EXECUTIVE BRANCH

Roles and powers of the Executive Branch of the Government:

President as:

1. Chief Executive
- implements and enforces the law, supervising the executive branch, and ensuring that
government agencies carry out their functions (Article 7, Section 17)
- has the authority to issue executive orders, administrative orders, and proclamations to
effectively manage/administer a government (Article 7, Section 17)

2. Commander-in-Chief
- of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, with the responsibility to protect the country from
external and internal threats (Article 7, Section 18)
- has the power and control over the military, where he can declare martial law or suspend
the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus (warrant allowing authorities to arrest civilians)
under specified circumstances (Article 7, Section 17-18)

3. Chief Diplomat
- Chief architect of foreign policy, representing the Philippines in international relations,
negotiating treaties, and appointing ambassadors (Article 7, Section 21)

4. Economic Manager
- Prepares the national budget (Budgetary Power), submitting it to the Congress and
ensuring its implementation (General Appropriations Act) (Article 7, Section 22)
- Can veto specific items in the GAA passed by the Congress (Article 6, Section 27)

5. Legislator-in-Chief
- The President can influence legislation by proposing bills and priorities in the State of the
Nation Address (SONA) and working with lawmakers (Article 6, Section 23)

6. Chief Law Enforcer

- Responsible for the enforcement of laws and maintenance of peace and order (Article 7,
Section 17)
- Can declare a state of national emergency and exercise extraordinary powers during
crises, subjected to specific limitations (Article 7, Section 18)

7. Appointment and Removal

- Appoints high ranking officials, subject to confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments, and can remove them for cause (Article 7, Section 16-17)

8. Executive Clemency
- As the power to grant reprieves, commutations, and pardon, except in cases of
impeachment (A7, S19)
● Reprieve - delay of punishment
● Commutation- reduction of punishment
● Pardon - total forgiveness of punishment

9. Emergency Power
- Can be granted emergency powers by Congress, specifically for a limited period and a
particular purpose (Article 6, Section 23)

10. Executive Orders

- Can issue executive orders to implement laws, policies, and directives (Article 7, Section
17)
LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

Differences between the Philippine Senate and the House of Representatives:

Roles, Responsibilities, and Functions within the Philippine Congress

1. Mode of Representation
- Senate: The mode of representation for senators being elected at-large is stipulated in
Article VI, Section 3 of the 1987 Constitution. This section defines that the Senate is
composed of 24 senators who are elected by qualified voters nationwide.
- House of Representatives: The mode of representation for members elected to
represent specific legislative districts is outlined in Article 6, Section 5.This section states
that the House of Representatives shall be composed of district representatives, elected
by the qualified voters of their respective districts.

2. Term of Office
- Senate Term: The fixed term of six years for senators and the arrangement for staggered
elections is established in Article 6, Section 4. This section details the term of office for
senators and the method of staggering their elections. Senators have a fixed term of six
years, with half of the Senate (12 senators) up for election every three years. This
staggered term ensures continuity in the legislative body.
- House of Representatives Term: Section 7. The Members of the House of
Representatives shall be elected for a term of three years which shall begin, unless
otherwise provided by law, at noon on the thirtieth day of June next following their
election. No Member of the House of Representatives shall serve for more than three
consecutive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the office for any length of time shall not be
considered as an interruption in the continuity of his service for the full term for which he
was elected.

3. Initiating Revenue Bills

- Senate: The Senate has no authority to initiate revenue bills, which are bills involving
taxation or government revenue. These must exclusively originate in the House of
Representatives (Article 6, Section 24).
- House of Representatives: The House has the exclusive power to initiate revenue bills.
Once passed in the House, these bills are then forwarded to the Senate for
consideration.
4. Confirmation of Appointments
- Senate: The Senate has the power to confirm or reject appointments made by the
President, including members of the Cabinet, ambassadors, and heads of government
agencies (Article 7, Section 16).
- House of Representatives: The House does not have a role in the confirmation process;
this power is vested solely in the Senate.

