On Pubescent Voice Change in Males

Harry Hollien, Gainesville, Florida

Summary: This review of adolescent voice change (AVC) in males is introduced by a brief historical overview of the
area. That effort is followed by a summarization of those core studies which describe the AVC process in the normal boy.
Although no new experiments are presented, a number of related investigations are organized into a cohesive base—one
that permits development of an AVC model The model, then, can be employed to establish a reasonable description of
the process by providing information about its initiation, duration, and completion. It also assists in establishing per-
spectives about pubescent voice change and a baseline for future research.
Key Words: Adolescent voice change–AVC–Pubescence–Adolescence–Male voice change.

‘‘I now would like to add an acknowledgment to this article; one about our editor: Robert T. Sataloff, MD. He is to be commended,
of course, for his fine development of our Annual Symposia and The Voice Foundation. But, more importantly, I would like to
salute him for his superb effort in building the Journal of Voice into a publication of international stature. This important accom-
plishment is deserving of recognition. Indeed, one of the primary reasons I wrote this article (at 84 years of age) was to acknowl-
edge his leadership. Please join me in commending him.’’

INTRODUCTION adolescence, and voice change. In response, it would appear

First, it should be made clear that there are three major groups
who legitimately study pubescent voice change. One group is
made up of the teachers who train and develop the singers,
the second consists of medical and clinical specialists who pro-
vide a remedial response to difficulties experienced by these
artists. The third, and newest, cadre are the scientists (voice
and phonetic) who are interested in—and study—the normal
process of pubescence and voice change. The essay to follow
will focus on the work of the third group (of which the author
is a member) in an attempt to pull the experiments on the nor-
mal process of adolescent voice change (AVC) into a cohesive
core that will permit the structuring of a predictive model. It is
recognized, however, that the other two groups have made
important contributions to the understanding of this process
and a number of them will be included in this review.
Second, why just males? For one thing, the present author is
a male and just as women are often interested in studying the be-
haviors of their sex; he cheerfully pleads guilty for being curious
about what happens to members of his own cadre. Also, he still
remembers the puzzlement he felt when, as a boy, he experienced
singing soprano one day and, then, being only able to sing bari-
tone at what seemed to be but a day later—that is, if one could
characterize the sounds he made as ‘‘singing.’’ Additionally, the
dramatic and (sometimes, anyway) seemingly haphazard vocal
events that occur during male adolescence often are more chal-
lenging than the more orderly process found in females.
Definitions
The behavioral events to be considered here can be identified in
many ways. Some of the more common names are pubescence,
Accepted for publication January 14, 2011.
From the Institute of Advanced Study of the Communication Processes, University of
Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Harry Hollien, Institute of Advanced
Study of the Communication Processes, 63 Dauer Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville,
FL 32601. E-mail: hollien@grove.ufl.edu
Journal of Voice, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. e29-e40
0892-1997/$36.00
Ó 2012 The Voice Foundation
doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2011.01.007
useful to establish some common ground—and ‘‘definitions’’
seems to be a good place to start. By this means, it maybe pos-
sible to boil down the subsequent discussion to one which is
both reasonable and has manageable boundaries.
As would be expected, generalized definitions abound. We all
have read or heard of many of them. Briefly, the process in gen-
eral involves that developmental segment of life which occurs
when the individual male changes his status from being a child
to that of a young adult. Many transformations occur during this
period, including somatic growth, maturation of the gonads, and
emergence of secondary sexual characteristics. In addition, met-
abolic changes occur in parallel with those cited, as do shifts in
psychological status and in other types of behavior.1 More to the
point, ‘‘pubescence,’’ which literally means ‘‘to grow hairy,’’ is
defined as that life stage when sexual status is changed and
maturity is reached. Adolescence, on the other hand, can be
defined as the period during which the characteristics associated
with childhood shift to those of an adult. Although technically
different, these two terms often are applied interchangeably.1
Moreover, the process is one that is recognized as (1) being quite
complex, (2) involving not just a smooth general growth pattern
but one that exhibits spurts and (3) being marked by varying
physiological and psychological changes. The problem is that,
although some of the correlates of adolescence have been estab-
lished, others have not. What is needed, specifically, is better
information about (1) the exact nature of these many changes,
(2) when they start, (3) when they are complete, and (4) the
interrelationships among them. Even more important, many of
these events are not well understood when a boy is considered
as an ‘‘individual.’’
Covering these many processes would involve a far greater
task than could be (or should be) attempted in this modest essay.
And, anyway, our common focus here is on the human voice
and its properties. Thus, the primary effort will be on the effects
of the pubescent process on a boy’s voice. It will be both on its
overall function and on those events specific to the individual.
One of the areas to be considered will be the (often) rapid low-
ering of speaking fundamental frequency (SFF or Fo). Even
e30
more to the point, the question will be asked if change in SFF
should be viewed simply as one of the many mutations which
occur during adolescence, or if it is in some way more funda-
mental to the process. That is, should voice change be of partic-
ular interest to us only because we are specialists involved in
some aspect of laryngeal operation, or can it be employed to
predict or describe pubescence in some manner? For example,
is it possible that voice change could be used to accurately sig-
nal the initiation and completion of adolescence? Perhaps it
can, perhaps not. Yet, there is indication that good
information about voice can provide us with a better under-
standing of a number of human behaviors.
Think not? Consider the patterns that can be seen in Figure 1.
They demonstrate how human voice frequency (Fo) generally
varies over life—and for both men and women. Here is an
instance where fundamental frequency alone can be used to
track, and explain to some extent, a specific human behavior.
