External Corrosion of Oil and Gas Pipelines: A Review of Failure Mechanisms and Predictive Preventions

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External corrosion of oil and gas pipelines: A review of failure mechanisms and
predictive preventions
Article in Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering · April 2022

DOI: 10.1016/j.jngse.2022.104467
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1 External corrosion of oil and gas pipelines: A review of failure mechanisms
2 and predictive preventions
3 Muhammad Wasim*1 and Milos B. Djukic**2

*1
4 School of Engineering, Infrastructure Department, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010,
5 VIC, Australia
**2
6 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kraljice Marije 16, Belgrade
7 11120, Serbia
8 E-mail: * mwasim@unimelb.edu.au, ** mdjukic@mas.bg.ac.rs
9
10 Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, Volume 100, April 2022, 104467,
11 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2022.104467
12 Abstract
13 This paper presents an updated review of the external corrosion and failure mechanisms of
14 buried natural gas and oil pipelines. Various forms of external corrosion and failure mechanisms
15 such as hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), hydrogen embrittlement (HE), corrosion fatigue (CF),
16 stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) for oil and
17 gas pipelines are thoroughly reviewed. The factors influencing external corrosion and possible
18 forms of environment-assisted cracking (EAC) of pipeline steels due to external corrosion in the
19 soil are also reviewed analyzed in depth. In addition, the existing monitoring tools for the
20 external corrosion assessment and the models for corrosion prevention and prediction, failure
21 occurrence, and remaining life of oil and gas pipelines, are analyzed. Moreover, the articles on
22 external corrosion management, reliability-based models, risk-based models, and integrity
23 assessment including machine learning and fuzzy logic approaches, are also reviewed. The
24 conclusions and recommendations for future research in the prevention and prediction of external
25 corrosion are presented at the end.
26
Page 1 of 77 1
27 Keywords:
28 External corrosion; steel pipeline; stress corrosion cracking; hydrogen embrittlement; corrosion
29 management
30 Graphical abstract
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
46
Page 2 of 77 2
47 Nomenclature
AD Anodic dissolution HSLA High strength low alloys steel
AI Artificial intelligence IGSCC Intergranular SCC
AIDE Adsorption-induced dislocation emission ILI In-line inspection
APB Acid-producing bacteria LPR Linear polarization resistance
BM Base metal MCS Monte Carlo simulation
CAPP Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers M-E Mechano (stress)-electrochemical interaction
CF Corrosion fatigue
MIC Microbiologically induced corrosion
CP Cathodic protection
ML Machine learning
CR Coal tar coating
NACE The National Association of Corrosion Engineers
da/dN Crack growth rate
NDT Non-destructive testing
EAC Environment-assisted cracking
NFAD Notch-based failure assessment diagram
EBSD Electron backscattered diffraction
NNpHSCC Near-neutral pH SCC
ECDA External corrosion direct assessment
NS4 Near-neutral pH bicarbonate solution
EIS Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
PET Polyethylene tape coating
ER Electrical resistance probe
PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
FBE Fusion bonded epoxy coating
Reviews and Meta-Analyses
FEA Finite element analyses
RBM Risk-based maintenance
FEM Finite element method
SCC Stress corrosion cracking
FOSM First-order second moment
SEM Scanning electron microscope
FPZ Fracture process zone
SINTAP Structural integrity assessment procedure
HAC Subcritical hydrogen-assisted cracking
SMYS Specified minimum yield stress
HAZ Heat-affected zone
SRB Sulfate-reducing bacteria
HB Hydrogen blistering
SSC Sulfide stress cracking
HD Hydrogen delamination
TEM Transmission electron microscope
HE Hydrogen embrittlement
TGSCC Transgranular SCC
HEAC Hydrogen environmentally assisted cracking
HEDE Hydrogen-enhanced decohesion XRF X-ray fluorescence spectrometer
HELP Hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity WM Weld metal
HELP+HEDE Model of HE based on the HELP+HEDE UDC Underdeposit corrosion
HIC Hydrogen-induced cracking ΔK stress intensity factor range
HpHSCC High pH SCC β Safety index
HSC Hydrogen stress cracking
48
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49 1. Introduction
50 Oil and gas are the valuable resources driving more than 50% of the world’s energy today [1].
51 These two important resources are transported from one place to another by pipelines [2]. Steel is
52 the most commonly used material for pipelines transporting oil and gas which is highly prone to
53 corrosion [3]. Corrosion impacts quite significantly almost all the sectors of the economy and
54 industry including oil and gas pipelines [4].