5. Treaty Ratification
- Senate: The Senate plays a crucial role in the ratification of international treaties and
agreements. Treaties require the concurrence of at least two-thirds of the Senate
members present (Article 7, Section 21).
- House of Representatives: The House does not have a direct role in treaty ratification.
However, it may be involved if a treaty has financial implications requiring legislation.

6. Impeachment Proceedings
- Senate: The Senate serves as the tribunal for the trial of impeached officials. After the
House initiates impeachment, the Senate conducts the trial, with senators acting as
judges (Article 11, Section 3).
- House of Representatives: The House has the exclusive power to initiate impeachment
cases against high-ranking officials, including the President, Vice President, and
members of the judiciary (Article 11, Section 3).

7. Legislative Review
- Senate: While both chambers can pass bills into law, the Senate reviews and deliberates
on bills passed by the House. The Senate can introduce amendments or revisions to
proposed legislation, and both chambers must agree on the final version.
- House of Representatives: The House initiates many legislative proposals, which may
then proceed to the Senate for review and approval.

8. Number of Members
- Senate: The Senate consists of 24 members.
- House of Representatives: The number of representatives varies as it is based on the
population of legislative districts. As of the current constitution, there are 297 legislative
districts, meaning there are 297 representatives in the House. But at present there are
316 representatives, 63 for party-list and 253 for legislative districts.
JUDICIAL BRANCH

Roles and Powers of the Judicial Branch: The Supreme Court

1. Judicial Power/Review
- Article 8, Section 1: This section establishes the judicial power, which is vested in one
Supreme Court and in lower courts. It grants the judiciary the authority to review laws,
determine their constitutionality, and settle actual controversies involving rights.

2. Interpretation of Laws
- Article 8, Section 4: The provision empowers the Supreme Court to interpret the
Constitution, treaties, statutes, and other legal matters. It emphasizes the duty of the
judiciary to ensure that laws conform to the Constitution.

3. Settling Disputes
- Article 8, Section 5: This section grants the Supreme Court administrative supervision
over all lower courts and their personnel, emphasizing its role in ensuring the efficient
operation of the entire judicial system. It includes the settlement of jurisdictional disputes
between different courts.

4. Judicial Independence and Accountability

- Article 8, Section 6: This provision highlights the principles of judicial independence and
fiscal autonomy, ensuring that the judiciary remains impartial and free from undue
influence or control from other branches of government.

5. Adjudication of Cases
- Article 8, Section 8: The Constitution establishes the Supreme Court as the court of last
resort and vests it with the power to promulgate rules concerning the protection and
enforcement of constitutional rights. Lower courts are tasked with the adjudication of
cases in their respective jurisdictions.

6. Judicial Appointments
- Article 8, Section 9: This section delineates the process of appointing members of the
judiciary. It grants the President the authority to appoint judges and justices from a list of
nominees prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council, subject to confirmation by the
Commission on Appointments.
 7. Judicial Disciplinary Proceedings
- Article 8, Section 11: The provision outlines the process for disciplining judges and
justices for serious misconduct or inefficiency, ensuring accountability within the judiciary.

8. Protection of Rights
- Article 8, Section 12: The Constitution emphasizes the duty of the judiciary to protect
individual rights and liberties guaranteed by the Constitution. Courts are tasked with
ensuring that the rights of all individuals are upheld and respected.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNIT

The Roles and Functions of the Local Government (LGU)

- Aside from the 1987 Philippine Constitution and Local Government Code of 1991
(Republic Act No. 7160), the Republic Act No. 10121 or Disaster Risk Management is
also part of the roles and functions of the local government.
- The following are local government roles and functions:

1. Local Legislation and Law-Making

- Role: Pursuant to Article 10, Section 5 of the 1987 Constitution, Local Government Units
(LGUs) are endowed with the authority to create local ordinances, resolutions, and
regulations.
- Function: This empowers LGUs to address pertinent local issues, necessities, and
concerns, including but not limited to local taxes, land use, public safety, and sanitation
(Article 10, Section 5).

