taking counter-measures for the environmental catastrophe in

Shanghai become necessary. This treatment will face numerous
challenges; the requirement for fast-growing demand for safe and clean
water in cities and areas is main challenge with continuous growing of
populations of new arrivals, which conclude to necessity of upgrading the
piping network (Edmonds, 2008)
Another challenge, the administration in Shanghai concerned with

economic growth more than the protection of the environment, that
adversely effect on the effectiveness of governmental decisions in
environmental protection sphere. In another perspective, the support of
local leaders is weak, because of lack of authorization in applying to new
laws (Edmonds, 2008)
The important challenge against achieving the environmental protection

in Shanghai is “lack of transparency”, because there is a big tendency to
hide the actual numbers concerning pollution, and forgery official
statistics for volume of fines are much less that the necessary to conform
the protection, because it is not sufficient to achieve deterrence, and the
employers ignore applying new rules that enacted for achieving the
environmental protection, in general, the minimal fees for sewage and
municipal waste collection, and water are not incentive to improve the
situation in these respective fields. (Edmonds, 2008)
30
2.3 conclusions:
In the first Model “India Ganga River” the researcher examines the
important variables in this study. So the uncertain variables are excluded,
in the second model “Shanghai Huangpu River” help the researcher to
identify and determine the variables that are more important in this study,
these important variables was illustrated in the conceptual model, such as,
strict national legal Rules, Mandatory international convention,
Technological tools, effective and health management”.
The researcher relies on these significant variables in the next part

“theoretical framework”.
31
CHAPTER 3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND
RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1 Theoretical Framework:

The basis of theoretical framework is a conceptual model that provides
the most influencing factors- as independent variables- that are the
causes for “achieving the qualitative and quantitative protection for
Egyptian water bodies” as dependent variable, as illustrated at following
figure (3.1):
Figure 3.1- The proposed theoretical framework
Strict
national
legal Rules
Achieving
quantitative
Mandatory
&
international
qualitative
convention
protection
for Egyptian
Technological water
tools
Effective &
healthy
management
The dependent
variable = Achieving quantitative & qualitative protection
for Egyptian water
Achieving the quantitative & qualitative protection for Egyptian water
bodies is sophisticated process, which depends on many of factors, these
factors divide to two kinds: legal” strict national legal Rules,
Mandatory international convention”, technical” Technological
tools”.
32
The independent
variables
1- Strict national legal Rules: this variable refers to the national legal
frame for quantitative & qualitative protection for Egyptian water,
which includes strict rules; these rules prevent any aggression on quality
& quantity of Egyptian water bodies by enacting sanctions “high fines,
confinement”.
2- Mandatory international convention: this variable represents as
international legal frame for quantitative & qualitative protection for
Egyptian water, which refers to the international convention with Nile
River “riparian states”; these convention aim to coordinating between
the with Nile River “riparian states” to enact the rules which achieve
the quantitative & qualitative protection for Nile River states.
3- Technological tools: Technological tools represents as executive means
for “quantitative & qualitative” protection for Egyptian water bodies, the
technological tool consider as technical support for achievement
protection for water resources in Egypt, these tools achieve high level of
protection for water sources in many country, such as ;united states of
America, Canada, Japan.
The moderating
variable
= Effective & healthy management
The polluted management or contaminated management which refers to

“Corruption” is the demolition tool for any progress which will achieve in
“quantitative & qualitative” protection for water resources. Because the
pollution in management is more dangerous than the pollution in water
bodies, so the responsible leader can‟t eliminate the pollution in water
bodies, if the management is polluted by corruption, so the corruption can
prevent any progress in any project aimed to eliminate the pollution in
water bodies with technological tools, so the legal factors “Strict national
legal Rules, “Mandatory international convention”, and technical tools
“Technological tools” for “quantitative & qualitative” protection need to
effective and healthy management to achieve positive results.
3.2 Research Questions
MjRQ: How can achieve the qualitative and quantitative

protection for Egyptian water bodies?
33
MinRQ1: How can strict legal national Rules sustain achieving

MinRQ2: How can Mandatory international convention sustain
achieving qualitative and quantitative protection for Egyptian
water bodies?
MinRQ3: How can technological tools sustain achieving

MinRQ4: How can effective and healthy management play major

role to implement qualitative and quantitative protection for water
bodies?
3.3 Hypothetical statement:

Strict national legal Rules are positively influence achieving
quantitative & qualitative protection for Egyptian water.
Ha1: Strict national legal Rules are positively influence achieving
Mandatory international convention is positively influence
achieving quantitative & qualitative protection for Egyptian water.
Ha2: Mandatory international convention is positively influence

achieving quantitative & qualitative protection for Egyptian water.
: Technological tools are positively influence achieving quantitative

& qualitative protection for Egyptian water.
Ha3: Technological tools are positively influence achieving quantitative

& qualitative protection for Egyptian water.
: Effective and healthy management is positively related achieving

Ha4: Effective and healthy management is positively related achieving

3.4 Research Methodology:
"Delphi Technique"- as an important qualitative tool of future studies-

was applied in this study that based on deducing knowledge from a group
34
of experts to forecast the results of implementation the assumption of this

study, by leading them to unanimity on perspectives of the issue at hand,
and extending verifications for the deteriorating positions. This technique
was utilized to determine the main factors that will help to ensure the
Egypt's water quality and Egyptian water security in the future, and their
different expected impacts, and suggested recommendations. A Delphi
technique allowed to interview with experts in the water sphere in and
economic and political specialist.
This study also utilize forecasting that does not focus on future plans , but
also manage some of conditional forecasts or scenarios supposing the
desired reality one. Hence, the research does not deduce to implement
any of the proposed scenarios but intent to at allowing governmental
leaders to know the requirements of implementation the desired
scenarios.
The collecting process of primary data is by interaction with human

source of focus group which contains of 10 to 12 members for the water
science, economic, political specialists, starting with using structured
interview method to deduce deeply information.
In the structured interview, I will elicit the more of information with

deeply way to determine the significant problem to solve it, and allow
respondents to share in solving problem by investigating the following
items:
- Survey what are the advantages and disadvantages of national
legal rules in Egypt; what the rules needs to modification, and
what are the new rules needs to add.
- Survey what are the advantages and disadvantages of international
convention; what the items needs to modification are, and what the
new items needs to add.
- Survey what the technological tools in water sectors succeed in
Egypt, and what the new technological tools need to achieve the
- Survey how make the effective and healthy management to
ensure the effective implementation of quantitative & qualitative
protection for Egyptian water.
35
The target in this research is the Egyptian water sectors which have an
experience with water sciences, such as “Ministry of Water Resources
and Irrigation” (MWRI), and its departments”, as a result the population
will be in different levels of Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
(MWRI) from the top management to low management, but the
population will target the specialists in water sector, and managerial ones.
The type of sampling in this research will be probability.
The representative of sample is critical, so the researcher will choose the
probability sampling design, and the purpose of study is assessing
differential parameters in subgroups of population by using the
proportionate stratified random sampling, because the subgroup have
equal number of elements.
36
CHAPTER 4
Data Analysis about the quantitative and qualitative protection for
Egyptian water sources bodies
4.1. Introduction:
The major objective of this chapter is to set the response to the major
research question: How can achieve the qualitative and quantitative
protection for Egyptian water bodies? For the sake of answer this
question, firstly; it analyzes the legal framework over the Egyptian water
protection by examining the Egyptian water legislation, and other laws
and regulations complementing with law 4/1994, Secondly; it analyzes
political framework over the use of the water of the Nile River, by
studying the importance geographical-strategic position for the Nile
Basin, recognizing the international laws and agreements which enact for
utilization of the River Nile waters, stating the Nile Basin states‟ position
towards Egypt relating those international agreements, thirdly; it
analyzes the technological tools in Egypt by examining the kinds of
technological tools in Egyptian water sectors, and the effectiveness level
for these tools to achievement qualitative and quantitative protection for
Egyptian water bodies, Finally; it analyzes the managerial framework by
studying the managerial pollution sources “corruption” in Egyptian
governmental bodies that will destroy any progress towards the
environmental protection for Egyptian water bodies, such as; lack of
efficient planning, lack of efficient execution, and lack of efficient
monitoring and controlling.
4.2 The legal framework of achievement qualitative and quantitative

protection for Egyptian water bodies:
The requirement to achievement of high level of water quality, and
limitation for water waste has been converted to more detailed and
demanding legislation. The sanctions, and fines are main factors for
realize high level of Egyptian water quality, and limitation for water
waste. The Egyptian environmental policies were adopted by Egyptian
Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) that was established in 1982,
these policies have been formulated and implemented in many
governmental sectors; Ministry of Health and Population (MOHP),
Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR), and Ministry of
Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI). Before examination of the
37
Egyptian laws related to protection for Egyptian water bodies, it is

necessary to show the principal Environmental Laws, Decrees and
Regulations in Egypt; as describes in figure (4.1):
Figure 4.1 Table of environmental laws
38
Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was reorganized by