55 Corrosion of pipelines transporting oil and gas resources represents a serious threat to the
56 economy [5,6]. Corrosion along with high operating pressures can significantly reduce the
57 service life of oil and gas pipelines [7,8] and their structural integrity [9]. Although, there are
58 many grades of carbon steel (such as A, B, or C) for oil and gas pipelines per ASTM
59 Specifications A-53 and A-106, and API Standard 5L [10], the failures of high strength low alloy
60 (HSLA) API 5L X grades of pipeline steel (X42-X100) are the most widely reported in the
61 literature [11-13]. The corrosion on the exterior surface of oil and gas pipelines that can induce
62 significant damages over their lifetime is often given less consideration as compared to the
63 internal corrosion for which most protection is provided in practice. The damages caused by the
64 external corrosion together with the internal material flaws can provoke sudden catastrophic
65 failure of pipelines [14]. Hence, controlling corrosion of the exterior surface of the oil and gas
66 pipelines for their integrity assurance is deemed necessary.
67
68
69
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72 1.1. External corrosion, a concise overview
73 The comprehensive review articles [14-17] and technical reports [18] on the external corrosion
74 of the bare and coated oil and gas pipelines are still rarely published in the literature. Norsworthy
75 [19] reported in 2009 on the external corrosion of pipelines that were coated and cathodically
76 protected through several industrial case studies. Recently, a review article is published in 2021
77 by Kim et al. [20] on the influencing factors affecting external corrosion of the underground
78 coated steel pipelines. Although, there are mitigation strategies for the external corrosion of oil
79 and gas pipelines such as coating, lining, and cathodic protection [21-23] including the
80 recommended standard practices, the frequent failures of these pipelines, are reported.
81 The older standard practices for control and assessment of external corrosion are NACE SP0169-
82 2007 [24], ANSI/NACE SP0502-2010 [25], together with recently introduced practices by the
83 Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) from 2018 [26], and WG TP-72 from
84 2020 published by the Technical Association of the European Natural Gas Industry - Marcogaz
85 [27]. Nevertheless, these documents provide very little information about how and when external
86 corrosion of pipelines can develop [19]. External corrosion of oil and gas pipelines is a time-
87 dependent damage mechanism. The degree of external corrosion strongly depends on the age of
88 the pipeline and whether and how they are externally protected. It is usually prevented by
89 coatings and cathodic protection (CP) systems. Older natural gas pipelines in the USA, in some
90 parts, are uncoated or only have coal tar or enamel wrap types of coating [28].
91
92
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95 The external corrosion of the uncoated oil and gas pipelines can initiate once the protective
96 oxide, i.e., passive layer on their external surface, is locally damaged, removed, or destabilized
97 by corrosion stimulating factors of the soil. Also, mechanical factors, including some other
98 external factors, for example, crevice corrosion, localized corrosion, etc., are responsible for
99 external corrosion [29-32]. The exterior surface of the buried oil and gas pipeline exposed to the
100 external environment (soil) can undergo various forms and types of corrosion. Crevice corrosion
101 typically forms crevices [33], pitting corrosion can lead to leaks, holes, and gouges on the
102 external surface of pipelines [34], while galvanic corrosion induces uniform section loss [35,36].
103 Besides, the external surface of buried oil and gas pipelines is often subjected to stress corrosion
104 cracking (SCC) due to the combined action of tensile loads and various corrosion processes [37].
105 The sudden catastrophic fracture of the steel pipelines can occur due to SCC. Moreover, the
106 intensity of the environment-assisted cracking (EAC) due to the SCC is further increased upon
107 hydrogen evolution. The very complex process of stress-driven hydrogen diffusion followed by
108 its locally high accumulation at the fracture process zone (FPZ) leads to hydrogen embrittlement
109 (HE) [38,39]. The hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC) is often referred to as HE-controlled SCC
110 and can also cause serious degradation of the mechanical and microstructural properties [40,41]
111 of the pipeline steel for oil and gas transportation [42]. Moreover, hydrogen evolving from the
112 reactions during various corrosion processes of steel has been found to simultaneously cause two
113 characteristic HE mechanisms in pipeline steels. Those are hydrogen-enhanced localized
114 plasticity (HELP) and hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE) [39,42-44].
115
116
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119 The combined action of both HE mechanisms, according to the HELP + HEDE model of HE,
120 can alter and degrade the macromechanical properties of pipeline steel [39,42,44,45].
121 Furthermore, other hydrogen damage mechanisms like hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC)
122 [44,46,47], see Fig. 1, hydrogen blistering (HB), and hydrogen stress cracking (HSC) [48] can
123 also seriously impact the structural integrity and reliability of corroded pipelines. Thus, SCC
124 along with HE and various hydrogen-induced damages represents a serious threat to the
125 reliability of oil and gas pipelines and other steel equipment in related industries. Apart from
126 SCC and various hydrogen damage mechanisms, external corrosion-induced fatigue (CF) and
127 microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC), are also key concerns.
128
129
130
131
132
133 Fig. 1 Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC): The stepwise crack form in the pipeline by shearing
134 the ligaments between the HIC cracks [47].
135
136
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139 1.2. Corrosion management by prevention and prediction
140 Considering the aforementioned concise overview of external corrosion, it is obvious that there is
141 a limited number of published review papers on the external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines.