2. Local Planning and Development

- Role: In adherence to Article 10, Section 18 of the 1987 Constitution, LGUs bear the
responsibility of crafting local development plans.
- Function: These comprehensive plans delineate economic, social, environmental, and
physical development objectives within their respective areas. LGUs are mandated to
prepare annual investment plans and budgets in accordance with their development
aspirations (Article 10, Section 18).

3. Local Executive and Administrative Functions

- Role: As stipulated in Article 10, Section 4, LGUs are granted autonomy with their own
local executives, such as mayors and governors.
- Function: These officials execute and implement local laws, policies, and programs.
They also manage local government offices and agencies tasked with service delivery
(Article 10, Section 4).

4. Public Safety and Order Maintenance

- Role: In accordance with Article 10, Section 16 of the 1987 Constitution, LGUs are
tasked with upholding peace and order within their jurisdictions.
- Function: To accomplish this, LGUs establish and maintain a police force, ensure fire
protection, and enforce local laws and regulations to guarantee the safety and security of
their communities (Article 10, Section 16).
5. Local Revenue and Taxation
- Role: Article 10, Section 5 of the 1987 Constitution empowers LGUs to levy and collect
taxes, fees, and charges.
- Function: This authority allows LGUs to generate local revenues, which are utilized to
finance local projects, services, and development initiatives. LGUs may impose taxes on
real property, businesses, and other sources of income within their jurisdiction (Article
10, Section 5).

6. Local Health Services

- Role: LGUs, in compliance with Article 2, Section 15 of the 1987 Constitution, are
entrusted with providing health services.
- Function: They operate local health facilities, implement healthcare programs, and
execute measures aimed at promoting public health and sanitation (Article 2, Section
15).

7. Local Education Services

- Role: As detailed in Article 14, Section 1 of the 1987 Constitution, LGUs play a role in
delivering education services.
- Function: This entails supporting the operation of public schools, allocating funds for
educational programs, and ensuring access to quality education within their jurisdictions
(Article 14, Section 1).

8. Local Social Welfare and Development

- Role: LGUs are mandated by Article 2, Section 10 of the 1987 Constitution to provide
social welfare services.
- Function: Consequently, they address the social welfare needs of their constituents,
especially focusing on the marginalized, disadvantaged, and vulnerable sectors through
various programs (Article 2, Section 10).

9. Environmental Management and Protection

- Role: In accordance with Article 2, Section 16 of the 1987 Constitution, LGUs are
involved in environmental protection.
- Function: LGUs enforce environmental laws, regulate land use and zoning, and
advocate sustainable practices to preserve the environment and natural resources within
their areas (Article 2, Section 16)
 10. Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
- Role: Pursuant to Republic Act No. 10121 (Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Act of 2010), LGUs are responsible for disaster risk reduction and
management.
- Function: They develop disaster risk reduction and management plans, coordinate
response and relief efforts during disasters, and ensure community safety in times of
calamities (Republic Act No. 10121).

11. Barangay Governance

- Role: LGUs oversee barangays, the smallest administrative units, as mandated by the
Local Government Code of 1991.
- Function: To ensure effective local governance at the grassroots level, LGUs provide
support to barangays, including funding, technical assistance, and capacity-building
(Local Government Code of 1991)

12. Local Economic Development

- Role: LGUs facilitate local development in line with the Economic Local Government
Code of 1991.
- Function: This involves promoting business and investment, fostering economic growth,
and creating employment opportunities within their areas (Local Government Code of
1991).