Law 4 of 1994 for Protection of the Environment, and took the
responsibility of coordination among relevant legislative bodies and
format and execute comprehensive environmental policy, was instituted.
“Law 4 of 1994 for Protection of the Environment, subject to the Cabinet

Decree 338/1995, as revised in some of its provisions in Cabinet Decree
1741/2005, is the main environmental protection legislation in the Arab
Republic of Egypt. Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency Guidelines
of EIA for recycling and disposal of waste projects, January 2009, has
classified "Recycling and Re-use of Solid and Liquid Hazardous Waste
Projects" as a Category C Project” (FESA, 2010)
Law 4 of 1994 for Protection of the Environment depends on the effective

coordinating between governmental bodies in the field of the
environment to conclude the specific environmental policies that will lead
to formulate plans for the quantitative and qualitative protection for
Egyptian water sources. So this law wills follow-up the implementation
steps for these plans with competent administrative authorities, as
following;
(1) Re-established Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) as a
national authority responsible of environmental protection in Egypt;
(2) charge of the responsibility of assessment environmental impact for
the new projects, and approving them for this Agency;
(3) grant the authority of inspection, and enforcement of law for
(EEAA);
(4) It established the funds for the this Agency;
(5) It increased the fines and penalties for violations.
This study will focus on Law 4 of 1994 for Protection of the

Environment, and Law 48 for the Year 1982 regarding the Protection
of the Nile and Waterways from Pollution. Law 4 of 1994 for
Protection of the Environment – as a major law for environmental
protection- was amended by Law 9/2009, then was amended by Law 105
for 2015, the executive regulations for this law are amended three time;
amendment 2005, amendment 2011, amendment 2015, and there are three
PM Decree issued after three amendments of executive regulations; PM
Decree 544 for 2016, PM Decree 618 for 2017, PM Decree 1963 for
2017.
39
The putting ashore of wastes and wastewater into the Nile is governed by
Law 48 of 1982 for the Protection of the Nile and Waterways from
Pollution and standards for the quality of these discharge effluents is
outlined. Moreover, the law identifies the responsibilities of the Ministry
of Public Works and Water Resources (MPWWR) and of other concerned
ministries.
Executive regulation of law number 4 of 1994 consist of preliminary part,

main four parts, and ten annexes, preliminary part contains four chapters,
from Article “1” to Article “9”, that is about; general provisions,
environmental affairs agency, environmental protection fund, incentives,
part one contains two chapters, the first one is about “development and
environment” from Article “10” to Article “24”, the second one is
about “Hazardous Material and Waste” from Article “25” to Article
“33”, part two contains fifteen articles , from “34” to “ 49” that is about
protection of air environment from pollution, part three consist of three
chapters; pollution from ships, pollution from land based sources,
administrative and judicial procedures, from Article “50” to Article
“63”, final part related to final provisions, and contains two articles
“64:65”, the annexes related to following subjects; “Criteria and
specifications for certain substances when discharged into the marine
environment, Establishments subject to environmental assessment, Model
register of impact of an establishment activities on the environment
(Environmental Condition Register), Wild birds and animals prohibited
from being hunted, killed or captured, Maximum limits of outdoor air
pollutants, Permissible limits of air pollutants in emissions, Permissible
limits of sound intensity and periods of safe exposure thereto, Maximum
limits of air pollutants inside the work place according to type of
industry, Maximum and minimum limits of temperature and humidity,
period of exposure thereto, and means of protection therefrom, Non-
degradable polluting substances which industrial establishments are
prohibited from discharging into the marine environment.
The researcher will focus on section “2” from chapter “1” in part “3” that
related to pollution from sewage and garbage (articles 54 to 56)
The executive regulation of Law 48 of 1982 contains eight sections, the

first one related to definitions for waterways, the second section regarded
with licensing to drain processed liquid wastes in waterways, the third
40
related to monitoring abidance by the stipulations of the license, but

section four regarded with the floating facilities and movable river units,
and fifth section related to taking the samples and conducting the
analyses, in addition to previous sections, the sixth section is about the
regulations, standards and specifications regarding the draining of
processed liquid wastes into waterways, the section seven the fund of the
revenue of charges and fines, finally; eighth section is about general
provisions.
4.3 The political framework of achievement qualitative and

The surrounding of three bodies of water (Mediterranean Sea - Red Sea
– Indian Ocean) as the most important routes of shipping and world trade
gave strategic location for Nile Basin in the African continent and the
world. The Nile is the main source of water in Egypt. Lack of flow of the
Nile or its sources has negative impacts on its national security.
Next to Egypt, Sudan is one of the most important Nile Basin countries;
Sudan consider as a land-bridge linking Egypt with the other Nile Basin
countries. Also, “Sudan is at the core of Egypt's strategy to secure its vital
interests in the south. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to
the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south,
the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to west, and Libya to
the northwest” (Central Intelligence Agency, 2012)
“Ethiopia, one of the most important sources of the water for Egypt,
(about 86 percent), is among the top priorities of the Egyptian policy, It is
bordered by Eritrea to the north, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan
and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south west, and Libya to
the northwest” (World Fact Book, 2012)
“Eritrea, one of the Horn of Africa countries, lies in a vital area in

relation to Egypt and has a direct impact on Egyptian national security
due to its unique geopolitical position overlooking of the Strait of Bab al-
Mandab in the southern Red Sea. Its borders are shared with Ethiopia's
main source of the Nile water to Egypt, as well as with Sudan, which
represents a strategic depth to Egypt” (Lonely planet, 2012)
41
“Kenya is one of the most important countries in East Africa. It has a

special regional and international position, with an extended coastline
along the Indian Ocean. It is bordered by Tanzania to the south, Uganda
to the west, South Sudan to the northwest, Ethiopia to the north and
Somalia to the northeast. Kenya shares, with Tanzania and Uganda, the
tropical plateau lakes, which account for 14 percent of the water sources
of the Nile River “ (Middle East and Africa Experts, 2012)
“The DRC is one of the largest African countries in terms of area and
mineral resources. Most of Lake Albert, which represents the main water
source of plateau lakes, is located in DRC. The DRC borders the Central
African Republic and South Sudan to the north; Uganda, Rwanda, and
Burundi in the east; Zambia and Angola to the south; the Republic of the
Congo, the Angolan enclave of Cabinda, and the Atlantic Ocean to the
west” (CIA, World Fact book, 2012)
“Uganda is located within the Heights of East Africa, including the areas
of water which contain the northern part of Lake Victoria and Lake
Albert. On this basis it can be said metaphorically that the sources of the
Equatorial Nile start from Uganda is bordered on the east by Kenya, on
the north by South Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by Tanzania. The
southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake
Victoria, which is also shared by Kenya and Tanzania” (Infoplease.com,
2012)
“Rwanda is situated in central Africa. It is a landlocked country with the

main tributaries of River Kagera and Lake Victoria, which supply about 7
BCM per year to the River Nile. Also Rwanda shares the Kagera River
with Burundi.46 Rwanda is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and
DRC. All of Rwanda is at a high elevation, with a geography dominated
by mountains in the west, and the Savanna in the east”(CIA, The World
Fact book, 2012)
Burundi is located in Central Africa. It is a landlocked country as well,

and represents the beginning of the Nile River waters. It is bordered by
Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and south, and DRC to the west
(World Audit. org, 2012)
42
“Tanzania, as one of the Nile Basin countries, is located in East Africa,

and is bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi,
and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia,
Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern border lies
on the Indian Ocean. The Nile River flows within Tanzania and forms
part of the influx to Lake Victoria. Although the Nile portion forms only
about 9 percent of its national area, it is significant in terms of the
country‟s water resources as it represents one of the more humid areas”
(World Fact Book, 2012)
The birth of South Sudan evokes the existing water scarcity problems in
the Nile Basin area. In another meaning, the existence of South Sudan as
a new country in the Nile Basin can only aggravate tensions in the region.
South Sudan has conciliatory position toward both Egypt and Ethiopia,
by two claims; first, South Sudan recommends joining the Nile Basin
Initiative, which is responsible to resolve the disputes over the Nile‟s
water. This refers to a new Nile policy that will predictably affect the
Egypt interests of Nile water; second, “South Sudan has declared plans to
establish a hydropower dam near the city of Wau, which sits on the Jur
River, a branch of the Bahr el Ghazal River which is itself a branch of the
White Nile. South Sudan‟s dam is not planned, and it seems to be an act
of aggression against Egypt and Sudan” (SudanUpdate.org, 2012)
It is obvious; the great importance of Nile River water for African Basin
states, so that, many of laws, rules, norms and conventions related to
utilization and management of the water‟s Nile Basin were enacted. The
Organization of African Unity in 1968 approved the 1959 agreement, that
regulate the use of Nile water, the rules of the 1966 Helsinki meeting, and
the Convention of the Conservation of Natural Resources (Major. Ufulle,
F. K., 2012)
The obligation of respecting the rights of other riparian states restricted