142 This refers particularly to the numerous influencing factors for external corrosion and multiple
143 active corrosion mechanisms. It appears that the recently proposed paradigm shift in corrosion
144 management from protection to prevention and prediction [49], particularly for external
145 corrosion of buried onshore oil and gas pipelines, represents a necessary and effective next step
146 for better corrosion management. Currently, the corrosion management of the oil and gas
147 industry is mainly focused on the applications of various coating and cathodic protection (CP).
148 Norsworthy [19] stated, based on the several case studies, that external corrosion incidents of
149 pipelines were due to the deterioration-disbandment or improperly applied coal tar (CR) and
150 fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings, at various CP polarized potential and measured pH values
151 under the coatings, Fig. 2 and Table 1 [19]. The industrial practices indicate that when NACE
152 SP0169-2007 standard criteria for high CP polarization potential are satisfied ("a negative -
153 cathodic potential of at least -850 mV with the CP applied") [19,24], or even at a lower value of
154 applied CP polarization potential (-480 to -340 mV), external corrosion has appeared on
155 pipelines with defective coatings [19], Fig. 2(b-c) and Table 1. Several other researchers, also
156 emphasized that various coating defects and anomalies (deterioration, disbandment,
157 delamination, blistering, improper applying, etc.) can provoke localized external corrosion
158 (pitting, crevice, intergranular cracks, etc.) of buried pipelines. For more details check Wasim et
159 al. [50] and Castaneda and coauthors [51,52].
162
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163 The initial coating damage stage (water uptake from the soil), through four phases, leads to the
164 final stage of complete local coating deterioration followed by initiation and propagation of the
165 localized external corrosion damage in the unprotected pipeline wall, Fig. 3 [20]. The external
166 corrosion damages could occur due to the activation of several corrosion mechanisms and
167 intensive local electrochemical dissolution of the metallic substrate underneath the defective and
168 disbanded coating. Khan [53-55] and his team from the Centre for Risk, Integrity and Safety
169 Engineering (C-RISE), Canada, broadly investigated and reported on the safety, risk assessment,
170 and advanced maintenance strategies of coated pipelines exposed to microbiologically influenced
171 corrosion (MIC) and other corrosion mechanisms. The SCC crack initiation and propagation in
172 buried steel pipelines, including transgranular and/or intergranular SCC (TGSCC and/or
173 IGSCC), are recently reviewed by Chen and researchers [56-58] from the University of Alberta,
174 Canada. The disbandment of coatings can be caused and enhanced by above mentioned
175 dangerous electrochemical corrosion mechanisms, and also due to mechanical damage of
176 coatings [59]. The mechanical damage leads to less severe coating failure, depending on the
177 stress level in coating and the coating cohesive and adhesive strength values including their
178 relationship.
179 The internal pipeline corrosion incidents are statistically more likely to occur while their well-
180 established procedures for the quantifications and predictions are outside the scope of this paper.
181 The economic viability and true advantages of the suggested paradigm shift in external corrosion
182 management from protection to prevention and prediction, presented and promoted in this paper,
183 are still not fully confirmed.
186
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187 This topic (economic viability of the suggested paradigm shift) is not further analyzed.
188 Accordingly, this paper is structured to shade more light and provide a comprehensive analysis
189 of external forms of corrosion, including all multiple corrosion mechanisms and their prevention
190 and prediction. The particular emphasis is on the various interrelated factors influencing external
191 corrosion. The numerous articles covering various topics including factors influencing external
192 corrosion of oil and gas pipelines, corrosion failure mechanisms, predictive models and
193 prevention techniques, are presented.
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201 Fig. 2 Damaged coatings: a), b) coal tar (CR) coating; and c), d) fusion bonded epoxy (FBE)
202 coating, as a cause of external corrosion of the pipelines: a) and d) No corrosion; b) and c)
203 Corrosion [19].
206
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207 Table 1 Case studies, external corrosion of the pipeline due to the defective coating [19].
Case Coating CP polarization The pH values State of the External

study type potential value (mV) under the coating coating corrosion
1, Deteriorated -
Coal tar (CR) -480 to -340 10 No
Fig. 2(a) disbandmend
2, Deteriorated -
Coal tar (CR) -480 to -340 5 Yes
Fig. 2(b) disbandmend
3, Fusion bonded Not properly
Exist - Yes
Fig. 2(c) epoxy (FBE) applied
4, Fusion bonded Disbandment
-850 9-12 No
Fig. 2(d) epoxy (FBE) and blistered
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215 Fig. 3 The four-stage coating damage evolution process and the external corrosion of the pipeline
216 [20].
217
218
219
222
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223 2. Methodology
224 2.1. Literature review
225 The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines
226 and meta-analysis procedures [60] were adopted for the systematic review of the corrosion of the
227 exterior surface of oil and gas pipelines. The Scopus search along with Google Scholar search
228 was used to find papers on the external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines.