NATURE OF ELECTIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

Nature of Elections and Political Parties in the Philippines

- It is shaped by the country's complex history, diverse political landscape, and evolving
democratic institutions.
- Analyzing this nature requires considering multiple factors such as:

1. Historical Context
- Philippines has a long history of colonization, including Spanish and American rule,
which has significantly influenced its political landscape
- Philippines has a history of colonial rule, including Spanish, American, and Japanese
occupations, which has influenced its political development (Constantino, 1975)
- The legacy of these colonial powers has had a lasting impact on the country's political
institutions and the role of elections in its democracy (Anderson, 1988)
- The legacy of authoritarian rule under Ferdinand Marcos from 1972 to 1986 has had a
lasting impact on the country's political culture (Abinales & Amoroso, 2005)

2. Democratic Transition
- The EDSA People Power Revolution in 1986 marked a transition to democracy, leading
to the ratification of a new constitution in 1987 (Mijares, 1986)
- Elections have become a cornerstone of Philippine democracy, with regular national and
local elections taking place (Magno, 2003)

3. Multiparty System
- One notable aspect of the Philippine political system is the high degree of party
fragmentation
- The Philippines has a multi-party system, with numerous political parties vying for power
(Mendoza 2018). This fragmentation can often lead to challenges in forming stable
governments and can make it difficult for voters to distinguish between parties based on
their platforms.
- The Philippines follows a multiparty system, with numerous political parties vying for
power (Mendoza, 1997)
- Dominant political parties include the Liberal Party (LP) and the Nacionalista Party (NP),
but smaller parties and coalitions also play significant roles (Kasuya, 2019).

4. Patronage Politics
- characterized by the exchange of favors and resources for political support, is a
prevalent feature of Philippine elections (Mendoza, 2003)
- Clientelism and patronage networks are deeply rooted in Philippine politics
- Elected officials often use their positions to distribute favors and resources to their
constituents in exchange for political support (Abinales & Amoroso, 2005)
- This practice can create a culture of dependency and hinder the development of
policy-based politics.
- Political dynasties, where families hold power across generations, are common in local
and national politics (Doronila, 2015). One of the enduring issues in Philippine politics is
the prevalence of political dynasties,where families maintain a grip on power across
generations (Domingo, 2017)
- This can limit political competition and contribute to a lack of diversity in political
leadership.
- Another characteristic of Philippine elections is the prominence of personality politics.
Candidates often rely on their popularity and personal charisma rather than party
platforms (Magno, 2007). This can lead to a focus on individual candidates rather than
their affiliations, contributing to the fragmentation of the party system.

5. Campaign Finance and Transparency

- Campaign finance regulations are in place, but enforcement remains a challenge,
leading to concerns about transparency and accountability in election funding (Pe-Pua,
2012)
- Efforts to improve transparency include the establishment of the Commission on
Elections (COMELEC) and initiatives for campaign finance reform (COMELEC, 2020)

6. Voter Participation
- Voter turnout in Philippine elections has historically been relatively high, reflecting the
importance of democratic participation in Filipino society (Lande, 1992).
- However, issues like voter registration and accessibility to polling stations can affect
turnout rates (Philippine Star, 2019).

7. Role of Media
- Media, including television, radio, and social media, play a crucial role in shaping public
opinion and influencing electoral outcomes (Sidel, 1997).
- The Philippines has a robust and diverse media landscape, with both advantages and
challenges (Hutchcroft, 2003).

8. Electoral Violence and Fraud

- Electoral violence and fraud have been concerns in Philippine elections, with incidents
reported in various regions (Casiple, 2019).
- Efforts to combat electoral violence include the deployment of security forces and stricter
monitoring (GMA News, 2021).

9. Electoral Reforms
- Efforts have been made to reform the electoral system in the Philippines. The Automated
Election System (AES) introduced in 2010 aimed to improve the transparency and
efficiency of elections (Teehankee, 2011).
- However, challenges and controversies surrounding the implementation of these reforms
persist.