That is, these data can be used to provide one of the foundations
for the male-female coalescence theory of aging.2 First, note that
the SFF levels for adult men and women have been reasonably
well established,3–10 and that the relationships also are clear-
cut—and for both sexes—with respect to old age.6,11–23 The
same maybe said for children.24–32 Now, observe those
portions of the curves where adolescence is represented. Here,
it is found that Fo drops to some extent in females and
dramatically in males. In turn, these changes provide the
contrasts, seen in later life, where SFF shift brings members of
the two genders back toward each other. Hence, Fo provides
one of the relationships that define the coalescence theory.
Can a similar relationship be established for pubescence?
FIGURE 1. Male-female SFF means and ranges as a function of age.
Note the greater drop for males at puberty and the convergence of the
male-female Fo trends for the elderly.
Journal of Voice, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2012
PERSPECTIVE
A little background
Almost any individual reading these words will have a reason-
ably good idea of where at least some of our interest in AVC
originated and how those concerns were passed on down
through the ages. For example, people engaged in training
young singers have always had a keen interest in the pubescent
process. So have medical and related caregivers. Moreover,
very young singers—both individually and those in choral
groups—have attracted people who simply enjoy listening to
this type of musical performance. Indeed, enthusiasms of that
kind reach back beyond recorded history. But what hap-
pened—‘‘back then’’—when children (especially boys) experi-
enced AVC? Sometimes it didn’t matter, as other singers would
emerge to replace those that were ‘‘lost.’’ In yet other cases,
women simply took over the roles of soprano and alto. But,
in some cultures, women were not allowed to perform, thereby
creating a problem. So, what was the response (in that case) on
the part of the decision-makers? Some groups pressured reli-
gious authorities to let women perform, some teachers worked
to prolong the adolescents’ ability to sing in the higher registers,
and others worked with tenors to develop their ‘‘falsetto.’’ Still
others simply attempted to ‘‘remove’’ the effects of pubescence.
That is, noting that most eunuchs retained their childlike phona-
tional range even though their bodies otherwise attained various
levels of maturity, certain individuals, in position to do so,
engaged in the barbaric approach of countering voice change
by castrating the child singer. After all, eunuchs had been serv-
ing as ‘‘guardians of the harem,’’ as chamberlains and in certain
other political positions throughout history and in such places
as Egypt, India, Persia, China, and Greece. So this practice
developed in Europe and flourished there during the Baroque
period (especially between the years 1600 and 1750) where it
is said that as many as 70% of the operatic singers were castrati.
Fortunately, this evil practice was largely eliminated in the 19th
century partly through the efforts of enlightened lawmakers and
partly by edicts of the Catholic Church.
But, what about more modern times? Here, teachers of sing-
ing appear to have concentrated on doing the best they could
with the material at hand (with reference to singers and pro-
spective singers). Nonetheless, a number of them still struggled
to understand the pubescent process and the nature of AVC. So
did a number of physicians and therapists. However, the prob-
lems faced by all of these groups were manifold. Relevant tech-
nology was either nonexistent or very crude, at least, until after
World War I. Moreover, teachers and clinicians had neither the
time nor the training to carry out sophisticated research.
On the other hand, many of the individuals within the cited
groups were both intellectually capable and observant. Hence,
generalizations about these processes began to emerge. To
illustrate, consider some of the cadaveric work, which was
conducted early in the 20th century. It permitted a better
understanding—generally anyway—of the overall growth of
the body and the larynx. Nonetheless, Kahane33,34 when
reporting on his breakthrough work in the area, indicated
that ‘‘only fragmentary data’’ resulted from all that effort. He
Harry Hollien On Pubescent Voice Change in Males
further suggested that most of it actually was drawn from
general anatomical texts—with even Gedgowd35 and Klock36
(who ‘‘described’’ adolescent laryngeal growth) neglecting to
provide very much useful detail.
Practitioners of other types also were active during this period.
Clinicians were especially interested in—and studied—such
behaviors as (1) voice breaks (sudden shifts from-and-to the
adult register), (2) ‘‘husky’’ voice (a condition sometimes found
in the voices of males during change), and (3) mutational falsetto
(ie, ‘‘the failure of a boy to change from the higher pitched voice
of preadolescence to the lower pitched voice of adolescence and
adulthood’’)37. As would be expected, singing teachers also were
interested in these same vocal problems and made contributions
to their understanding. However, it must be said that, although
these issues are much better understood today than they were
then, some controversy still exists relative to their actual source
and the best method for treating them.
As has been suggested, a substantial number of individuals
among professional singing teachers have been interested and
active in the area of voice change in youth and have endeavored
to classify the various stages of adolescent voice (see below).
They have done so especially in attempts to upgrade their teach-
ing and to avoid damaging their pupils’ voices. Numerous sys-
tems were proposed during the early part of the 20th century.
Some were insightful, others not very well structured—or,
even, potentially damaging. This general effort was expanded
after World War II when yet more useful information became
available. Some of the leaders during this period provided
insight and developed rather sophisticated concepts and/or sys-
tems.38–42 The cited trend appears to have somewhat peaked
with Cooksey43 but actually it continues on into the current
century.44
CURRENT RESEARCH
Early breakthroughs
It was not until after many centuries of effort, and thousands of
publications, that real progress began to be made in the study of
male pubescence and the vocal events associated with this phe-
nomenon.45 The rapid rise of technology, plus the emergence of
the scientific method, had a powerful influence on research dur-
ing the period around World War II. What resulted was a marked
upgrading of the quality of research. The publications shifted
from being mostly anecdotal and subjective (there were excep-
tions, of course, for example Fournier46) to efforts that were
more objective and databased.47–50
It was during that period when Pedrey51 attempted to respond
to some of the basic problems facing investigators who were
trying to discover when voice change started and when it ended.