the exercising sovereign rights on the international river basin that is
given to each Nile Basin country (Major. Ufulle, F. K., 2012)
Article III of treaty of Addis Ababa (1902) between Britain (for the
Sudan) and the Emperor of Abyssinia (Minlk II) prevent any facilities or
businesses in the Blue Nile, Lake Tana, or the River Sobat that would
43
affect the amount of water received by the Sudan , The 1929 agreement
considers as a set of commitments to the British colonial government, on
behalf of a number of Nile Basin countries (Uganda, Tanganyika and
Kenya) together with Egyptian government, the adoption of Egypt‟s
sharing of the Nile water, and guaranteed Egypt's right to use a veto
power if any of other Basin countries create new projects on the river or
its tributaries considered as the main provisions that controlled the
relationship between Egypt and the countries of the tropical plateau, on
November 1959, the agreement between Egypt and Sudan was signed in
Cairo as a supplementary to the 1929 Convention, ensured the total
national control of the Nile water running through Egypt and Sudan. The
respect of 1959 Convention as stated in the signed agreement by Britain
on behalf of Uganda was confirmed in The Convention of 1991 between
Egypt and Uganda that referred to an implicit recognition of the 1929
agreement. This agreement provided for discussion appeals for the
management of Lake Victoria‟s water between Egypt and Uganda within
safe limits with no passive impacts on Egypt's water requirements. There
are attempts to reach a common formula of cooperation between Nile
Basin countries through The Convention of 1993 between Egypt and
Ethiopia, this convention has two meanings; the first one is an
“establishment of a common framework” that organizes advantages of
the privileges of the Nile Basin. The second meaning is a “cooperation
to improve the relations between Egypt and Ethiopia” with regard to
the waters of the Nile. The fact of “Neither of the two countries
participated in any activity related to the Nile water that may damage the
interests of the other country” was assured by this treaty (Elshopky,
2012)
Applying a cooperative way for developing the Nile River, partnership

framework among the Nile riparian countries was achieved under the
Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) was formally launched in 1999. The water
ministers of nine countries that share the Nile River; Egypt, Sudan,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and DRC signed
Nile Basin Initiative. This partnership was supported by World Bank ,
and began with a negotiation among the riparian states that concluded to a
common vision for sustainable growth socioeconomically through the
equitable utilization of the Nile water, and benefiting from the common
water resources for Nile Basin” (Elshopky, 2012)
44
The main protester on the current distribution of the Nile water was
Ethiopia, so it evoked the other Nile Basin countries to not accept this
distribution; by claimed; all previous agreements were concluded during
a time of foreign occupation, so the belief of the 1959 agreement between
Egypt and Sudan completely ignored them, and their interest did not take
into account. Ethiopia criticizes the utilization way by Egypt and Sudan
for the Nile water, because they were ignoring Ethiopia‟s current and
future needs. The draft submitted by the United Nations Development
Program (UNDP) regarding regional cooperation among Nile Basin
countries was complained by Ethiopia in 1989. Ethiopia claimed
“Projects in the fields of energy, water, agriculture, and fishing that were
referred in this draft” was against the principle of equitable sharing of
Nile waters and represented as handicap for using Ethiopia‟s part of the
river freely. On the same approach, in 1987, Uganda referred to the
necessity of reviewing the agreements on the Nile water, which were
enacted by Britain on behalf of the rest of the Nile Basin countries under
recommendation of cancellation of previous agreements with Egypt
(Elshopky, 2012)
Thought Kenya has good relations with Egypt in all fields related to
several economic and investment agreements, but it didn‟t not recognize
the 1929 agreement and hold to the Ethiopian recommendations that were
the requirement to reconsider the Nile water agreements. In the same
approach; Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi, didn‟t not recognize the
convention of 1929, although they have a common cooperation in all
social and economic aid fields with Egypt (Abadir, 2011)
Cooperative Framework to get more water from the River Nile and cancel
the 1959 agreement represented as reactions of some of Nile Basin
countries. So, in May 2010, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and
Tanzania signed an agreement that ensured this Cooperative Framework.
Thereafter Burundi followed shortly by signing the agreement in
February 2011. As a result of pressure from the rest of previous countries
The DRC is also expected to sign. In addition, the silence of South Sudan
means confirmation for the 1959 agreement. This cooperative framework
agreement consider as strong objection to both Egypt and Sudan.
(Abadir, 2011)
45
4.4 The technological tools for achievement qualitative and

“In 2011, 768 million people still use unsafe drinking water sources. 83
percent of the population without access to an improved drinking water
source (636 million) lives in rural areas. Additionally, consideration
regarding the quality and safety of many improved drinking water sources
persist. Accordingly, the amount of people without access to safe
drinking water may be two to three times higher than official estimates”
(UN, 2014: 47)
“According to the world health organization (WHO) about 6% of the

worldwide disease is related to water, that infectious diarrhea being the
most component (accounting for about 70% or 1.7 million deaths per
year). More than 4500 children under five years of age die every day
from diseases such as diarrhea” (Hashem, 2014)
The protection of human wellbeing based on safe drinking water, the

most common causes of sickness and death among the poor in developing
countries due to Water diseases (Hashem, 2014)
Thus, there is a necessary to explore of new technologies for achieving

clean drinking water. More of technologies in water sector were explored
in several countries to handle this challenge, to gain safe drinking water
(Hashem, 2014)
The usual technological business approach, and its current strategies

cannot address global water challenges in the future, and the world‟s
thirst, particularly when the population hits eight, nine or ten billion in the
next decades (Easen, 2018)
“In the agriculture sector, companies such as Microsoft are demonstrating

how precision irrigation using smart sensors in fields can give
information about soil conditions. Crop data, coupled with drone images
of fields, and the use of artificial intelligence to interpret data and model a
heat map of the crop area, can all help ensure water is used optimally in
food production"( Easen, 2018)
46
“Emerging fourth industrial revolution technologies – machine-learning,

artificial intelligence, advanced sensors, satellite imagery, robotics and
others – have the potential to unlock a wealth of previously unobtainable
data about water systems at the global, regional, watershed and local level
,Combined with new forms of public-private collaboration, these
technologies can support decision-makers across industry, government
and civil society to balance trade-offs, identify common priorities and
make smarter investment choices” ( Easen,2018)
“The WEF believes leveraging emerging water technologies into the

mainstream cannot be left to startups, accelerators and investors alone.
New research is also desperately needed to explore the implications of
emerging tech in areas ranging from ecosystem management to sanitation
and water risk disclosure” (Easen, 2018)
The center of the water innovation agenda must be remaining at

Governments. They are responsible for ensuring technologies in water
sector, and developing new policy frameworks for how emerging
technologies in water bodies is responsible Public authorities (Easen,
2018)
“Digital tech is transforming traditional water and wastewater systems,

particularly when it comes to operational efficiency. From intelligent
applications that identify and remotely repair leaks, to virtual and
augmented reality tools to help train employees, new solutions are being
developed to manage systems remotely, saving time and resources”(
Easen,2018)
“Elsewhere, the shift towards off-grid and hybrid systems for water and
wastewater treatment is also helping to extend water services. Such
systems are enabled by promising technologies including the internet of
things (IOT), remote sensing and artificial intelligence, which support
real-time and remote monitoring of system performance, water use
and quality”( Easen,2018)
“New sources of water data enabled by technological advancements in

areas such as the IOT, remote sensing and block chain can radically
improve transparency around issues of water availability, use and quality.
By getting more accurate and larger volumes of water data into the public
domain, advanced technologies can help address information
47
asymmetries and empower more confident decision-making at all levels

of society” ( Easen,2018)
“Advanced technologies such as remote sensors, drones and block chain

have the power to disrupt and reimagine water intensive supply chains.
From operational efficiencies to new business models, technology-
enabled solutions are helping companies and investors to understand and
quantify water-related risks and opportunities, and devise new strategies
to address them” (Easen, 2018)
“Advances in material science are poised to diversify water supplies and

lower dependencies on vulnerable sources. The far-reaching uses of
nanotechnology, for example, could unleash new water sources at scale
bringing benefits in the form of expanded desalination capabilities,
improved wastewater treatment or even the rehabilitation of deteriorating
infrastructure” ( Easen,2018)
“New Cairo Wastewater Treatment Plant is the first public-private

partnership (PPP) project in Egypt. The plant will initially have a capacity
of 250,000m³/day, to serve over one million people. The final capacity
will be 500,000m³/day.Construction commenced in February 2010 and
the plant is expected to be operational by March 2012. The $472m project
contract was awarded by the Egyptian Ministry of Housing, Utilities &
Urban Developments (MHUUD) through the New Urban Communities
Authority (NUCA) in June 2009. With a concession period of 20 years,
the contract involves design, construction, financing, operation and
management of the new plant. The project ownership will be transferred
to NUCA at the end of the concession period” (Water technology, 2018)
“The main purpose of the project is to provide the city of New Cairo and
the surrounding area with a cost-effective, environmentally safe
wastewater treatment facility to meet the requirements of present and
projected population growth.The project is also intended to promote PPP
as a model for future water and wastewater projects in the country”
(Water technology, 2018)
“Inlet works and pre-treatment facility will be comprised of reception

point, inlet and general bypass chamber, flow measurement, coarse and
48
fine solids screening, and grit removal.Reinforced concrete pipes of