10. International Perspectives

- Looking at international perspectives, scholars like Kew (2010) have compared the
Philippine political party system to those in other Southeast Asian countries, shedding
light on the unique characteristics of Philippine politics such as discussed in numbers 1
to 9.
CONCEPT, ROLE, AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF CIVIL SOCIETY SOCIETIES
AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS TO PHILIPPINE DEMOCRACY

Civil Society

- refers to the sphere of society that exists between the state and the market, comprising
nongovernmental organizations, community groups, advocacy organizations, and other
voluntary associations (Edwards, 2004).
- in the Philippines, it encompasses a wide range of groups, including human rights
organizations, environmental advocates, and religious groups.

Role of Civil Society

- plays a pivotal role in Philippine democracy by acting as a check and balance on

government power (Diamond, 1994)
- Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) serve as watchdogs, monitoring government actions,
advocating for accountability, and promoting transparency in governance.

Contributions of Civil Society to Philippine Democracy

a. Advocacy and Policy Influence

- Civil society organizations in the Philippines have been instrumental in
advocating for policy changes and reforms in various sectors. Ex. Organizations
like Freedom from Debt Coalition (FDC) have pushed for more equitable
economic policies (Schneider, 2007).

b. Election Monitoring
- During elections, CSOs often play a crucial role in monitoring and ensuring the
fairness and integrity of the electoral process. Ex. The Parish Pastoral Council for
Responsible Voting (PPCRV) is a notable example (Ratcliffe & Bartocci, 2018).

c. Social Services and Development

- Many CSOs in the Philippines are involved in delivering essential social services
and promoting development in marginalized communities.
- These efforts help bridge gaps in government service delivery (Doronila, 2007).
Social Movements in Philippine Democracy

- These are collective actions that seek to bring about social or political change.
- In the Philippines, various social movements have played pivotal roles in
shaping democracy.

a. People Power Revolution

- The EDSA People Power Revolution of 1986 is a seminal example of a social
movement's impact on Philippine democracy.
- Mass mobilization led to the peaceful ousting of President Ferdinand Marcos
(Magno, 2006).

b. Indigenous Rights Movements

- Indigenous groups, such as the Lumads and Moros, have organized social
movements to assert their rights and autonomy within the Philippine state
(Cariño, 2008).

International Perspectives

- Scholars like Tadem (2005) have examined the role of civil society in Philippine
democratization, highlighting the diversity of civil society organizations and their
influence on politics.
IMPORTANCE OF ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP

Citizen

- a member of a State who was accorded with full civil and political rights, subject to
disqualifications provided by law

Citizenship

- a membership of a citizen in a political community.

Natural-Born Filipino Citizen

- one who does not have to perform any act to acquire his Philippine citizenship.

Naturalized Filipino Citizen

- one who underwent the naturalization process under the law of the Philippines.

Naturalization

- the act of formally adopting a foreigner into the political community of a State and giving
him the rights and privileges of citizenship.

Jus soli or jus loci principle

- a newly - born child follows the citizenship of the State where he was born irrespective of
the citizenship of his parents.

Dual Citizenship

- possession of two citizenships by an individual, that of his original citizenship and that of
the country where he became a naturalized citizen.

Dual Allegiance

- the continued allegiance of* a naturalized citizen to their mother country even after
acquiring Filipino citizenship. This is prohibited by the constitution.
Article IV: Citizenship

Section 1

- The following are citizens of the Philippines:

- [1] Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this
Constitution
- [2] Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines.
- [3] Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine
citizenship upon reaching the age of majority; and
- [4] Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.

Section 2

- Natural-born citizens are those who are citizens of the Philippines from birth without
having to perform any act to acquire or perfect their Philippine citizenship.
- Those who elect Philippine citizenship in accordance with paragraph (3), Section I hereof
shall be deemed natural-born citizens.

Section 3

- Philippine citizenship may be lost or reacquired in the manner provided by law.

Section 4

- Citizens of the Philippines who marry aliens shall retain their citizenship, unless by their
act or omission, they are deemed, under the law, to have renounced it.