229 The highest number of publications on the topic of external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines
230 was published in Engineering Failure Analysis (67), followed by International Journal of
231 Pressure Vessels and Piping (52), Corrosion (35), Corrosion Science (30), Journal of Natural Gas
232 Science and Engineering (23), etc.
233 2.2. The framework for the investigation of external corrosion
234 The framework for the investigation of external corrosion applied in this paper is mainly based
235 on the research challenges connected with two critical and still not fully resolved questions.
236 These two crucial questions necessary for the implementation of enhanced prevention and more
237 effective prediction of external corrosion are; how and when external corrosion can develop. The
238 answers to both of these questions are directly related to an in-depth understanding of complex
239 conditions that contribute to the initiation and development of external pipeline corrosion. The
240 initiation of various external forms of corrosion is conditioned by numerous and often
241 interrelated influencing factors.
242
243
Page 12 of 77 12
246 These factors are established during long-term exposure of buried steel pipelines to the highly
247 corrosive environment (soil). The development of localized external corrosion damage
248 mechanisms of pipelines, including SCC, HE, other hydrogen damage mechanisms, CF, and
249 MIC, and the intensity of the EAC, is conditioned by complex interactions established in the
250 system material-corrosive environment (soil)-stress conditions.
251 Based on the review approach adopted in this research and premises stated in section 1 about the
252 necessity for the shift in the paradigm of external corrosion management from protection to
253 prevention and prediction, the paper is divided into the following key sections:
254 • Section three (Factors influencing external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines) presents the
255 articles pointing at the factors influencing the external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines.
256 The investigated causes of external corrosion are discussed with reference to the
257 literature. An extensive focus is laid on the major factors affecting external corrosion of
258 buried pipelines, external visual forms of corrosion (section 3.1), and the corrosiveness of
259 soil (section 3.2).
260 • Section four (External corrosion-induced failure mechanisms) discusses in-depth the
261 mechanisms that can govern the failures of oil and gas pipelines. Stress corrosion
262 cracking, hydrogen embrittlement, and other associated corrosion damage mechanisms
263 are comprehensively discussed.
264 • Section five (Prediction models for the external corrosion and failure of oil and gas
265 pipelines) discusses various models, methods, and modern techniques for the prediction
266 of external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines.
Page 13 of 77 13
269 • Section six (Corrosion monitoring of pipe’s exterior surface and protection) presents the
270 devices and equipment commonly used for the external corrosion monitoring and failure
271 estimation of oil and gas pipelines. Also, the effects of corrosion on the microstructure,
272 chemical composition, and mechanical properties of the material are briefly discussed. In
273 addition, a very brief description of protection by coating has been provided.
274 • Section seven is the concluding section (Conclusions and recommendations) and presents
275 the summary of the findings together with recommendations for future research on the
276 external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines including prediction and prevention.
277 3. Factors influencing external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines
278 For the analysis of factors influencing external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines, it is important
279 to examine both various external forms of corrosion (section 3.1) and governing corrosion
280 mechanisms (section 4) responsible for their appearance on the external surface of buried
281 pipelines. Also, particular emphasis is given to the corrosiveness of soil to which buried steel
282 pipelines are exposed (section 3.2).
283 A clear distinction is made between so-called "classification I of corrosion": visual forms of
284 external corrosion (section 3.1), and "classification II of corrosion": external corrosion-induced
285 failure mechanisms (section 4) that provoke visual forms of corrosion. Such distinction provides
286 a more in-depth perception and understanding of factors influencing external corrosion (I: forms
287 and II: mechanisms) of buried pipelines. This is a necessary prerequisite for the proposal of
288 suitable measures for corrosion prediction and prevention.
289
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292 Visual forms of external corrosion are explained in the next section 3.1 entitled "Forms of
293 corrosion on the pipe’s exterior". Various external corrosions mechanisms, including SCC, HE,
294 HIC, CF, MIC, etc., are comprehensively reviewed in section 4 entitled "External corrosion-
295 induced failure mechanisms".
296 3.1. Forms of corrosion on pipe’s exterior surface
297 Various forms of corrosion can take place on the exterior of the oil and gas steel pipelines due to
298 many factors. The predominant material factors are steel metallurgical compositions and
299 mechanical properties. The typical external environment (soil) factors are its chemical and
300 physical characteristics and accompanied electrochemistry, such as contents of chloride, oxygen,
301 sulfur, and sulfate contents [29]. The characteristic forms of external corrosion of bare and
302 coated oil and gas pipelines are summarized and presented in Fig. 4. Sharp forms of corrosion on
303 the external pipe surface, particularly corrosion pits but also crevices with an extended depth of
304 penetration and much lower width, represent sharp stress concentrators. The various forms of
305 corrosion attack make the pipeline’s wall vulnerable to failure and rupture, Fig. 4.