2,200mm will be laid to transfer the wastewater from reception point to
the plant. Coarse solids screening and fine solids screening will be
achieved by using four 1.5m-wide automatic screens. Four circular units
each with a volume of 11,679m³ will be used for grit removal, while four
airlift pumps will be used for grit collection. (Water technology, 2018)
“For primary treatment, the facility will have one distribution well with
four outlets (6m-long), four gravity units and five horizontal centrifugal
pumps.Six biological reactors with a volume of 14,580m³ and an average
solids retention time of 5.02 days will be installed. There will be six units
of anoxic area each with a volume of 2,970m³ and six units of aerobic
area each with a volume of 11,610m³” (Water technology, 2018)
“The project is entirely sponsored by MHUUD”.Recirculation of sludge

will be carried out by 14 horizontal centrifugal pumps fitted with
frequency converter. Pumping of excess sludge will be done by seven
horizontal centrifugal pumps fitted with frequency converter. There will
be six secondary settling tanks for extraction and pumping of waste
sludge to flotation thickeners” (Water technology, 2018)
“Micro-screening will be carried out by 11 textile mesh filters, each

capable of filtering 1374.37m³/h. For disinfection, the plant will have two
chlorination chambers and three automatic chlorination systems” (Water
technology, 2018)
“The plant will use conventional line of water and sludge treatment
process. Each unitary process involved in the water treatment line will
have four or more lines at any time.In order to comply with the effluent
requirements, micro-screening and disinfection of the effluent will be
carried out in the final process. The additional sludge treatment will be
achieved through composting” (Water technology, 2018)
“The project is entirely sponsored by MHUUD. The project contract was

awarded to Orasqualia, a joint venture (JV) between Orascom
Construction Industries (OCI) and Aqualia. Apart from engineering,
procurement and construction (EPC), the JV will be responsible for
operation and maintenance of the plant for 20 years.A debt package of
$103m for 15-year tenure is being provided by a group of four Egyptian
banks to meet 70% of the EPC cost. The banks include NSGB,
49
Commercial International Bank, Arab African International Bank and

Ahli United Bank. Technical assistance was provided by PPP Central
Unit. Gide Loyrette Nouel was the legal advisor, International Finance
Corporation was the transaction lead advisor and Parsons Brincker Hoff
was the technical consultant” (Water technology, 2018)
Irish Water plans to invest €300m to upgrade a Ringsend Wastewater

Treatment Plant in Dublin, and Hyflux received LoI for a $500m contract
to build Ain Sokhna Integrated Water and Power Project in Egypt.
Water-technology.net wraps up the key headlines from March 2016.
“Irish Water unveiled plans to invest €300m to upgrade a Ringsend

Wastewater Treatment Plant in Dublin.Operational since 2003, the
existing sewage plant has failed consistently to cope with the amount of
waste it receives, and has also failed to meet the European Union (EU)
quality level over the last two years.The wastewater treatment plant
serves the Dublin city and county, and parts of Meath. The aim is to
increase the capacity of the existing plant by 50%, reported the Irish
Times” (Water technology, 2018)
“Singapore-based company Hyflux received a letter of intent (LOI) for a

$500m contract to build the Ain Sokhna Integrated Water and Power
Project in Egypt. The LoI for the engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) contract has been awarded by the Suez Canal
Economic Zone‟s (SCZone) general authority. After receiving the LoI,
the company will now have to sign relevant contracts (Water
technology, 2018)
“The Egyptian Ministry of Urban Planning awarded a contract worth

€2.4bn to a consortium led by Spanish water management firm FCC
Aqualia for design; construction and operation of Abu Rawash
wastewater treatment plant located in El Cairo.Besides FCC Aqualia,
other members of the consortium are Orascom Construction Industries,
Veolia and local business ICAT. Under the new contract, the consortium
will be responsible for operating the facility for a period of 25 years”
50
“Vishvaraj Infrastructure announced it would invest around Rs60bn

($871m) in the next five years as it aims to expand its presence in India‟s
wastewater treatment market.It plans to generate around Rs25bn ($363m)
in revenue from this segment.Vishvaraj Infrastructure chairman and
managing director Arun Lakhani told Press Trust of India: “Around
38,250 MLD of wastewater is generated by tier-I and II cities, which is
estimated to grow 3.5 times to 1,32,250 MLD by 2050” (Water
technology, 2018)
“Filter Boxx Packaged Water Solutions has secured a contract to supply a

150,000m³ per annum wastewater treatment and recycling plant for a
major pharmaceutical firm.FliterBoxx stated that the client is also a
leading medical device manufacturer.FilterBoxx Water & Environmental
Corp CEO Larry Novachis said: “With more and more facilities looking
to drive production and cost-efficiencies, infrastructure and utilities can
often be a significant source of effective change and savings. The cost of
water, wastewater and energy continue to increase on an annual basis
without any sign of relief in sight” (Water technology, 2018)
“Our client on this project elected to take affirmative action and put
operational cost-control measures into their fiscal mandate. While they
undertook several initiatives in this regard, one of them was to find a
means to reduce the costs of wastewater disposal and freshwater supply
through high-end treatment and recycling” (Water technology, 2018)
“Infrastructure and utilities can often be a significant source of effective

change and savings”.FilterBoxx claimed that it would offer an innovative
process design through, which its client will be able to significantly cut
operational costs related to water supply and wastewater disposal”
“The process will enable providing of higher quality water to cooling

towers, as well as help in bolstering operational efficiency.FilterBoxx
will provide a skid-based ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis system,
which will treat and recycle more than 75% of wastewater from the
plant” (Water technology, 2018)
“US researchers at the University of Nebraska and the University of

Idaho along with partners at Google developed an application EFFLUX,
which is based on METRIC technology and can help in effective water
51
management. Metric technology utilizes satellite images to create digital

maps and can help in generation of field-scale maps indicating water
consumption. Water managers in 15 US states used the technology for
tracking the use of agricultural water” (Water technology, 2018)
“Researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the US

developed a new desalination method that uses an electrically driven
shockwave to separate salt from water. The shockwave within a stream of
flowing water pushes ions in the salty water and fresh water apart and
does not separate ions or water molecules with filters unlike traditional
desalination systems” (Water technology, 2018)
“The new method, called shock electro dialysis, allows water to flow
through a porous material made of tiny glass particles, called a frit. The
porous material is squeezed between membranes or electrodes” (Water
technology, 2018)
“Nasa, along with the US Environmental Protection Agency, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and US Geological Survey
used satellite data designed to study ocean biology to mitigate the
harmful effects of algal bloom in freshwater. Algal blooms pose health
risks for humans and animals and can also result in fish kills and a taste
and odour in drinking water. The US planned to spend approximately
$3.6m on the project, which includes development of an early warning
indicator for the toxic effects of algal blooms in freshwater systems, and
an information distribution system to aid expedient public health
advisories” (Water technology, 2018)
“Japanese company Mitsubishi Electric developed new water treatment

technology that claims to treat industrial wastewater and sewage at lower
cost. The technology uses hydroxyl (OH) radicals generated through an
electric discharge created at a gas / liquid interface to remove persistent
organic substances in wastewater. Mitsubishi Electric‟s new technology
featured a reactor, which uses several inclined plate electrodes in humid
oxygen, over which the wastewater flows” (Water technology, 2018)
4.5 The managerial framework for achievement qualitative and