His approach was to observe 1014 boys (sorted into 1 year cat-
egories) between the ages of 11 and 16 years. He gathered data
on such variables as perceived voice status (ie, subjective judg-
ments of vocal characteristics as they appeared related to pre-,
neo-, and postadolescence), height, weight, density of pubic
hair, voice breaks, and so on. Some rather useful information
resulted from this effort. For example, Pedrey compared sub-
jects’ actual age to three classes of ‘‘voice maturity’’; he then
e31
contrasted these same voice ‘‘measures’’ to three levels of
(observed) pubic hair growth. Among other things, he was sur-
prised to note that only four voice breaks were recorded during
more than 85 hours of oral reading by his subjects. Although
some useful insights into the voice change process were gained
here, not all of Pedrey’s measures were quantitative; hence, the
impact of his findings was a little diluted. Nonetheless, certain
of the somatic data aided investigators such as Tanner45 in their
contribution to the overall understanding of the area.
A different approach was adopted by Curry.52 He drew on the
‘‘sectional’’ research design employed by earlier scholars as
well as on technical progress that had occurred during the
1930s. The equipment he used, the phonellegraph,53–55 was
one of the very earliest devices where the fundamental
frequency of ‘‘cold running speech’’ could be measured
accurately. Curry designed and carried out a study on groups
of six each 10-, 14-, and 18-year-old males. He reasoned that
the first group consisted of prepubescent boys, the second of
boys ‘‘within’’ adolescence, and the last as consisting pretty
much of young adults. Because the groups were small
(obtaining phonellegraphic data, while accurate, was very
labor intensive), they were very carefully selected to be both
homogeneous and representative of their cultural group.
Height, weight, Intelligence Quotient, and about a dozen
measures of ‘‘vocal pitch’’ were obtained and reported. The
three groups exhibited mean SFF levels of 270, 242, and
137 Hz, respectively. This effort made a signal contribution to
the study of AVC if only on the basis of the classic display
that can be seen in Figure 2. As maybe observed there, male
pubescence can be typified over time in, at least, three general
dimensions—ie, by increasing height and weight curves and
a falling Fo curve. The project further solidified the ‘‘sectional’’
research pattern—one that many subsequent researchers would
follow. What it did not do was answer the basic question about
when AVC starts, when it ends, how long it takes, and most
importantly, what variability occurs among boys. Worse yet,
the labor-intensive aspect of the phonellegraph limited the
extent of data collection, and it would be many years before
efficient fundamental frequency trackers would become avail-
able. Hence, the limitations related to small subject groups
FIGURE 2. A figure summarizing the general shifts in male height,
weight, and SFF as a function of age during puberty. HT, height; WT,
weight.
e32 Journal of Voice, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2012

were numbered among the unintended consequences that so

TABLE 1.
often accompany research of this type. Comparisons of Northern White Boys (NW)52 Studied in
1940 and Southern Negro Boys (SN)70 Studied in 1962
An attempt to fill in a few of the blanks
Post World War II was a period of chaos in the area of voice; Age Height Weight Median
Group (mo) (in) (lb) Fo (Hz)
indeed, there were but few phonatory relationships that were
not open to dispute during that era. For example, a debate 10-y olds
existed as to how the vocal folds basically operated to initiate NW 120 54 66 270
phonation. So did another as to whether or not they were elon- SN 120 54 65 223
gated for frequency change during phonation. Both of these dis- 14-y olds
putes (and many others) had been going on for decades.48,56–62 NW 170 60 102 242
Actually, the Moore and von Leden60 work adequately SN 168 64 114 163
addressed the first of these issues, but it was not until 1960 18-y olds
that the debate about ‘‘vocal fold elongation’’ was resolved.63 NW 217 68 139 137
Perhaps most surprising (and hard to believe) was that it SN 216 69 138 124
was not until 1958 that Van Den Berg64 was able to provide Note: Fo variability ¼ NW: 1.56 tones; SN; 1.51 tones.
a cohesive defense of the myoelastic-aerodynamic theory of
phonation—one powerful enough to finally send the neurochro-
naxic theory and its followers into oblivion. tions.71,72 The first involved Southern white boys and the
The same kind of confusions existed in the domain of AVC. second Northern white boys; the groups (10-, 14-. 18-year
Of course, a number of investigators had been making contribu- olds) were selected on the basis of the same six rigorous
tions of various types,37,50,65–69 but it seemed reasonable that criteria as were the first two. Hence, direct four-way compari-
a follow up on both Pedrey’s and, especially, Curry’s work sons could be made.
would be fruitful. Accordingly, the sectional model was used The 10-year olds displayed no statistically significant varia-
to generate some information as to how the AVC process tion for any of the somatic or frequency measures. However, the
might relate to race, climate, and even nutrition. The first of three groups studied in the 1960s were more like each other
these studies contrasted blacks residing in the Southern part of (and bigger) than were Curry’s boys. Moreover, and as can be
the United States (ie, Waco, Texas) to Curry’s groups. seen in Table 2, the 1940 group of white boys exhibited SFF
Happenstance had a lot to do with both the initiation and the levels that were the highest of all groups—and the white boys
precision of this project.70 That is, the present author attended studied in 1965 and 1967 were more like the African-
Boston University with a man who later became the President Americans. The data modestly suggested that accelerated mat-
of the Paul Quinn College (an institution affiliated with the uration was occurring but about all that can be said is that all
African Methodist Episcopal church). He renewed his friend- four groups of preadolescents (ie, the 10-year olds) exhibited
ship with that individual when appointed as the faculty at Baylor generally childlike SFF.