306
307
308
309
310 Fig. 4 The characteristic forms of external corrosion of bare and coated oil and gas pipelines.
Page 15 of 77 15
313 At the bottom of these sharp external corrosion damages, environment-assisted cracks (EAC) can
314 typically initiate. Then they spread as intergranular or transgranular cracks (Fig. 4: crevice and
315 under deposit corrosion cases) through the pipeline wall provoking the final rupture of the
316 pipeline. The macro views of characteristic forms of external corrosion of bare and coated
317 pipelines, as per classification shown in Fig. 4, are shown in Fig. 5. The prerequisite for the
318 initiation of various forms of external corrosion is the local damage and removal of the
319 protective oxide layer on the pipeline's external surface. This is due to electrochemical processes
320 in contact with corrosive soil and due to mechanical factors (high stresses) [23,59]. A review of
321 the most occurring external forms of corrosion and influencing factors are presented in this
322 section. Apart from the uniform and local forms of external corrosion (Figs. 4 and 5), the
323 differential cell corrosion and its variants, galvanic coupling, and crevice corrosion together with
324 under deposit corrosion, delamination-bulging, and coating related corrosion are presented.
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
Page 16 of 77 16
335 Fig. 5 The macro views of characteristic forms of external corrosion of bare and coated oil and
336 gas pipelines: a) Uniform corrosion [61]; b) Pitting corrosion [61]; c) Crevice corrosion [62]; d)
337 Underdeposit corrosion [63]; e) Delamination-bulging, hydrogen blisters [64]; f) Coating
338 damage - local crevice corrosion [19]. See Fig. 4 for the schematic, cross-sectional representation
339 of all presented characteristic forms of external corrosion.
340 Differential cell corrosion. It is one of the most common forms of external corrosion of buried
341 oil and gas pipelines. The various factors like (i) the non-uniform distribution of oxygen
342 concentration in soil; (ii) moisture content; (iii) different types of soils and their characteristic
343 (pH differences, or difference in the concentration of chlorides or other corrosion aggressive
344 ions); (iv) and various depth and location of buried pipelines, lead to this form of corrosion
345 [16,50]. The variation of stated factors provokes the formation of aerations cells that lead to the
346 formation of anodes (an area where corrosion losses take place) and the cathodes (an area where
347 reduction takes place i.e., oxygen is oxidized). For example, the pipeline corrosion potential
348 passing through two dissimilar soils is different. The corrosion potential in the clay soil is more
349 negative than in the sandy soil, resulting in a local increase of external corrosion rate of the
350 pipeline section in the clay soil, Fig. 6 [16].
351
352
353
356
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357 Fig. 6 Differential corrosion cells, provoked by soils with different compositions [16]. A local
358 increase of external corrosion rate of the pipeline section in the clay soil.
359 Galvanic coupling. The phenomenon of galvanic corrosion, as another example of a differential
360 corrosion cell, occurs when two dissimilar alloys are in contact, assembled, and subjected to
361 external stimuli [65]. The clamps and the pipelines could be made of different types of steel, i.e.,
362 stainless steel (clamps) and mild steel (pipeline). This results in galvanic coupling and corrosion
363 upon exposure to a corrosive environment. The factors that contribute to the galvanic coupling
364 can be (i) moisture; (ii) pH value; (iii) diffusion of oxygen and hydrogen, etc. [66]. Alloying of
365 oil and gas pipeline steels with chromium in adequate quantity can provide enhanced resistance
366 to this form of corrosion [67]. It is important to note that the formation of localized galvanic
367 couples (macro- and micro-cell corrosion) in the pipeline can be due to the local microstructural
368 changes of steel during welding. This is due to the inhomogeneous distribution of the steel
369 microstructure in base metal (BM), weld metal (WM), and heat-affected zone (HAZ) [68].
370 Uniform corrosion. This external form of corrosion causes sectional losses which are not
371 localized. Instead, a large uniform area of the pipeline can corrode [36], Figs. 4 and 5(a). There
372 are several factors inducing uniform corrosion like (i) pipe’s surface condition; (ii) soil pH value;
373 (ii) moisture variation; (iii) external temperature; (iv) material composition; (v) salts content, etc.
374 [29]. Uniform corrosion is less severe in terms of intensity and associated degradation as
375 compared to the other, particularly localized forms of corrosion. However, uniform corrosion can
376 be simultaneously active together with other aggressive localized forms of corrosion (pitting and
377 crevice). Therefore, it can also induce sudden corrosion failure of the oil and gas pipelines.
Page 18 of 77 18
380 Pitting corrosion. It is a form of localized corrosion that causes serious localized damages on the
381 external surface of oil and gas pipelines, Figs. 4 and 5(b). The rupture of a pipeline wall and
382 leaks are often caused by pitting corrosion. Tiny pits can concentrate and merge forming
383 corrosion patches on the external surface of pipelines resulting in the significant loss of the
384 pipeline wall section. Various corrosion damage mechanisms (see section 4) can provoke
385 visually similar external pitting corrosion. There are also several additional factors causing
386 pitting corrosion, apart from those previously mentioned for uniform corrosion, like (i) bacterial
387 activities (MIC); (ii) exposure to acidic and other corrosion aggressive chemicals in soils, etc.
388 [5].
