GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN Skin Cells - also known as keratinocytes, are the

REPRODUCTION (Group 1) primary type of cells found in the epidermis, the

outermost layer of the skin.
Bone Cells - are the cells that make up bone
Somatic Cells tissue. Bone is a highly specialized connective
 account for all the cells of the body tissue with three main functions; to protect the
except reproductive cells. Other than internal organs, to create a rigid frame for
gametes, stem cells and germs cells, all muscular movement, and to store minerals such
the cells of a multicellular organism are as calcium and phosphorous.
known as somatic cells. Osteoprogenitor
 Diploid somatic cells undergo mitosis and
are responsible for growth, repair and - Osteoprogenitor cells (AKA osteogenic
regeneration cells) are the stem cells found in bone
tissue
Somatic Cells Types and Examples Osteoblast
 Blood Cells
 Muscle Cells - Generating cells
 Nerve Cells Osteocyte
 Skin Cells
- a mature bone cells
 Bone Cells
 Adipose Cells Osteoclast
Blood Cells - They are found on the surface of bone
tissue and originate from white blood
Red Blood Cells - are round with a flattish,
cells
indented center, like doughnuts without a hole.
Adipose Cells - also known as fat tissue or fatty
 Red blood cells
tissue, is a connective tissue that is mainly
 White blood cells
composed of fat cells called adipocytes.
 Platelets
 White
Muscle Cells - also known as a myocyte when
 Beige
referring to either a cardiac muscle cell or a
 Brown
smooth muscle cell, as these are both small cells.
2 Cells Kinds
Muscle cells develop from embryonic precursor
cells called myoblasts.  Connective Tissue Cell
 Intestinal Epithelial
 Smooth
 Cardiac Reproductive Cells
 Skeletal
- The main ‘building blocks’ are human
Nerve Cells - also known as neurons, are reproductive cells, known as gametes the
specialized cells responsible for transmitting term ‘gamete’ [derived from the Ancient
information within the nervous system. Greek word for marriage] implies that the
cell is half of a whole—it contains half of
 Sensory
the genetic material necessary to form a
 Relay/Interneuron
new human life.
 Motor
 1. Ovaries & Egg Cells Chromatid: A chromatid is each half of the
 It is the single-cell released from either of chromosome joined
the female reproductive organs, like
Secondary Constriction - In some chromosomes,
ovaries.
a second constriction, in addition to that due to
 The word ovum meaning in Latin is ‘egg’
centromere (primary constriction) is also
and the plural of the ovum is ova. Ova are
present. It is known as secondary constriction.
produced by both animals and land plants
like bryophytes. In 1672, the ovum Chromatin - is a genetic materia or a
meaning was first defined. macromolecule comprising of DNA, RNA, and
2. Testicles & Sperm Cells proteins which result in the formation of
 A sperm cell, also known spermatozoon, chromosomes within the nucleus of eukaryotic
is a gamete (sex cell) produced in the male organisms is termed as chromatin.
reproductive tract
 Spermatogenesis is the process of
creating sperm.
CHROMOSOMES - are thread-like structures
located inside the nucleus of animal and plant
cells.
- were first discovered by Strasburger in
1815 and the term chromosomes was
first used by Waldeyer in 1888.
- Human have “23 pairs” of chromosomes
TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES

Metacentric - Metacentric chromosomes have

Centromere - It is the primary constriction at the
center to which the chromatids or spindle fibers
are attached. Its function is to enable the
movement of the chromosomes during the
anaphase stage. It’s the position of the
centromere that helps us categorize
chromosomes into 4 types
the centromere present exactly in the center.
Both sections are metacentric chromosomes and
are therefore of equal length.
Example: Human chromosomes 1 and 3 are
metacentric.
Submetacentric - In Submetacentric
chromosomes, the centromere is not present
exactly at the center. The centromere is slightly
offset from the center. Both the sections are
therefore not of equal length or are
asymmetrical.
Example: Human chromosomes 4 to 12 are
submetacentric
Acrocentric - Acrocentric chromosomes have a
centromere that is highly offset from the center.
Therefore, one of the strands is very long and
one very short.
Example: Human chromosomes 13,15, 21, and
22 are acrocentric.
Telocentric - In telocentric chromosomes, the
centromere is present at the very end of the
chromosome. Telocentric chromosomes are
present in species such as mice. Humans do not
possess telocentric chromosomes.
Karyotyping - is the process of pairing and
ordering all the chromosomes of an organism,
thus providing a genomewide snapshot of an
individual's chromosomes.