University (also in Waco). The possibility of replicating Curry’s The 14-year olds presented a somewhat different picture.
work, but on southern blacks, came up during one of the lectures Again, no statistically significant differences were found
he gave at Paul Quinn, and the faculty at that institution among the groups but there was a slight trend for the three post-
provided the necessary expertise to make the project a success. war groups to be bigger than Curry’s. And, as can be seen from
Specifically, groups of six each 10-, 14-, and 18-years-old Table 2, the ‘‘modern’’ white boys displayed SFF more in a class
African-American males were assessed; their selection closely with the Southern blacks. However, the African-Americans still
paralleled that of the white subjects studied by Curry. That is, exhibited the lowest Fo. Even better evidence for accelerated
a rigorous selection process was used, one where subjects maturation (if not racial differences) maybe found in Table 3,
were within two months of their respective birthday and were where the boys who started and/or had completed voice change
representative (ie, close to median) of their age groups with
respect to (1) height, (2) weight, (3) reading ability, and (4)
speaking ability. Comparisons among the obtained data can be
found in Table 1, which summarizes the age, weight, height TABLE 2.
and mean Fo from both studies. While, it would appear that Median Fundamental Frequency Levels (in Hz) of Six
blacks experience voice change earlier than do whites (note Subjects in Each of the Four Studies52,70–72 of Three Age
especially their lower mean Fo at 14 years), the obtained results Groups
actually led to more questions than to answers. That is, did Study 10-y olds 14-y olds 18-y olds
a racial factor actually exist or were the differences because of
NWB-1 (1940) 270 242 137
(1) climate, (2) nutrition, and/or (3) time (over 20 years had
SNB (1962) 223 163 124
passed before the second study was initiated). SWB (1965) 248 199 128
In an effort to clarify the questions asked—rather than just NWB-2 (1967) 237 189 —*
obscure them, as this particular study may have done—the
* An 18-year-old group was not considered necessary for the fourth study.
Hollien-Malcik team carried out two additional investiga-
Harry Hollien On Pubescent Voice Change in Males
TABLE 3.
Number of 14-Year-Old Boys Who Have Not Started
Pubescent Voice Change and Have Either Initiated or
Completed It
Group Not Started Initiated Completed
52
NWB-1 (1940) 5 1 0 been validated and somewhat enhanced. They did not appear
SNB (1962)70 1 3 2 to support the Luchsinger/Perello postulate that residence in
SWB (1965)71 2 2 2 warmer climates would lead to earlier voice change. Of course,
NWB-2 (1967)72 2 2 2 it can be conceded that much of their original thinking was
are listed. This pattern also is in agreement with Pedrey’s51
estimates. Unfortunately, however, even when taken as a whole,
this compilation of four data sets did not provide clear-cut
answers to the questions posed about race, nutrition, and/or cli-
mate. Moreover, they did little to upgrade the information about
the limits, details, and dimensions of pubescent voice change in
the individual.
A larger effort
Influenced by Perello67 (J. Perello, Personal communication,
June 1963, August 1964.), the data cited above, and the devel-
opment of the present author’s electronic Fundamental
Frequency Indicator (FFI), he and his group shifted focus.
That is, they attempted to test the hypothesis that climate
change might be a factor that exerts an external but important
influence on AVC. However, before reviewing one of the very
large studies that resulted (see below), a brief introduction to
the FFI apparatus would appear useful. FFI73 was a system
that continuously extracted SFF from recorded speech and
analyzed the resulting (digital) frequency data. It did not sample
Fo but rather measured the individual waves obtained from
a series of first-stage, very sharp, low pass filters (ie, 75 dB
per octave). The subsequent stages consisted of A/D converters,
which monitored the filters and coupled only the lowest one
containing energy to the output system. As maybe seen in
Figure 3, the resulting display included a printed table of all
measurements (by semitone interval) and a histogram. It also
provided the geometric mean SFF in Hertz and semitone level
as well as the standard deviation (SD) in semitones. Other use-
ful measures and a series of built-in validity tests ensured accu-
racy. The processing of a one-minute speech sample took about
6 minutes, hence very large studies were possible.5,6,74
The investigation on AVC versus climate involved the collec-
tion of data on height, weight, mean Fo, and variability
(SD in semitones) for 491 boys residing in four countries.74,75
They were equally divided (roughly) into five groups of 12-,
13-, 14-, 15-, and 16-year olds. Of the total, 150 were
Swedish, 180 Dutch or Polish, and 161 Spanish. That three-
way sort permitted data to be obtained on subjects from cold,
temperate, and warm climates. Information concerning age,
medical and vocal history, speech and hearing defects, speaking
and singing training, and so on, was obtained on each volunteer
and used in the selection process. The major factors studied
were physical size and SFF. The speech materials were obtained
by having each subject orally read a standard passage in his na-
e33
tive language. This phonatory performance was recorded and
subsequently analyzed by FFI-8, a solid-state version of the
original FFI. The data most relevant to this review are summa-
rized in Table 4.