389 Crevice corrosion. This form of localized corrosion is visually similar to galvanic coupling but it
390 can also appear between metal and non-metal (coatings) [69], Figs. 4 and 5(c). It causes the
391 formation of corrosion patches, which growth, coalescence, and high depth of penetration can
392 induce pipeline wall rupture (see Fig. 5(c)). The contributing factors for the crevice corrosion of
393 oil and gas pipelines can be (i) roughness of pipe’s exterior surface; (ii) pipe’s chemical
394 composition; (iii) pH and moisture variation of the exterior environment; (iv) oxygen transport;
395 (v) metal and non-metal coupling; and (vi) exposure to salts, specifically chloride-containing [4].
396 Under deposit corrosion, Delamination-bulging, and Coating damage-local corrosion. Under
397 deposit corrosion (UDC) represents a serious risk for oil and gas pipelines, Figs. 4 and 5(d).
398 Often called "cell corrosion", it is typically highly aggressive causing deep and penetrating
399 localized corrosion attacks [63]. The characteristic forms of external corrosion under deposits are
400 intensive pitting, crevices, and corrosion gougings on the pipe external surface.
Page 19 of 77 19
403 Typically, a much lesser uniform corrosion attack appears in the surrounding areas without
404 deposits. This form of external corrosion can be provoked by different electrochemical corrosion
405 mechanisms, including very dangerous MIC [58,70]. The degree of UDC attack depends on the
406 (i) local soil chemistry; (ii) active electrochemical and combined deposit-enhanced corrosion
407 mechanisms; (iii) concentration of corrosive ions under deposits; (iv) composition, morphology,
408 and structural characteristics of the deposits; and (v) physical and chemical characteristics of the
409 deposits [71]. External delamination-bulging of the pipeline, also called hydrogen blistering,
410 Figs. 4 and 5(e), is a typical hydrogen damage mechanism. This external form of corrosion is
411 explained and analyzed in the next section 4 (4.1 Hydrogen damage) about the corrosion
412 mechanisms.
413 Coating damages that provoke local external corrosion, Figs. 4 and 5(f), were already analyzed
414 within the previous section 1.2. More details are presented in Table 1 which summarizes
415 different case studies of external corrosion of the pipeline due to the defective coating (see also
416 Fig. 3).
417 3.2. Soil corrosiveness
418 The particular areas on the external surface of the buried pipeline act as cathodes and anodes
419 forming an electrochemical corrosion cell. The typical electrochemical corrosion cell, and both
420 anodic and cathodic reactions in the system moist soil electrolyte - the metallic buried pipeline, is
421 shown in Fig. 7 [20]. Recently, Arriba-Rodriguez et al. [72] have pointed out the complex
422 interrelations of soil corrosiveness factors affecting the corrosion rate of oil and gas pipelines
423 buried in the soil, Fig. 8.
Page 20 of 77 20
426
427
428
429
430
431
432 Fig. 7 Electrochemical corrosion cells and corrosion reactions of a buried steel pipeline in the
433 moist soil. Adapted from [20].
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443 Fig. 8 Interrelations of soil corrosiveness factors affecting the corrosion rate of oil and gas
444 pipelines buried in the soil. Adapted from [72].
445 The corrosivity of the soil increase with the high moisture and salt contents, as well as with an
446 increase of dissolved oxygen content in the soil [50].
Page 21 of 77 21
449 Also, the differences in soil characteristics in contact along the pipeline length, and from top to
450 bottom, including moisture content, aeration, and chemical composition, provoke the formation
451 of electrochemical corrosion cells. So formed corrosion cells are a strong driving force for
452 external corrosion [18]. More recently, Kim et al. [20] have summarized the global (macro) and
453 local (micro) soil parameters/factors and their relationships that influence the external corrosion
454 of pipelines buried in the soil using the multi-scale model approach. They defined the ranges of
455 selected multiscale corrosion parameters, including macro parameters such as (i) the type of the
456 soil; (ii) soil temperature; (iii) pipeline topography; and (iv) liquid precipitation. Further, they
457 reviewed critical parameters and defined the boundary macro-micro parameter, i.e., moisture
458 content/distribution, and also various soil micro parameters such as (i) particles size; (ii)
459 resistivity; (iii); pH value; (iv) moisture saturation; and (v) content of inorganic species (chloride,
460 sulfate, bicarbonate, etc.). Finally, they emphasized that analyzed parameters-factors, dominant
461 on both micro- and macro-scale, can influence external corrosion processes, both directly and
462 indirectly.
463 Chloride ions. It is a highly corrosive ion that is present in the ground and marine environment.
464 Buried pipelines exposure to this corrosive ion is very common. Some corrosion-causing bacteria
465 in soil and marine water need chloride ions for their survival. Chloride ions endanger the
466 protective passive layer on the metal surface [50] causing localized external corrosion of
467 pipelines. The varying quantity of chloride in the soil can also lead to the formation of
468 differential corrosion cells and intensify the electrochemical corrosion of buried oil and gas
469 pipelines.