52
The major threat to the current and future people worldwide is scarcity in
quantity and quality water, particularly to people in developing countries.
Solving the problems that related to water sector; such as poverty, equity
depends mainly on Sustainable water management (Hashem, 2014)
This part of the research highlights the role played by the concerned
parties regarding water management in Egypt as far as use, monitoring,
and planning are concerned, which is a matter related to responsibility
and liability among all units. It has been noticed that there are many
parties that are responsible for the management, and there are major
institutions, scientific and technical support identities, etc., in addition to
monitoring parties and local units which play essential roles in this
context. The main line that governs the relationship among all those
parties is usually connected to the Ministry of Water Resources and
Irrigation as far as responsibility and accountability are concerned
(Alwan, 1997)
The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation works solely regarding

the legal liability to plan and manage all water resources in Egypt. It is
responsible for taking the appropriate steps to protect water resources and
their quality. Practically, the ministry does not display major concern
regarding quality. Law No. 48 stated the importance of protecting the
Nile and water bodies against pollution, while “the Ministry of Water
Resources and Irrigation (MWRI)” is responsible for the following duties
(Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, 2007) the issuance and
cancellations of drainage in the Egyptian water passages. These water
passages include the Nile, canals, lakes, and groundwater aquifers. In
addition to the above, the MWRI is in charge of (1) examination of the
drainage water treatment facilities, (2) monitoring the feed stations of the
potable water units, (3) treatment of polluted water by sewerage and
industrial wastewater, (4) specification of terms and standards related to
drainage in the water passages, and (5) issuance and monitoring of the
necessary licenses to establish any facility that exposes wastewater
directly in the water passages. In this context, the Ministry of Water
Resources and Irrigation is organizationally constituted from some bodies
illustrated in the next figure 4.2
53
Figure 4.2: The bodies that follow the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
Source: http://www.mwri.gov.eg
On the other hand, the ministry works to delegate most of its functions
related to monitoring the quality of surface and groundwater to the
National Center for Water Researches. The center and its institutions
monitor the quality of water nationally and regionally in a number of
strategic locations via a national monitoring network. Moreover, the
ministry has the right to establish associations for water users such as
water users‟ unions, water users‟ organizations, and water boards
(Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, 2007) The main
information center of the Ministry is the Egyptian focal point for the
Euro-Mediterranean information system for knowledge in the field of
water in order to improve the communication service between the
Ministry and the public administrations in the governorates (EMWIS
Project, 2008) on the other. Specialized parties assist the ministry in this
domain as illustrated in Figure (4.3)
Figure 4.3 Specialized parties/bodies assisting the ministry
54
By integrating the bodies, units, and sectors mentioned in the previous

two figures, the organizational chart of the Ministry of Water Resources
and Irrigation is as shown in Figure (4.4)
Figure 4.4 Organization chart of the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
(MWRI)
In this context, as a leading research institution included in the

managerial hierarchy of the ministry, the National Water Research Center
plays a significant role. It hosts 12 research institutes working on serving
the national water resources management plan besides hosting the
strategic water researches unit concerned with environmental monitoring,
a geographic information systems unit, an archiving and information
center, and a central library which focuses on researches publications
mainly (EMWIS, 2008)
In addition to the National Water Research Center and its affiliated
research institutes and the Central Laboratory for Environmental Quality
Monitoring, there is the Egyptian–Dutch Water Consultations committee,
which is a research center concerned with the strategic researches related
to water scarcity and nutrition availability. It cooperates with the
ministry. Also, a number of partners are also cooperating with the MWRI.
These include the German federal institution which is responsible for the
establishment of capabilities in the water domain in the developing
countries via partnership programs such as “CEDARE,” the regional
center for water and environmental studies in the Mediterranean region,
and the Egyptian partnership organization for water, which is a
nongovernmental organization responsible for water studies and
awareness (EMWIS, 2008). The irrigation authority is one of the most
55
critical parties which assist the ministry in achieving its goals. In turn, it
includes a number of subsidiary divisions and departments as shown in
Figure (4.5)
Figure 4.5 the main bodies of the irrigation authority
Institutions that work in an integrated role to manage the water resources

and irrigation in Egypt do not work solely. There are a number of
institutions and ministries that have an essential role in the light of the
national water management plan and the integrated management of this
file. These ministries are (Allam, 1999):
 Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation: since the agricultural
sector is the primary consumer of water in Egypt forced the closest
position for Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry of Water Resources
and Irrigation (Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, 2017)
 Ministry of Environment: According to law No. 4/1994 Ministry of
Environment is a responsible for setting the policies of national
environment with coordinator role in the environmental& managerial
activities in the government.
 Ministry of Health and Population: As a result of the presidential decree
No. 135/2004 this ministry plays a vital role relating to the setting of
quality standards of water and drainage (if used for drinking).
 Ministry of Housing and Utilities: it plays a distributor role for
management of purified freshwater, and collector role for wastewater
from the domestic and its disposal.
 Ministry of Industry, Trade, and Small Industries: has supervisor role for
cases of pollution, safety, and health in factories.
56
 Ministry of Interiors: Applying to law No. 48, Law No. 4/1994, the
Ministry of Interiors is responsible for the implementation of and the
preservation of the environment in general, and establishing a particular
police unit responsible for the preservation of the environment (Ministry
of Water Resources and Irrigation ,2007)
 Ministry of Transportation and Ministry of Tourism: during the winter
season when the Ministry of Water Resources reduces the water level in
accordance with the preservation plan, so (floating hotels) may face a
catastrophic situation, so, the Ministry of Irrigation established reservoir
locks equipped with up-to-date navigation utilities which enable a quick
crossing via the reservoirs established on the Nile.
 The Ministry of Electricity: the ministry play coordinator role with the
Ministry of Water Resources to set the levels of water through which the
highest power generation can be reached. It is also in need to use water
for the thermo stations used to generate power (Alwalidia Station in
Asyut – Koraimat station in Giza).
 In addition, some municipal units have enhancing roles with the

participation in managing water and drainage including (1) Greater
Cairo Water and Drainage Facility; (2) Potable Water Facility in
Alexandria; (3) Canal of Suez Authority, housing authorities in the
governorates (Aswan, Menya, Beni Suef, Faiyum, Dakahlia, Sharqia,
and Gharbia); (4) the New Housing Communities Authority; (5)
private sector corporations in the Red Sea and South Sinai; (6)
Ministry of Planning; and (7) National Investment Bank and Local
Development Ministry
In the beginning of 1975, the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation

started the evaluation of the supply and demand of water to set the
potential equivalence between supply and demand in the future. In 1981,
a major aim for policy is introducing plans that meet the agricultural
water demands and study the nonagricultural demands.
Moreover, during the period from 1997 to 2017, the Egyptian hydro
policies were developed depending on the “allocation base.” According to
this policy, water was distributed among various activities according to
the needs of each one and according to the revenue of each single cubic
meter of water as far as the hydro budget of the country is concerned
(Elqosy , 2009)
57
The title of policy was issued in January 2000 is: “The Main Features of
the Hydro Policies of 2017”. “In addition, there is the “challenge
confrontation,” which is the strategy the government seeks to implement
to maximize the benefits of each citizen of the safe hygienic facilities to
reach 60% (currently 30%) besides water availability in 2017. The
National Water Council is responsible for the follow-up of the process
since the strategy requires 145 billion EGP for the period from 2003 till
2017. The main stocks of projects are owned by the Ministry of Housing
(63%) and the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (32%), and the
private sector owns 5%. The total cost of this period (2003–2017) reaches
41 billion EGP. The cost includes maintenance and operation of the hydro
system, excluding the rates of the personnel who work in governmental
agencies. The municipalities and maintenance receive the lion‟s share of
the operation cost which reaches 70% to operate and maintain the water
treatment units and the black water treatment units. The Ministry of
Water Resources and Irrigation is responsible for 12% of the cost, while
the private sector pays almost 15%” (Allam, 1999)
There are three committees have supervisor roles “ higher joint, technical,
advisory”; (1) The higher joint committee that composed of the ministries
that represent as decision-makers in relation to the management and use
of water;(2) The technical common committee that composed of
representatives on the technical level of the ministries concerned with the
management and use of water; (3)The counseling committee that
composed of the decision-makers and experts belonging to the Ministry
of Water Resources and Irrigation (EMWIS, 2008)
“In this context, the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation works in
cooperation with USAID to execute the project of the integrated
management of the hydro resources second phase (2004–2008) after the
completion of first phase of the project (2009–2012) The current project
works with the integrated water management in the Ministry of Water
Resources and Irrigation to provide technical support, training,
equipment, and media tools to enhance the participation of water users
and upgrade the integrated management of water technically. On the
administrative level, the project aims to integrate the irrigation and
services offices in one office to be named: “Water Resources and
Irrigation Engineering” or “Integrated Water Engineering.” In Phase
I, the project focused on five irrigation departments in Zefta, Eastern
58
Sharqiya in the Delta, East and West Qena, and Aswan (south of
Egypt). Thus, 27 water resources and irrigation engineering departments
and 600 associations for the water users to manage irrigation water for
1.5 million acres (around 15% of the Egyptian agricultural lands) were
established. Therefore, 14% of the annual water needs of the departments
were reserved. Six million farmers and water users benefited from the
project (500,000 directly via the water users‟ associations” (Ministry of
Water Resources and Irrigation, 2007)
59
CHAPTER 5
Interpretation Data about the quantitative and qualitative
protection for Egyptian water sources bodies
5.1 Introduction:
This chapter will deal with the interpreting of previous data about the
Egyptian water legislation by demonstrating “if these legislation
supports the achievement quantitative and qualitative protection for
Egyptian water sources bodies, if these legislation needs to modification
to enhance this achievement, and what are these modifications, the
international agreement with Egypt by explaining” If these agreements
ensure the Egypt‟s rights of the Nile water portion, and if Egypt is facing
challenges with the Nile Basin states. Also, this chapter study
international and regional variables which have major impacts on the Nile
Basin problems. Moreover, it deal with current and future utilization of
water for Egypt, comparing it to the current and future requirement for
each of the Nile Basin states, this chapter analyzes whether the existing
international agreements associated with the Nile Basin states is more
useful than other to resolve these problems; suggesting recommendations
to secure the rights of Egypt in the water of the River Nile.
In another perspective, this chapter will deal with “if the technological
tools in Egypt is efficient to achieve the qualitative and quantitative
protection for Egyptian water bodies, if these technological tools
eliminate the challenges in water sector in Egypt, and which ones is more
efficient and useful to achieve this protection.
Finally, this chapter will examine “if the pollution in management
“corruption” affect passively on achievement the qualitative and
quantitative protection for Egyptian water bodies, and how eliminate the
pollution in management “corruption”, to become “healthy management
which play an effective role in achievement qualitative and quantitative
protection for Egyptian water bodies.
5.2 Interpreting of Law 4 of 1994 concerning environmental

protection & Law 48 for the Year 1982 regarding the Protection of
the Nile and Waterways from Pollution:
The purpose of this item is to feed the reader a brief overview of the
problems of application of Law 4 of 1994 concerning environmental
60
protection & Law 48 for the Year 1982 regarding the Protection of the
Nile and Waterways from Pollution and how to handle it by utilization
management function
The rules of Law 4 of 1994 concerning environmental protection & Law