When the obtained relationships are analyzed, the best that
can be said of them is that the curves found in Figure 2 had
based on the emergence of menstruation in girls rather than
on some sort of observation of boys. Nonetheless, their general
hypothesis had been a logical one. It was just not supported by
the data to be found in Table 4. Indeed, AVC seemed to occur
earlier in those boys (ie, the Swedes) who were from a relatively
cold climate and then from those (Dutch, Poles) residing in tem-
perate domains. The Catalan boys from Spain tended to experi-
ence these changes later in life. Oddly enough, the three data
sets showed fairly close pattern alignment if not the expected
absolute levels—and some socioeconomic and cultural effects
may have been present. In short, this large study provided a rea-
sonable validation of some of the prior (and smaller) ones but
little support for them with respect to either the environmental
effects on the process or the developmental trends among the
boys themselves.
A SHIFT IN FOCUS
Longitudinal approach
It became apparent early on that, no matter how large and
sophisticated the sectional research project might be, the criti-
cal information about AVC would be unattainable until more
sophisticated research designs were carried out. Accordingly,
a large longitudinal study of boys was proposed, funded
(National Institutes of Health), and conducted. Although a num-
ber of interim reports—including attempts to develop an AVC
model—were made public,76–78 an extensive review of the
longitudinal data was not published until 1994.79
Basically, this project involved a large number of subjects
drawn from a group of 10.5- to 11.5-year-old boys residing in
Wichita, Kansas. All received physical, speech, and hearing
tests as well as other assessments. Ultimately, 65 of them met
all selection criteria and were included in the study. Specifi-
cally, they (1) had been born in the Mid-West region of the
United States and resided there during their childhood, (2)
exhibited a general American dialect, (3) were of middle-
class socioeconomic status, (4) exhibited test scores placing
them in average to above-average intelligence categories, (5)
evidenced average-to-good speaking ability, (6) were in gener-
ally good health, and (7) were free from speech or hearing dis-
orders. In all, 48 of the 65 selected completed the 5-year study.
Data were gathered on all subjects for up to 6 years (ie, the
grant period plus an extension). They were as follows:
1. Physical size: Height, weight, and six body dimensions.
Laryngeal size measures (by means of soft tissue
X-ray) had been proposed, but this procedure was not
e34 Journal of Voice, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2012

FIGURE 3. A printout from the FFI. The geometric mean of cold running speech is provided in Hertz and semitones and distribution variability (ie,
standard deviation) in semitones. Note also the quantitative and graphic displays.

funded because of the potential that such radiation might
be harmful to the boys.
2. Voice: The two major phonatory characteristics studied
were SFF level/variability and phonational frequency
range (PFR). As it turns out, the mean SFF measures pro-
vided the breakout data and will be featured in this
review.
3. Other: Voice breaks, husky voice, and mutational falsetto
also were tracked and noted, as were behavioral and gen-
eral health factors.
The research team consisted of the principal investigator,
a nurse, three research assistants, a speech pathologist (on call),
and a technician. A physician provided the initial examinations
and was then on call. All data were obtained in a comfortable
laboratory; that is, excepting for the voice recordings, which
were made in a sound-treated room. Laboratory quality micro-
phones and tape recorders were used; they were calibrated
before each set of trials. The SFF measures were obtained by
having subjects read the ‘‘Rainbow Passage’’80 at a normal
rate and energy level. Oral reading was selected to ensure that
Harry Hollien On Pubescent Voice Change in Males e35

more rapidly during the pubescent period than before or after,

TABLE 4.
Summary Table of 491 European Boys Between the Ages
(2) they sometimes exhibited growth spurts, but (3) not much
of 12 and 16 Years temporal specificity was possible. Second, voice breaks, hus-
kiness of voice, and mutational falsetto also were tracked.
Group Number Height Weight Mean SD Just as with Pedrey, Curry, and others, these events appeared
by Age of Subjects (in) (lb) Fo (Hz) (st*)
to occur but rarely and, when they did, they were mitigated
Swedish either by the passage of time or by the efforts of the speech
12 29 59 90 220 4.4 pathologist.
13 33 63 107 206 4.7 Finally, it had been hypothesized that Phonational Frequency
14 28 64 108 182 5.2 Range (PFR) might be useful as a baseline indicator of AVC.
15 33 67 121 168 5.2
Indeed, a number of investigators had attempted to quantify it
16 27 70 138 128 5.0
for this purpose.46,65–67,77,78,82 But when the present data
150 were assessed, the across-study patterns did not provide clear-
cut relationships. Of course, the differences in experimental
Dutch and Polish
procedure may account for some of this variance. Nevertheless,
12 30 59 87 270 3.6
several authors have suggested that PFR maybe restricted dur-
13 36 62 97 246 3.8
14 39 64 110 219 4.3 ing puberty. Indeed, a few of them postulate that PFR may even
15 44 68 122 169 4.7 be reduced to a level which signals the presence of voice pathol-
16 31 69 131 145 5.0 ogy. Their position in this regard was neither supported by the
present data nor for that matter, by the opinions of several of the
180
practitioners specializing in vocal music.41,83 On the other
Spanish hand, the greatest PFR here was observed to occur during the
12 24 59 93 347 4.1 adolescence process—ie, for the period of most rapid change
13 39 61 110 254 4.7 in AVC. This finding may be due to the fact that some
14 34 64 119 254 5.5 subjects phonated in two ‘‘voices’’ during that period (ie,
15 25 66 129 222 6.0 partly in the oncoming adult register and partly in their
16 39 68 135 212 5.9 prepubescent voice). These data are consistent with
161 statements found in the general vocal music literature that
The European boys were from four countries and placed in 1-year cate-
during adolescence the lower Fo boundary for males drops at
gories.74 a faster rate than does the upper. The patterns in the present
* semitones case (which are based on nearly 1000 trials) were found to be
stable, and their internal consistency was as good as that
reported by others.10,84 The data in expanded PFR ranges also
is consistent with the position articulated by certain
the speech materials analyzed were both constant across sub- musicologists that a boy’s physiological range maybe
jects and over time. The Fo level and variability data were somewhat extended during adolescence.41,85 Yet, these data,
obtained by use of FFI73; the PFR data by procedures outlined although possibly interesting, permit but little specification
by Hollien et al81 As anyone who has conducted longitudinal of AVC.