472
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473 Song et al. [73] concluded that the chloride ions in soils significantly influenced the kinetic of
474 chloride-induced corrosion of buried steel pipelines, as well as compositions of corrosion
475 products, depending on the chloride concentration in the soil, Fig. 9. The higher corrosion rates
476 and larger pit depths on the exterior surface of pipelines are observed at higher chloride
477 concentrations in soil, see Fig. 9: High Cl- case.
478
479
480
481
482
483
484 Fig. 9 Chloride-induced corrosion of buried pipelines made of ferrous metals including final
485 corrosion products that depend on the chloride ions concentration in the soil. Adapted from [73].
486 Soil’s pH value. It is another soil corrosivity micro factor that can contribute significantly to the
487 external corrosion of buried pipelines. At lower pH values (below 7 - acid soils), the acidity and
488 corrosiveness of the soil environment will be higher, particularly when the pH value is 5 or
489 below. When the soil pH value is in the range of 4 to 8.5, the corrosion rate is relatively
490 independent of the pH of the solution while pH value is not a dominant corrosion factor [50].
491 Acidic environments have been reported to cause severe external corrosion of buried pipelines
492 [74,75].
Page 23 of 77 23
495 The presentation of the degree of soil corrosivity, depending on both the soil pH value and its
496 resistivity based on EN 12501-2:2003 standard [76], is shown in Fig. 10 [77]. Both low and high
497 pH values of the soil can lead to the stress corrosion cracking of the oil and gas pipelines [78]
498 which is discussed later in section 4.2.
499
500
501
502
503
504 Fig. 10 The corrosiveness of soil as a function of the soil pH and resistivity [77].
505 Moisture content. Moisture content is the most critical macro-micro factor affecting soil
506 corrosivity and is crucial for inducing external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines. With an
507 increase of moister content, until reaching the critical content, the corrosion rate of metal in the
508 soil increases and can cause serious corrosion attacks on the exterior surface of steel (buried
509 pipelines) [50]. After reaching the critical moisture content, the corrosion rate starts decreasing
510 with a further increase of the moisture content. This critical moisture content varies with (i) the
511 type of soil and its characteristics; (ii) pipeline steel types; and (iii) metal exposure conditions
512 and duration of exposure to the soil [50]. The high moisture content in the soil is also responsible
513 for the growth of corrosion-inducing bacteria in contact with the buried pipelines [79].
514
Page 24 of 77 24
517 The moisture content also affects the soil resistivity, Fig 10. When the soil is entirely dry its
518 corrosivity diminishes. Probes are available for measuring the moisture content of the soil.
519 Soil’s resistivity. The resistivity of the soils is used to classify them as low to high corrosives. It
520 is a very heterogeneous soil corrosivity micro factor that is difficult to predict. Oil and gas
521 pipelines in soils with low resistivity are more prone to external corrosion at both low and high
522 pH values (see Fig. 10) [77]. Soil resistivity meters are used for the soil in practice to indicate
523 their corrosivity. Besides above, the factors like carbonates, nitrates, and sulfates content in the
524 soil can influence the corrosion of the exterior surface of the buried oil and gas pipelines [50].
525 4. External corrosion-induced failure mechanisms
526 There are several external corrosion mechanisms due to the corrosive environment in contact
527 with buried oil and gas pipelines. The most common external corrosion-induced failure
528 mechanisms reported in the literature can be classified into five groups (i) hydrogen damage like
529 hydrogen embrittlement (HE), hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), and others (HB and HCS); (ii)
530 stress corrosion cracking (SCC); (iii), combined SCC + HE; (iv) corrosion fatigue (CF); and (v)
531 microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC). The above-mentioned failure mechanisms due to
532 corrosive soil together with various environment-assisted cracking (EAC) modes of oil and gas
533 pipelines buried in the corrosive soil are summarized and schematically presented in Fig. 11.
534
535
536
Page 25 of 77 25
539
540
541
542
543
544 Fig. 11 External corrosion-induced failure mechanisms of oil and gas pipelines acting on the
545 exterior of the pipe due to corrosive soil.
546 Legend (i) Failure mechanisms: HE - hydrogen embrittlement; HIC - hydrogen-induced cracking; HB -
547 hydrogen blistering; HSC - hydrogen stress cracking; SCC - stress corrosion cracking; TGSCC -
548 transgranular SCC; IGSCC - intergranular SCC; NNpHSCC - near-neutral pH SCC; HpHSCC - high pH
549 SCC; CF - corrosion fatigue; and MIC - microbiologically induced corrosion, (ii) Environment-assisted
550 cracking (EAC) modes: HEAC - hydrogen environmentally assisted cracking; and HAC - hydrogen-
551 assisted cracking.
552 Failure mechanisms are marked with abbreviations (HE, HIC, HB, HSC, SCC, TGSCC, IGSCC,
553 SCC + HE, CF, and MIC) in black letters, while corresponding environment-assisted cracking
554 (EAC) modes, like HEAC, HAC, and CF cracks, are marked in green color letters. The legend
555 for all abbreviations is also given in Fig. 11. These external corrosion-induced failure
556 mechanisms are tacitly explained and discussed in the following subsections with reference to
557 the recent and actual literature.