48 for the Year 1982 regarding the Protection of the Nile and Waterways
from Pollution that are considers as the legal tools for achievement
quantitative and qualitative protection for Egyptian water sources bodies ,
and The punishments that were referred in Law 48 for the Year 1982
regarding the Protection of the Nile and Waterways from Pollution,
which provides for;” Discharging without a license or discharging in
amounts or concentrations that exceed license limits is punishable by
fine, jail sentence, or both. The fines range between LE 500 and LE
2,000, and the jail sentence is limited to one year. For a second violation,
the penalties are doubled” is of limited effectiveness (Ezzat et al., 1999)
The limited effectiveness of the law that s related to water quality

management stems from the following causes:
(1) Unclear Responsibilities: such as EEAA and MPWWR according for

Law 48 have the same responsibility for” supervise and operate the
national monitoring network. This means “the reliance on different
institutions for basic data sampling, analysis, processing, and storing”
(Ezzat et al., 1999)
(2) Lack of Enforcement: “At present there is limited capacity within the
MPWWR to enforce the regulations dealing with water quality. For
example, Government-owned enterprises, considered the main
polluters, get special treatment since the government cannot easily
fine or force closings, for fear of significant unemployment” (Ezzat et
al., 1999)
As a result to above, the laws need additional review, because some

articles are inadequate, while others are inconsistent, especially that
related to existing Water Quality Standards which are very strict, and
consider as main cause for failure of many users to comply with the
regulations, in another perspective, The implementation of Law 48 and
Law 4 should be coordinated, as both laws have the same objective of
water quality control and protection to enhance the enforcement of laws
applying.
61
Based on the foregoing, The previous interpretation of Law 4 of 1994

concerning environmental protection & Law 48 for the Year 1982
regarding the Protection of the Nile and Waterways from Pollution lead to
saying; the legal framework for achievement qualitative and quantitative
protection for Egyptian water bodies based on three managerial tasks
“reviewing, modifying, evaluating,” from the minister that is
responsible for achievement quantitative and qualitative protection for
Egyptian water sources bodies, as explained in previous chapter. as
illustrated in figure (5.1)
Figure 5.1 the required managerial tasks in legal framework
Achieving
quantitative
&
Effective
qualitative
legal frame
protection
work
for Egyptian
water
Evaluation Modification Review task

task task
The first managerial task that lies in “reviewing”, which defined as a

formal assessment of something with the intention of instituting change if
necessary (oxford dictionaries, 2018), is the first duty on the concerned
minister, so this governmental body needs to make formal assessments
for legal articles that are strict, inadequate, inconsistent, and ambiguous,
to identify obviously the responsibilities, obligations, duties, and rights”
for interested, in addition, these assignments of “responsibilities,
obligations, duties, and rights” enable the specialists to reliance on the
reliable source for basic data about Egyptian water sector.
The modifying that represents the second managerial task, and defined
as; make partial or minor changes to something (oxford dictionaries,
2018) is the second requirement from the concerned minister, so this
governmental body needs to make partial or minor changes to laws that
62
become inappropriate by removing , and issuing a new appropriate one,

or adjusting it by issuing amendments.
The third one of the managerial task that recognized as “evaluation”, and
defined as; the making of a judgment about the amount, number, or value
of something;(oxford dictionaries, 2018) is the third request from the
concerned minister, so this governmental body needs to make judgment
about the value of issuing the new laws, regulations, and modify others,
to make sure “if this new regulation, or amendments achieves its intended
goals or not, by using impact assessment to these regulations through
observing the decreasing in;(1) committing violations;(2) administrative
& criminal investigating;(3) payment of fines, (4)and closing the
industrial enterprise, factories,…etc.
5.3 Interpreting international convention for Nile Basin countries: As

illustrated previously; Ethiopia denies the old Nile water agreements
relied on the fact that those agreements were signed under the colonial
powers. In the same time - as well as the other Nile Basin countries-
accepts the agreements which recognize the borders among all African
countries, which also were signed under the colonial powers on their
behalf. This is one of the points that Egypt and Sudan use to prove their
rights for the Nile water. The same occurred to DRC. There was an
“Britain &Belgium” agreement which signed in London in 1906 to
modify the spheres of influence depended on a previous agreements
signed in Brussels in 1894, which undertaken the Congolese government
not to build or permit the building of any works on the Smillki and
Osanju Rivers or next to any of them, and which would reduce the
volume of water flowing into Lake Albert unless with the consent of the
Governments of Egypt and Sudan (Egyptian Government, 2012)It is
observed in the rest of Nile Basin countries;” Rwanda, Burundi, and the
DRC where they have water more than their needs. Beside the yearly
rain, they get water from the Nile and its tributaries and Lakes
Tanganyika in the south, Lake Kivu in the west, Lakes Boneton and
Bolero in the center, and also lakes Edward and George on the border of
the DRC to the west. Figure (5.2) depicts water and land resources in the
Nile Basin”
63
Figure 5.2 Water and Land Resources in the Nile Basin
Source: (Shema, 2012)
In addition to above, huge water resources, such as the Lakes of Africa

located in Uganda, and there are other biggest lakes in Africa, Albert and
Kyoga Rivers and others with many of the tributaries of the Nile located
around the equator. “If these countries are arguing with Egypt now about
the amount of its share according to the agreements of Nile water
distribution, which is the same as it was since 1959 (55.5 BCM annually),
Egypt then also has the right to ask these ten countries about the wasted
Nile water and other rivers in these countries. It is scientifically known
that these countries have more than 1,660 BCM annually, which
represents 1:30 ratio comparing to Egypt‟s quota of the river Nile water”
(Mason, 2004)
“Egypt‟s water supply is limited to its share of the Nile River. Egypt‟s
per capita share of water has dropped from 20,000 cubic meters per year
at the beginning of the 19th century, to less than 800 cubic meters per
year in 2012. The population increase which rose from less than 2.5
million in 1800, to over 60 million in 1996, to over 84 million in 2012, is
one of the main reasons for the severe decline in the country‟s per capita
share of water; almost 94 percent of Egypt‟s population lives in the Nile
Valley and the Delta, which extends southward about 600 miles from the
Mediterranean sea. Also it is one of the oldest agricultural areas in the
world. More than three fifths of Egyptians engage in agriculture work.
The Nile meets about 90 percent of the Egypt‟s water needs. The field of
agriculture in Egypt accounts for 95 percent of water consumption. In
addition to the agriculture, water in Egypt is used for drinking, industry,
hydroelectric power, fishery, tourism services, and other domestic
supplies. The population in Egypt is expected to reach to more than 115
million people by the year 2030 with agriculture expands, and
64
urbanization increases. The country will face increasing needs of water”

(Fahmi, 2007)
Confirmed to decreased per capita water supply in Egypt, the study was
done referred to “The total water resources for Egypt in 1997 was 63.9
BCM (55.5 BCM represented Egypt's share of the Nile water plus 3.7
BCM reused water of agricultural drainage, plus 4.7 BCM groundwater),
which is the same amount in 2012. In 1997 Egypt used 55.1 BCM for the
cultivation, and 8.8 BCM for drinking, industry, and other fields.
Consequently, the current water resources, which are the same as the
resources of 1997, are barely enough to meet the needs of Egypt from the
Nile water” (Egyptian Government, 2012)
In 1988, a foreign policy paper regarding water resources in the Middle