research will attest, good record keeping (and data backup)
was a challenge. It was especially difficult because most of
the data were gathered, stored, and analyzed before the days A MODEL BASED ON FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY
of adequate computer support. Nevertheless, no important The major contribution of the longitudinal project may now be
records were lost over the period this investigation took place. addressed. That is, much of the research conducted by the pres-
It will be remembered that the focus of this review is on the ent author, plus publications by other relevant specialists (see
possibility that the details of voice change can be captured for references), has led to the postulation that the Fo change param-
individual boys and, if so, that they then will be useful to the eter may serve to signal the start, extent, and completion of
understanding of AVC or, even, in documenting it. To a great AVC. Materials from the longitudinal project now permitted
extent, the validity of that concept was supported by the longi- this hypothesis to be assessed.79 They also could be used to
tudinal investigation. Thus, SFF will be the dominant element determine if, indeed, there was some sort of a useful correlation
in the discussion to follow. On the other hand, the reader may between AVC and adolescence. As it turns out, the cited
find other of the results useful (a more complete discussion hypothesis appears to exhibit reasonable validity. That is, it
about them can be found in the Journal of the Acoustical Soci- was found that SFF plots could be used for the purpose of
ety of America article79). But first, a short review of some of defining AVC.
these ‘‘other’’ issues may provide a reasonable perspective for To accomplish this, and develop the relevant model, a set of
the AVC data. basic criteria first had to be established. They may be best
The somatic measures primarily confirmed those reported understood by reference to Figure 4 where the actual initiation,
by many other authors. It was noted that (1) the boys grew extent, and completion, of the cited process, can be seen
e36
FIGURE 4. Graphic display of SFF for a subject experiencing AVC.
The onset can be identified by S and completion by E. AVC duration
for this male was about 22 months.
illustrated by the data-plot of a representative subject. Although
this particular example is for ‘‘N ¼ 1,’’ it should be stressed that,
even though the slopes exhibited for the other boys varied in
steepness (see below), the basic pattern seen in Figure 4 held
for all of the subjects.
To be specific, AVC onset (or ‘‘S’’ for start) can be identified
as the SFF peak, which was preceded by a generally flat—albeit
varying—pattern for a period of at least four months. This pat-
tern then had to be succeeded by a decreasing SFF with a slope
at a rate of approximately a semitone per month for a number of
months (usually 6 months or more). This SFF pattern could
be—and was—established as the ‘‘onset’’ criterion in the
AVC model, and as stated, it was met by all subjects who initi-
ated that process.
It was also possible to identify the termination of AVC as fol-
lows. End or ‘‘E’’ was defined as that point occurring at the low-
est measured fundamental frequency immediately preceding
a period of general frequency stabilization.
As a result, the AVC process was found to reflect a minimum
downward shift of 8–12 semitones. Modest reversals were
expected (but none were found in excess of about a semitone),
and these minor inversions were identified in about a third of the
subjects. The most common reasons for them appeared to be
colds or vocal abuse (cheering, shouting, or singing), which
occurred before the first of two runs (during the Fo decreasing
phase) but not for the subsequent one.
In short, it became possible to define AVC as that period
occurring between the frequencies identified at points ‘‘S’’
and ‘‘E.’’ That is, the initiation, duration, and completion of
AVC could be established for the subjects in the experiment,
and the defining vector was shift in SFF.
Journal of Voice, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2012
Age of onset
Some of the relationships provided by the model should be use-
ful. The first factor to consider is the age of AVC onset
(Figure 5). Forty-five of the 48 subjects who completed this pro-
ject were found to have initiated AVC by its end. The remaining
three had not done so by 15.5 years of age. Of those 45 who did,
the very first to initiate the process reached ‘‘S’’ at the age of 11
years and 7 months (ie, at 139 months). The mean age of onset
for all subjects was approximately 161 months (or about 13.4
years) with a standard deviation of 10.4 months. The mean
would have been a bit higher if the three subjects cited above
could have been included in the distribution. In any event, the
number of initiations peaked during the half year immediately
following the mean and only 6% of the subjects had not initiated
AVC by 15.5 years of age (ie, by the end of data collection).
These data led to the postulate that, while occasionally boys
may start AVC as early as 10.5 years of age or as late as 16.5
years, the majority will initiate the process sometime between
the ages of 12.5 and 14.5 years. Further, it was noted that these
data lacked a well-defined bell-shaped curve (Figure 5) even
though this might have been evident if a very large population
of boys could have been studied. To sum, the AVC initiations
were spread out over 3.5 years and exhibited a variable pattern.
Indeed, there were only four periods when as many as four boys
started the process.