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION (Group 2)
Cell Division - The series of activities that occur
within a cell that cause it to divide and duplicate
is known as cell division.
Cell division can occur through two main
mechanisms: mitosis, which produces two
identical daughter cells, and meiosis, which
produces four genetically diverse daughter cells.
Mitosis - is the process by which a single cell
divides into two identical daughter cells.
Meiosis - is the process by which a single cell
divides into four daughter cells, each with half
the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
HISTORY
Walther Flemming, a German biologists
Flemming, first noticed mitosis in 1878 while
examining the gill and fin tissue of salamanders.
Characteristics of Mitosis
 A single parent cell
undergoes mitosis to divide into two
genetically identical daughter cells.
 Mitosis is primarily utilized for cell
development and replacement of worn-out
cells.
 Only somatic cells, which are
all the cells in the body excluding the
reproductive cells, go through mitosis.
 There is no reduction in the
number of chromosomes during mitosis.
KEY TERMS:
Chromatin - refers to a compound of DNA
and proteins that makes up the
chromosomes present in the cells of higher
creatures like humans.
Chromatid - one of a chromosome's two
identical halves that has been duplicated in
order to be ready for cell division.
Chromosomes - A chromosome is a structure
found in the nucleus of cells that carries
genetic information in the form of DNA.
Centrosome - A centrosome is a small
organelle found in eukaryotic cells, which
functions as a microtubule-organizing center.
Spindle Fibers - The spindle fibers are
microtubules that separates the
chromosomes into two daughter cells.
Centrioles - Centrioles are cylindrical
organelles found in eukaryotic cells that are
involved in the organization of cell division.
INTERPHASE
- The cell prepares for cell division during
interphase while simultaneously going
through typical growth activities.
- The three interphase phases are
designated as G1, S, and G2.
Stages of Mitosis
- Prophase - Anaphase
- Metaphase - Telophase
DIPLOID CELLS
 - A diploid cell is a cell that contains 2 sets
of chromosomes that came from the
responsible sources.
PROPHASE
- During prophase, the chromatin in the
nucleus condenses into visible
chromosomes, which become visible
under a microscope. The centrosomes,
which are responsible for organizing the
spindle fibers, move to opposite poles of
the cell. The nuclear envelope breaks
down, allowing the spindle fibers to
attach to the chromosomes.
METAPHASE
- During metaphase, the chromosomes line
up along the equator of the cell, called
the metaphase plate. The spindle fibers,
which are attached to the centromeres of
each chromosome, ensure that the
chromosomes are properly aligned and
can be separated correctly.
ANAPHASE
- During this stage, the sister chromatids of
each replicated chromosome separate
and are pulled towards opposite poles of
the cell by the spindle fibers. This results
in the formation of two identical sets of
chromosomes at opposite poles of the
cell.
TELOPHASE
- During telophase, the chromosomes
reach the opposite poles of the cell, and
the nuclear envelope begins to reform
around each set of chromosomes. The
spindle fibers disassemble, and the cell
begins to prepare for cytokinesis.
CYTOKINESIS
- is the process by which the cell divides
into two daughter cells
MEIOSIS
- meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes
through similar stages and uses similar
strategies to organize and separate
chromosomes.in meiosis using a two-step
division process. Homologue pairs
separate during a first round of cell
division, called meiosis I. Sister
chromatids separate during a second
round, called meiosis II.
Meiosis 2, or the second division of meiosis, is a
process that occurs in sexually reproducing
organisms to produce haploid gametes (sperm
and eggs). It follows meiosis 1 and consists of
four phases: prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase
2, and telophase 2. During meiosis 2, the sister
chromatids formed in meiosis 1 separate,
resulting in the formation of four genetically
different haploid cells. These cells are then ready
to fuse during fertilization to form a zygote.
HORMONE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND ITS
FUNCTION (Group 3)
The Endocrine System is made up of glands that
make hormones. Hormones are the body’s
chemical messengers. They carry information
and instructions from one set of cells to another.
The Endocrine System influences almost every
cell, organ, and function of our bodies.
HORMONES - There are many types of hormones
that act on different aspects of bodily functions
and processes. Some of these include:
 Development and growth
 Metabolism of food items
 Serial fucntion and reproductive growth
and health
 Cognitive fuction and mood
 Maintenance of body temperature and
thirst
 Some of the major endocrine glandSome of
the major endocrine glands in the body
includes:
 Pituitary gland
 Pineal gland
 Thymus
 Thyroid
 Adrenal glands
 Pancreas
 Testes
 Ovaries
While, many parts of the body make hormones,
the major glands that make up the endocrine
system are the:
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary
 Thyroid
 Parathyroids
 Adrenals
 Pineal body
 The Ovaries
 The testes
The pancreas is part of the endocrine system
and the digestive system. That’s because it
secretes hormones into the bloodstream, and
makes and secretes enzymes into the digestive
tract.