East and Africa was issued by Center in Washington as strategic studies.
The expansion and population growth, lack of maintenance associated
with misuse of the facilities of the water, the lack of cooperation among
the Nile Basin countries, and an area distinguished by religious, political
tensions, and fraught with ethnic feuds are the main causes for the water
crisis in the Nile Basin region as stated in the policy paper. (Egyptian
Government, 2012)
The 1980s the presence of Israel in the area of Nile Basin is obvious with
its desire to get a portion of the Nile water that represent as a stress on
Egyptian decision-makers to use sensitivity when addressing the
seriousness of the scarcity of water on the Egyptian strategy. Israel's
ambition lies in formally requested to receive 1 % of the waters of the
Nile during multilateral negotiations within the Middle East, but its
request was refused by Egypt (Egyptian Government, 2012)
A sneaky role that is played by Israel in Nile water aimed to make a

conflict between the Nile Basin countries, such as Ethiopia, Kenya, and
Rwanda (Egyptian Government, 2012)
The previous interpretation international convention for Nile Basin

countries lead to saying; the political framework for achievement
qualitative and quantitative protection for Egyptian water bodies based on
three managerial tasks “negotiation, co-ordination, co-operation” from
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt -as governmental body that
65
responsible for Egyptian political relations- with other countries with

Nile Basin states. As illustrated in Figure 5.3
Figure 5.3 the required managerial task in political framework
Achieving
quantitative
Effective
&
political
qualitative
frame work
protection
for Egyptian
water
Co-operation Coordination Negotiation

task task task
The first managerial task that lies in “negotiation” which defined as

discussion aimed at reaching an agreement (oxford dictionaries, 2018),
is the first duty on the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt, so this
governmental body needs to make discussion with the Nile Basin
countries to reach the settlement the problems to conclude the satisfied
solutions for all parties.
The co-ordination that represents the second managerial task, and defined
as; the organization of the different elements of a complex body or
activity so as to enable them to work together effectively (oxford
dictionaries, 2018) is the second requirement from the Minister of
Foreign Affairs of Egypt, so this governmental body needs to make
organization of the different activity which require from the political
parties to work together effectively.
The third one which is co-operation- as the managerial task, and defined
as; the action or process of working together to the same end (oxford
dictionaries, 2018) is the request from the Minister of Foreign Affairs of
Egypt, so this governmental body needs to make actions of collective
working to reach to achievement common interests that lies in
“qualitative and quantitative protection for water of Nile River”
66
5.4 Interpreting the technological application in Egyptians water

sectors:
The selection for technological tools depends on general criteria:

o Efficiency and performance of the technology; this means the
possibility that the technology might remove the pollution partially, or
totally.
o Reliability of the technology; this means ability to continue operation
and to produce an acceptable effluent under unusual conditions.
o Application the technology; this means ability to apply an efficient
technology that continue operation and to produce an acceptable
effluent under unusual conditions ( Helmer&Hespanhol,1997)
As result of above, the efficiency and performance of the technology, the
Reliability of the technology, and apply it need to three managerial tasks”
evaluation, application, continuing of application” as illustrated in
Figure (5.4)
Figure 5.4 the required managerial tasks in technological application
Achieving
Effective quantitative
technological &
applications qualitative
protection
for Egyptian
water
Continuing Evaluation
Application
application task
task
task
The first one of the managerial task that recognized as “evaluation”, and
defined as; the making of a judgment about the amount, number, or value
of something ;( oxford dictionaries, 2018) - as explained before, is the
first request from the concerned minister, so, this governmental body
needs to make judgment about the efficiency of technological tools, by
determination the most efficient one that is able to remove the pollution
with high percentage, and needs to make judgment about reliability of the
67
technology, by determination the most reliable one that is able to continue

operation and to produce an acceptable effluent under unusual conditions.
The application that represents the second managerial task, and defined
as; the action of putting something into operation, or practical use
(oxford dictionaries, 2018) is the second requirement from the
concerned minister, so this governmental body need to make the action of
putting technological tools that assigned for combating the water
pollution into operation, and start to practical utilization for them.
The third one which is continuing the application as the managerial task
is defined as; Carry on with something that one has begun, or persist in an
activity or process (oxford dictionaries, 2018) is the request from the
concerned Minister, so this governmental body needs to make Carry on
with application of technological tools in Egyptian water bodies that one
has begun, to evaluate if they meet their functions in removing pollution
or not, and persist in activities that represents as outputs for these tools.
5.5 Interpreting the managerial framework responsible for Egyptians

water bodies:
As displayed before in the previous chapter, in Egypt, as in many

developing countries, the organizational structure for water sector is
extremely complex, mainly because of the large number of government
agencies with related responsibilities for water management activities, in
spite of few governmental agencies are adequately equipped for water
management.
In another perspective; financial sustainability that means the
assessment that a project will have sufficient funds to meet all its resource
and financial obligations, is a main problem in governmental bodies, and
it is often a source of managerial corruption. Management‟s Pollution in
water sector that is expressed as “corruption”, need to elimination.
Corruption in the water sector is widespread, and leads to:
(1) Damages drinking supplies, sanitation, agriculture, energy and the
environment.
(2) Wastes billions of dollars in these efforts.
(3) It makes water undrinkable, inaccessible and unaffordable.
(international transparency, 2018)
68
Expensiveness and complication of Water projects causes easily,

profitable corruption in procurement and contracts by assign funds of
managing water resources for the pockets of corrupt officials by illegal
way. The bribes for access to irrigation systems and groundwater supplies
become big agricultural businesses that lead to deprivation smallholders
of their livelihoods, in another meaning; Bribery make water pollution
unpunished crime, in addition to above, It distorts policies and budgets
for drinking water and sanitation, Corruption can also affect service
delivery and billing when Informal providers – often the only source of
water delivery to the poor – can use extortion and bribery. “In some
developing countries, corruption can add 30-45 per cent to the price of
connection to a water network. In such situations, families face a struggle
to survive and escape poverty” (international transparency, 2018)
According to the Global Corruption Report 2008 released by
Transparency International; Corruption in the Water Sector is a root cause
and catalyst for the global water crisis that threatens billions of lives and
exacerbates environmental degradation (international transparency,
2018)
The report classified the corruption in different segments of the water
sector; (1) “petty bribery in water delivery to procurement-related looting
of irrigation and hydropower funds”; (2) “covering up industrial pollution
to manipulation of water management and allocation policies”
(International transparency, 2018)
“For the Philippines, which has allocated close to US$1 billion for
irrigation and related agricultural improvements, the report presents case
evidence of how corruption has hindered the building and performance of
irrigation dams. In India, a country at the center of the crisis, corruption is
estimated to add at least 25 per cent to irrigation contracts and the
proceeds help maintain a corrupt system of political handouts and
compromised oversight. In the end, investment costs rise, systems are
rendered inefficient and small farmers are left especially vulnerable to
water shortage” (International transparency, 2018)
“Corruption in drinking water and sanitation emerges at every point along
the water delivery chain; from policy design and budgeting to building,
maintaining and operating water networks. It drains investment from the
sector, increases prices and decreases water supplies. One result is that
poor households in Jakarta, Lima, Nairobi or Manila spend more on water
69
than residents of New York City, London or Rome” (International

transparency, 2018)
“Industrialized countries are not immune. Corruption has plagued the
tendering of water contracts in cities like Grenoble, Milan, New Orleans
and Atlanta. Likewise, cases of bid-rigging and price-fixing in water
infrastructure provision have surfaced in Sweden, while in Chicago water
budgets fell victim to misuse for political campaigning” (International
transparency, 2018)
“Corruption in water resources management undermines the
sustainability of water supplies, fuels highly unequal water sharing which
can incite political conflict and fosters the degradation of vital
ecosystems. In China, for example, corruption has weakened the
enforcement of environmental regulations, abetting the pollution of
aquifers in 90 percent of cities and making over 75 per cent of urban
rivers unsuitable for drinking or fishing” (International transparency,
2018)
“Corruption in hydropower inflates the cost of dams and related projects.
It also makes re-settlement more challenging by preying on compensation
funds and initiatives meant to aid displaced people. The stakes are high:
hydropower accounts for one-sixth of the world‟s electricity production
and investment volumes are projected to reach US$60 billion annually
over the next 20 years” (International transparency, 2018)
“Corruption‟s impact on water sector stems from lack of governance, so
taking action against corruption in the water sector is both timely and
feasible must include:
- Establish transparency and participation as guiding principles for
all aspects of water governance: From transparent budgeting and
participatory policy-making to public mapping of water pollution,
public audits of projects and access to contract terms and performance
reports, transparency and participation strengthen integrity in water
governance, but need to be adopted globally” (International
transparency, 2018)
- “Strengthen regulatory oversight: Government and the public sector
continue to play the most prominent role in water governance and
should establish effective regulatory oversight, whether for the
environment, water and sanitation, agriculture or energy. Institutional
reform and capacity-building are essential to bring oversight in water
70
up to the standards already achieved in other sectors” (International