Most of the relationships established by this analysis are con-
sistent with those reported by investigators using a sectional
approach even though theirs are not extensive enough to sup-
port a model. For example, the mean age of AVC onset, found
to be approximately 13.5 years, compared favorably with met-
rics reported (or predicted) by most authors37,66,70–72,74,83 with
the only marked exception being Curry.52 Also predictable was
the generally observed range of onset (10–16 years). The wide
variations found in this regard suggest that there is no specific
age—or narrow range of ages—at which AVC onset can be
judged normal or even typical.
FIGURE 5. Age of onset of AVC in months and years as reported in
a longitudinal investigation.79 The first of the boys initiated onset at
about 11.5 years; three additional boys had not initiated it until some-
time after 15.5 years.
Harry Hollien On Pubescent Voice Change in Males
On the other hand, the data from this investigation do not sup-
port opinions expressed by some practitioners that deviation
from a restricted range of AVC onset times suggests the pres-
ence of a voice disorder. That is, efforts to establish vocal health
or normalcy on the basis of the presumed appropriateness of
perceived pitch86 maybe more difficult to establish than had
been imagined previously. It also appears that suggestions
that onset of male adolescent voice should occur between the
ages of 13 and 14 years69,87 must be reassessed. It probably is
more useful to postulate that most boys will initiate AVC
somewhere between the ages of 12 and 15 years but that even
the minority who start earlier or later may also have normal
voices.
AVC duration
Data on the completion of AVC (coupled to the patterns found
for its onset) provide information not only on just when the pro-
cess ends but also about its duration. Even though, the data on
AVC completion are not quite as dramatic as those for onset,
they still support the model. In any case, while a few of the sub-
jects had not completely finished the shift by project’s end, it
can be estimated that adult SFF level, for most American
boys anyway, can be expected within the 5-year time frame
between the ages of 13 and 18 years. A range as extensive as
this one was not expected and, hence, this maybe one of the sev-
eral relationships, which have previously led to confusions
about adolescence and AVC. It also may constitute an area
where the model requires further testing.
As stated, the longer than predicted time that the average sub-
ject took to complete AVC was a little unexpected. As maybe
seen from Figure 6, the AVC durations, as exhibited by those
boys who had fully completed the process (plus estimates for
those for which they could be reliably identified), ranged
from 8 to 37 months; the mean duration of AVC was approxi-
mately 18 months. These results are not at all consistent with
the commonly held position that this process takes but 3–6
months to complete.37,50,65 Moreover, the experience of one
particular subject underscores the argument that completion
of AVC can take a very long period of time. It was possible
to track the subject even though he had not completed AVC
after the end of data collection. It took him over 3 years
(ie, 37 months) to stabilize at 110 Hz even though his voice
was clinically normal during the entire period.
First, these rather long durations are a little difficult to resolve.
Of course, some of the prior opinions about this relationship
could have been based on small samples, incomplete data, or
misinterpretations. Second, and on the other hand, it may be pos-
sible that the process was not noticed by the relevant profes-
sionals except during the period of maximum change. Rapid
shifts are bound to attract attention. Third, the shift from one reg-
ister to another is quite prominent in males (with reference to
both SFF and quality) and may signal change. Fourth, the
existence of ‘‘voice breaks,’’ or huskiness, observed in a few
males also may have contributed to the cited opinions. While
voice breaks, etc. probably do not last long, they undoubtedly
are quite noticeable when they do occur. Anyway, the data ob-
tained from this research are at odds with many of the previously
e37
FIGURE 6. AVC duration in months as reported in a longitudinal
study.79 The data are for the 35 subjects who had fully completed
the process and the eight subjects where reliable estimates could be
made. The data for the one subject who took 37 months are included
but he is not shown in the figure.
reported opinions. That is, the mean AVC duration of 18 months
reported here contrasts with the traditional viewpoint that it oc-
curs in males during a short period of time and any change last-
ing more than a year maybe pathological in nature.
To sum, the SFF material provided by the longitudinal inves-
tigation79 answers some of the basic questions about AVC in
normal boys. Most notably, a model is provided for assessing
that nature of voice change in the individual; it provides critical
details about both its maximum range (10.5–16.5 years) and
most common range (12.5–14.5 years). It also provides specifi-
cation about duration where the normal period can take over
3 years and exhibits a mean of 18 months. Those temporal
values are greater than those commonly expected, yet do not
signal the presence of voice disorders. In short, it should be pos-
sible to use the AVC model to better understand, and quantify
pubescence. Indeed, it should provide a testable hypothesis as
well as a base for future postulations and research.
External support for the model
Although endocrinological assays were not included among the
protocols for the project reviewed above, it was possible to com-
pare the AVC trends found there with certain data on hormonal
shifts gathered by others.88–91 Of the number reviewed, it was
Knorr et al,92 who best provided information about shifts in tes-
tosterone level related to adolescence. In turn, their data fur-
nished external evidence useful in validating the AVC model.
That is, their data could be adapted for direct comparison with
the AVC trends from the 1994 study.79 Specifically, the cumula-
tive testosterone function found in Figure 7 was adapted from
the Knorr et al92 data on 22 subjects. The estimates were made
by extending each subject’s curve (with reference to change in
testosterone) to bisect the baseline level. These intersects could
then be employed to predict age of pubescent onset. Although
the range for the testosterone data is somewhat greater than
that for AVC, the two curves are similar. Further, it should be
noted that the slope of the AVC curve probably would more
e38
FIGURE 7. A contrast of two methods by which the initiation of
puberty is identified; both are shown as cumulative frequency curves.