Section 5

- Dual allegiance of citizens is inimical to the national interest and shall be dealt with by
law.
Active Citizenship

- a vital concept with profound implications for democracy and society at large.

1. Strengthening Democracy
- Active citizenship is essential for the vitality of democracy.
- democracy relies on the informed and active participation of citizens in decision-making
processes (Dahl, 1989)
- When citizens are actively engaged in civic activities, such as voting, attending
community meetings, and advocating for their interests, it bolsters the democratic
process.

2. Holding Government Accountable

- Citizens who actively participate in their communities and in political processes are
better equipped to hold governments accountable for their actions.
- Active citizenship creates social capital, which includes trust, cooperation, and shared
norms. This social capital, in turn, can be harnessed to monitor government performance
and demand transparency. (Putnam, 1995)

3. Addressing Social Issues

- Active citizens often form the backbone of social movements and advocacy groups that
seek to address pressing social issues. These individuals and organizations can drive
change by raising awareness, mobilizing resources, and influencing policies
(Klandermans, 2015).

4. Fostering Inclusivity
- Active citizenship promotes inclusivity and social cohesion. When diverse groups of
citizens actively engage in public life, it can help bridge societal divides and build a
sense of belonging (Aberbach & Walker, 2015).
- Inclusivity is vital for maintaining social harmony.

5. Local Community Development

- At the local level, active citizenship is crucial for community development.
- Residents who take an active interest in their neighborhoods contribute to the
improvement of local services, infrastructure, and overall quality of life (Levine, 2012).
6. Civic Education and Awareness
- Active citizenship encourages civic education and awareness.
- By participating in civic activities, individuals become more informed about their rights,
responsibilities, and the workings of their government (Galston, 2001).

7. Resilience in Times of Crisis

- During times of crisis, active citizens can play a pivotal role in responding to challenges.
Whether it's disaster relief, public health crises, or economic downturns, citizens who are
engaged and organized can provide valuable support and resources (Aldrich, 2012).

8. International Perspective
- In an international context, scholars like Norris (2002) have examined the role of active
citizenship in global governance, highlighting how engaged citizens can influence
international institutions and policies.
POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT AND YOUTH EMPOWERMENT

Issues Affecting Youth Political Engagement

a. Apathy and Disengagement

- One of the key issues is the perception of political apathy among youth (Bennett &
Segerberg, 2012).
- Many young people feel disconnected from the political process, often citing a lack of
interest or trust in traditional political institutions.

b. Limited Access to Information

- Youth may face challenges in accessing unbiased and reliable political information,
which can hinder their ability to make informed decisions (Kahne & Middaugh, 2008).

c. Exclusion from Decision-Making

- Youth may perceive themselves as marginalized in decision-making processes, leading
to feelings of disempowerment (Zaff et al., 2010).

Youth Empowerment Programs

a. Youth Leadership Development

- Programs that focus on developing leadership skills and providing opportunities for youth
to take on leadership roles within their communities can empower young individuals
(Matsuba et al., 2013).

b. Civic Education
- Programs that aim to increase young people's understanding of politics, government,
and civic responsibilities.
- These programs can enhance political literacy (Galston, 2001).

c. Youth Advocacy and Activism

- Encouraging youth to engage in advocacy and activism can empower them to address
issues they care about.
- Programs like "Youth-led Advocacy" enable young people to make a difference in their
communities (Sherrod et al., 2005).
 d. Mentorship and Networking
- Connecting youth with mentors and networks can help them navigate the political
landscape and gain valuable insights (Campbell-Staton & Winder, 2017).

Digital Engagement and Technology

- The rise of digital technology has changed the landscape of political engagement for
youth.
- Online platforms and social media can be used to mobilize and empower young people
(Bimber et al., 2005).

Global Perspectives

- -International organizations like the United Nations have recognized the importance of
youth engagement.
- The United Nations' "Youth 2030" initiative aims to empower young people through
various programs and policies (United Nations, 2018).