transparency, 2018)
- “Ensure fair competition and accountable implementation of
water projects: All stakeholders have a role to play. Contracts should
incorporate anti-corruption measures. Governments and contractors
can enter into agreements for fair public procurement. Lenders and
donors must strengthen anti-bribery provisions in their due diligence
requirements” (International transparency, 2018)
These actions against corruption in the water sector need to four
managerial tasks; “planning” defined as; “the process of making plans
for something” (oxford dictionaries, 2018), is the first request from the
concerned ministers, so, this governmental body needs to make plans that
achieve the principles of governance “transparency, participation,
justice….etc.” and enhance an elimination the pollution from water;
“enforcement” of governance rules, and regulation is second request
from the concerned ministers, and defined as” the act of compelling
observance of or compliance with a law, rule, or obligation” (oxford
dictionaries, 2018) , so the concerned ministers need to make actions of
compliance with law, rule, or obligation by strength the strict punishment
for violations, and explain the obligatory nature for these rules,
“Supervision” on the range of achievement of governance rules, and
enforcement of regulations, that defined as; “observe and direct the
execution of (a task or activity)” (oxford dictionaries, 2018), is third
request from concerned ministers, so these ministers need to observe and
direct the execution of governance principles, and regulations, and laws.
“Monitoring” is the fourth request from concerned ministers, and
defined as; “observe and check the progress or quality of (something)
over a period of time; keep under systematic review” (oxford
dictionaries, 2018), so these ministers need to observe and check the
progress or quality of applying the laws, and principles of governance
over period of time, and ensure the regulations and the laws keep under
systemic review. As illustrated in figure (5.5)
71
Figure 5.5 the required management tasks in managerial framework
Effective Achieving
managerial quantitative
framework &
qualitative
protection
for Egyptian
water
Monitoring Supervision Enforcement Planning

task task task task
72
Chapter 6
Conclusions
The requirement to achievement of high level of water quality, and

limitation for water waste has been converted to more detailed and
demanding legislation. The sanctions, and fines are main factors for
realize high level of Egyptian water quality, and limitation for water
waste. The rules of Law 4 of 1994 concerning environmental protection
& Law 48 for the Year 1982 regarding the Protection of the Nile and
Waterways from Pollution that are considers as the legal tools for
achievement quantitative and qualitative protection for Egyptian water
sources bodies. Law 4 of 1994 concerning environmental protection &
Law 48 for the Year 1982 regarding the Protection of the Nile and
Waterways from Pollution based on three managerial tasks “reviewing,
modifying, evaluating,” “reviewing” to make formal assessments for
legal articles to identify obviously the responsibilities, obligations, duties,
and rights” for interested parties who enable the responsible to reliance
on the reliable source for basic data about Egyptian water sector. The
modifying to make partial or minor changes in laws those become
inappropriate by removing, then issuing a new one, or adjusting it by
issuing amendments. “evaluation” to make judgment about the value of
issuing the new regulations, and modify others, to make sure “if this new
regulation, or amendments achieves its intended goals or not, by using
impact assessment to these regulations through observing the decreasing
in;(1) committing violations;(2) administrative & criminal
investigating;(3) payment of fines, (4) and closing the industrial
enterprise, factories,…etc.
The Nile is the main source of water in Egypt. Lack of flow of the Nile or
its sources has negative impacts on its national security. So, it is obvious;
the great importance of Nile River water for African Basin states, so that,
many of laws, rules, norms and conventions related to utilization and
management of the water‟s Nile Basin were enacted. The Organization of
African Unity in 1968 approved the 1959 agreement, that regulate the use
of Nile water, the rules of the 1966 Helsinki meeting, and the Convention
of the Conservation of Natural Resources. The obligation of respecting
the rights of other riparian states restricted the exercising sovereign rights
on the international river basin that is given to each Nile Basin country
73
International convention for Nile Basin countries based on three

managerial tasks “negotiation, co-ordination, co-operation” The first
management function that lies in “negotiation” to make discussion with
the Nile Basin countries to reach the settlement the problems to conclude
the satisfied solutions for all parties. The co-ordination is for make
organization of the different activity which require from the political
parties to work together effectively. The co-operation to make actions of
collective working to reach to achievement common interests that lies in
“qualitative and quantitative protection for water of Nile River
There is a necessary to explore of new technologies for achieving clean

drinking water. More of technologies in water sector were explored in
several countries to handle this challenge, to gain safe drinking water.
The usual technological business approach, and its current strategies
cannot address global water challenges in the future, and the world‟s
thirst, particularly when the population hits eight, nine or ten billion in the
next decades. The technological application for achievement qualitative
&quantitative protection to Egyptians water bodies need to three
managerial tasks; evaluation” to make judgment about the efficiency of
technological tools, “ application” to make the action of putting
technological tools that assigned for combating the water pollution into
operation, and start to practical utilization for them, “continuing the
application” to make Carry on with application of technological tools in
Egyptian water bodies that one has begun, to evaluate if they meet their
functions in removing pollution or not, and persist in activities that
represents as outputs for these tools.
The major threat to the current and future people worldwide is scarcity in
quantity and quality water, particularly to people in developing countries.
Solving the problems that related to water sector; such as poverty, equity
depends mainly on Sustainable water management. There are many
parties that are responsible for the management, and there are major
institutions, scientific and technical support identities, etc., in addition to
monitoring parties and local units which play essential roles in this
context. The main line that governs the relationship among all those
parties is usually connected to the Ministry of Water Resources and
Irrigation as far as responsibility and accountability are concerned. The
managerial framework responsible for achievement qualitative
&quantitative protection to Egyptians water bodies need to four
74
managerial tasks; “planning” that will establish transparency and

participation, justice,…etc. as governance principles, and
“enforcement” of governance rules, and regulation that apply these
rules, “Supervision” on the range of achievement of governance rules,
and enforcement of regulations, “Monitoring” to observe and check the
progress or quality of applying the laws, and principles of governance
over period of time, and ensure the regulations and the laws keep under
systemic review.
75
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The Quantitative and Qualitative Protection For Egyptian Water Sources

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The Quantitative and Qualitative Protection For Egyptian Water Sources

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Dr.

The quantitative and qualitative

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to

Really, I am indebted to Dr.Ashraf El-

2. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 11

3. CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH DESIGN…………………………………….32

Figure 2.3 The percentage of sources water pollution……………….…………..…………….….15

Figure 2.4 The most countries polluting oceans….……………………………….………….……16

Figure 2.5 The highest cities particulate polluting……………………………………...….…..…..16

Figure 2.6 Location map of India showing the Ganga River………………………....……………21

Figure 2.8 sector wise breakup of grossly polluting industries…………......................................23

Figure 2.9 Location map of China showing the position of Shanghai………………….…...…….26

Figure 2.12 Chart showing the organization of Environmental Protection in China………………29

Figure 3.1 The proposed theoretical framework……..………………………………….…………..32

Figure 4.1 Table of environmental laws……………………………………………………………….38

Figure 4.3 Specialized parties/bodies assisting the ministry………………………………………...…55

Figure 4.5 the main bodies of the irrigation authority………………………………………………56

Figure 5.1 the required management functions in legal framework……………………………….62

Figure 5.2 Water and Land Resources in the Nile Basin………………………………………………64

Figure 5.3 the required management functions in political framework……………………………….66

Figure 5.4 the required management functions in technological application………………..….……..67

Figure 5.5 the required management tasks in managerial framework…………………………………72

Bilateral agreement between Egypt and an independent Sudan signed in

Leaders of Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan met in the Sudanese capital

Previous summarized views about the international agreement for Nile

This protection nominated “quantitative” that mean “How to protect the

Egyptian governmental organizations - or the leaders of Egypt-

Lack of political settlement- no judgment- for the Egyptian River Nile

The neglecting of the qualitative protection for Egyptian River Nile

So the qualitative protection need to high strict “technological, and legal”

1.2 stakeholder’s analysis:

The proposed conceptual model of quantitative and qualitative

Strict legal national

Claim 1: Strict national legal Rules increases achieving qualitative and

Achieving qualitative protection for Egyptian water sources is through

Claim 2: Mandatory international convention increases achieving

Claim 3: Technological tools for increases achieving qualitative and

MjRQ How can achieve the qualitative and quantitative

MinRQ1: How can strict legal national Rules sustain achieving

MinRQ3: How can technological tools sustain achieving

As explained previously about the history of Egypt‟s interest with Africa

countries at political, economic, and cultural levels, especially in the Nile

In 1956, When Egypt exposed to the tripartite aggression attack, Egypt

The unique geographical location of African continent grant its peoples a

Water technologies provide the answer for a question “how to achieve

The adaptation of technologies in the water sector, need to highlighting

Technological application in water sector is enhanced by various

technology requirements in water sector, and Technology Action Plans

UNESCO stated in their reports that “An increasing population suggests

Moreover, Water pollution and production energy are tightly interlinked,

- Fertilizers from agricultural activities: fertilizers are utilized to

Figure 2.3- The percentage of sources water pollution

A researchers „team of many countries “United States , Australia” led by

Figure 2.4- The most countries polluting oceans

Source: (Wall Street Journal, 2018)

These previous activities – that mentioned before- considers as real

Source: (Ranking America, 2009)

El- Nahada Dam doesn‟t consider as challenge for qualitative protection,

Water conservation is important more than saving water, technological

Based on above, so we need to learn how to produce clean healthy water

The technological means in achieving quantitative protection for water

“Various analytical methods have been developed for the determination