Hypothalamus is in the lower central part of the
brain. It links the endocrine system and nervous
system. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus make
chemicals that control the release of hormones
secreted from the pituitary gland.
Pituitary gland is at the base of the brain, and is
no bigger than a pea. Despite its small size, the
pituitary is often called the "master gland." The
hormones it makes control many other
endocrine glands.
The pituitary gland makes many hormones
(anterior lovesick) such as:
 Growth hormone, which stimulates the
growth of bone and other body tissues
and plays a role in the body's handling of
nutrients and minerals
 Prolactin (Pronounced: pro-LAK-tin),
which activates milk production in
women who are breastfeeding.
 Thyrotropin (Pronounced: thy-ruh-TRO-
pin), which stimulates the thyroid gland
to make thyroid hormones.
Posterior lobe:
 Corticotropin (Pronounced: kor-tih-ko-
TRO-pin), which stimulates the adrenal
gland to make certain hormones.
 Antidiuretic (Pronounced: an-ty-dy-uh-
REH-tik) hormone, which helps control
body water balance through its effect on
the kidneys.
 Oxytocin (Pronounced: ahk-see-TOE-sin),
which triggers the contractions of the
uterus that happen during labor.
Pituitary also secretes endorphins
(Pronounce: en-DOR-fins), chemicals that act
on the nervous system and reduce feelings of
pain.
Thyroid
- Located in the front part of the lower
neck. It's shaped like a bow tie or
butterfly.
Parathyroids
- Attached to the thyroid are four tiny
glands that work together called the
parathyroids. They release parathyroid
hormone, which controls and regulate
the level of calcium in the blood with the
help of calcitonin which the thyroid
makes.
Thymus
- The thymus gland produces progenitor
cells, which mature into T-cells
(thymusderived cells). The body uses T-
cells to help destroy infected or
cancerous cells.
- T-cells created by the thymus also help
other organs in the immune system grow
properly.
Lymphoma a type of cancer that affects the
lymphatic system, it consists of lymph nodes
and vessels that carry a fluid called lymph.
ADRENAL GLANDS
- An adrenal gland is made of two main
parts:
The adrenal cortex is the outer region and
also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is
divided into three separate zones: zona
glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona
reticularis. Each zone is responsible for
producing specific hormones.
The adrenal medulla is located inside the
adrenal cortex in the center of an adrenal
gland. It produces “stress hormones,”
including adrenaline.
Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone that
plays several important roles. It helps control
your body’s use of fats, proteins and
carbohydrates. It also suppresses
inflammation, regulates your blood pressure,
increases blood sugar and helps control your
sleep-wake cycle.
Aldosterone is a hormone that regulates
blood pressure, pH, and electrolyte levels in
the blood, affecting the balance of sodium
and potassium in the body.
Pineal gland, also called the pineal body or
epiphysis cerebri, is a tiny gland in your brain
that’s located beneath the back part of the
corpus callosum. It’s a part of your endocrine
system and secretes the hormone melatonin.
Your pineal gland’s main job is to help control
the circadian cycle of sleep and wakefulness
by secreting melatonin.
SEX DIFFERENTIATION &
DEVELOPMENT (GROUP 4)
Sexual differentiation is a developmental
process by which genetic sex and gonadal
hormones determine the sex of the
reproductive tract and various secondary sex
characteristics, and influence the
development of brain structure and function,
including a variety of behaviors.
Chromosomal sex refers to an individual's
genetic makeup, determined by the presence
of sex chromosomes. In humans, the most
common chromosomal sex patterns are male
(XY) and female (XX)
Fertilization: During fertilization, the sperm,
which carries either an X or Y chromosome,
combines with the ovum that contains an X
chromosome.
Sex Determination: The combination of
these chromosomes determines the genetic
sex of the offspring - two X chromosomes
indicate female, while one X and one Y
chromosome indicate male.
Gonadal differentiation refers to the process
by which the gonads, which are the
reproductive organs responsible for
producing eggs or sperm, develop and
differentiate into either testes or ovaries.
This process occurs during embryonic
development in mammals, including humans.
Hormonal Sex - Hormonal sex plays a vital
role in sexual development by influencing the
differentiation of external genitalia and the
development of secondary sexual
characteristics.