The first one, which was derived from measures of voice frequency, is
AVC. The other one tracks testosterone levels as shifts from their base-
line. The curve at the center top was extrapolated by adding the theo-
retical voice data for the three boys who had not initiated AVC onset by
the end of that study.
closely parallel that for the testosterone shift if the three subjects
who had not initiated onset could have been included in the mix.
In short, it can be argued that the testosterone data are consistent
with those from the AVC study and, hence, this convergence
tends to validate both. It appears, then, that the cohesiveness
of the AVC model (onset, duration, termination) permit it to
be used as a predictor of pubescent voice change—and, perhaps
even for the pubescent process in general.
OTHER ISSUES
Research on AVC continues even though it still tends to be scat-
tered among a number of issues. As in the past, many of the
studies tend to cluster in two areas (1) voice disorders—
especially those found in singers—associated with the pre-
sumed vocal instability, which may accompany pubescence
and (2) the upgrading of the teaching of adolescent singers
both on an individual basis and for choral performances.
Just as in the past, the medical practitioners and therapists
interested in the first of these problems tend to focus on pathol-
ogy. As would be expected, they are somewhat less interested in
the singers per se than with the possible presence of voice dis-
orders, and what to do about them; a legitimate approach, of
course. However, they also appear to suggest that although
baseline data about the dimensions of the pubescent process
(and/or voice change itself) would be useful, pathology is
paramount—especially if it interferes with the development
and/or quality of the subject’s singing voice. Good examples
maybe found in several recent articles. In one of them,93 the
research effort appeared to be focused on predicting AVC onset
to establish when to look for, and treat, the voice disorders that
accompany such mutation. Here, the voices of young singers
were examined using a variety of (mostly medical) techniques.
Perhaps detection of greater hoarseness, noise components,
jitter, shimmer, and the like in the voices of young male singers
Journal of Voice, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2012
can be used to signal the onset of voice change. On the other
hand, it would appear just as likely that these conditions would
result from other types of problems or occur after mutation
(ie, at varying times after the onset of AVC). These authors
also draw from earlier work94–96 in their attempts to code
mutation, its onset, and possible acceleration. Nonetheless,
although their contributions are important, they appear to
revolve around maintaining the vocal health of adolescent
performers. Note that Fuchs et al93 end their report by recom-
mending that young singers receive batteries of medical exam-
inations every 3 months during the period of possible mutation.
On the other hand, the research reported in the present review
involves the study of many hundreds of normal boys experienc-
ing AVC, and it can be used to suggest that voice disorders in
general are not common during that period of life. That is, it
may be possible that the high vocal usage and stress, associated
with performing, results in greater rates of vocal pathology
among the boys seen by the cited authors than among popula-
tions of nonsingers. Perhaps, the data provided by the longitu-
dinal AVC research, and the model associated with it, could
supply reasonable normative values for use by medical profes-
sionals in their work with, and research on, young singers.
The other general thrust involves research on the proper
training of singers and some of the behavioral changes that con-
stitute a challenge to voice teachers. Again, it might be helpful
for investigators to use the normative data now available as
a model upon which to base their classifications of pre-, neo-,
and postadolescence. Some authors, of course, have already
attempted to do so but have used older systems for this purpose.
For example, Harries et al97 tried to develop classifications
based on their work and by coupling Cooksey’s43,44 six-stage
structure with Tanner’s91 five-stage pubertal maturity index.
To be specific, they organized their research by means of the
combined Tanner-Cooksey systems in an attempt to model
the adolescent process. They were successful to some extent
in doing so. That is, they were able to fit a portion of their sing-
ing and speaking Fo data into the somewhat different structures
proposed by the other two investigators. Although they were not
able to resolve all the necessary dimensions, their results
appeared to permit them to better describe the pubescent pro-
cess as it related to vocal dynamics.
Finally, one line of inquiry that has seen a resurgence of
interest recently is that involving gaps in the PFR that can be
found in the voices of some adolescents.82,98,99 A similar
phenomenon—ie, gaps between registers—has previously
been reported in a large study on normal PFR.81 Although the
two issues do not appear to result from parallel vocal operations
or conditions, they do raise concerns for the vocal pedagogic
effort. In the first instance, it is important for teachers to be alert
to the problem in adolescent singers. In such case, they maybe
able to help male performers, who are well within the AVC pro-
cess (and have not left it), to cope with both the child’s singing
register and that of the adult. It would seem here that the teacher
and pupil could choose to focus on one ‘‘register’’ or the other.
In any case, the problem is one that teachers have to deal with
although it is not a permanent condition. Finally, the other
issue—gaps between registers in the adult (ie, between the
Harry Hollien On Pubescent Voice Change in Males
modal and falsetto registers)—may present a problem when the
teacher attempts to increase the students’ singing range.
A SUMMARY
Although there are many issues to consider by those of us who
are interested in the voices of adolescents—and many hundreds
more for those dealing with pubescence in general—our spe-
cialty area is currently experiencing good closure on some of
its enigmas. Treatment of many voice pathologies has coa-
lesced and become much more sophisticated. The education
of young singers exhibits progress at much the same level.
The work in this area by Experimental Phoneticians (including
Voice Scientists) also has resulted in good progress. Perhaps the
concepts that were detailed throughout this essay, and culmi-
nated in a model for AVC, can serve as one basis for the next
upgrade in at least some of the relevant areas. Certainly, the
baseline data provided about the key aspects of male AVC
should aid in the planning and conduct of research to be carried
out by investigators in all three of the areas cited. It certainly
should provide for better cohesion in future investigations.
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