560
Page 26 of 77 26
561 4.1. Hydrogen damage
562 The various hydrogen damage mechanisms are briefly explained in the concise overview of
563 external corrosion provided in section 1.1 at a beginning of this paper. The various sources of
564 hydrogenation of pipeline steels and influencing factors responsible for the initiation of different
565 hydrogen damage mechanisms [38,41] are further analyzed in this section (see Fig. 11: hydrogen
566 damage case).
567 Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) and hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC). Welding can cause
568 diffusion of hydrogen [80] into pipeline metal and subsequent hydrogen embrittlement (HE) [39]
569 and hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) [81], as one of the forms of HEAC, or combined HE +
570 HIC damages [44,45]. These two pipeline hydrogen damage mechanisms (HE and HIC) are
571 different [39]. The HIC of pipeline steels appears due to the recombination of atomic hydrogen
572 into gaseous hydrogen molecules. The pressure effects of gaseous hydrogen induce internal
573 cracks initiation and propagation in the pipeline’s wall and do not require applied external stress,
574 see Fig. 1. The initiation of HIC and its growth in the vicinity of an external surface of the
575 pipeline (see Fig. 1 and Fig. 11: hydrogen damage case) can be also intensified by accompanied
576 HE mechanisms. The accompanying activity of HELP [82] and HEDE [83] mechanisms of HE
577 of steel, along with their combined effect according to the HELP + HEDE model by Djukic et al.
578 [39,41,42,84], were also detected and confirmed. Generally, HE in various grades of pipeline
579 steel, as well as in other steel grades, provokes the drop of ductility and fracture resistance which
580 results in the subcritical hydrogen environment-assisted cracking (HEAC), Fig. 11 [42].
581
Page 27 of 77 27
584 The recently proposed unified model [44] for the synergistic action of hydrogen embrittlement
585 mechanisms (HELP + HEDE model) is shown in Fig. 12. The unified HE model [44] defines the
586 predominance of a particular HE mechanism (HELP or HEDE: HELP > HEDE, HEDE > HELP)
587 as a function of the hydrogen concentration in low carbon steel [39,42]. The localized external
588 chloride-induced corrosion combined with the hydrogen damage mechanisms (HE + HIC) can
589 enhance corrosion attack and the development of intergranular cracks, and thus induce the
590 fracture of the pipeline [43-45].
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
608
Page 28 of 77 28
609 Fig. 12 A unified model for synergistic action of hydrogen embrittlement (HE) mechanisms
610 (HELP + HEDE model) for low carbon steel depending on the global hydrogen concentration:
611 (a)-(g) Fracture modes, active HE mechanism, synergy, and dominance of HELP or HEDE
612 mechanism (HELP > HEDE, HEDE > HELP). Adapted from [44].
613 Legend (i) HE mechanisms: HELP - hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity; and HEDE - hydrogen-
614 enhanced decohesion, (ii) Fracture modes: MVC - microvoid coalescence; TG - transgranular; and IG -
615 intergranular
616 Hydrogen blistering (HB) and hydrogen stress cracking (HSC). Hydrogen blisters (HB) -
617 bulgings on the external surface of pipelines (see Fig. 5(e)) in the absence of applied external
618 stress is the result of the hydrogen-provoked delamination of the tube wall in the vicinity of a
619 pipeline external surface (see Fig. 11: hydrogen damage case). The proposed mechanism for
620 hydrogen blistering (HB) on the external surface of oil and gas pipelines is shown in Fig. 13(a)
621 [85]. Similar delamination - the disintegration of pipeline steel material into several layers and
622 the formation of gas cavities can appear as a result of hydrogen stress cracking (HSC). The
623 proposed mechanism for HSC due to internal hydrogen delamination (HD) of oil and gas
624 pipelines is shown in Fig. 13(b) [86].
625
626
627
628
Page 29 of 77 29
631 Fig. 13 Hydrogen damage mechanisms of oil and gas pipelines: (a) Hydrogen blisters (HB) [85];
632 (b) Hydrogen stress cracking (HSC) followed by internal hydrogen delamination (HD). Adapted
633 from [86].
634 The diffused hydrogen in the pipeline material resides and collects in the microvoids where it
635 recombines into molecular hydrogen and also interacts with manganese sulfide (MnS) inclusions
636 which are deleterious resulting in delamination [85]. The HSC includes various EAC modes in
637 metals insensitive to SSC but prone to hydrogen embrittlement when galvanically coupled [87].
638 Often, the term "galvanically-induced HSC" is used for this hydrogen damage mechanism that
639 incites cracking of pipelines. Sulfide stress cracking (SSC), as a cathodic cracking mechanism,
640 represents another form of HSC (HE). SCC typically occurred when the pipeline external surface
641 is in contact with sour environments containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) [38]. The possible
642 catastrophic brittle failures initiated on the external surface of the pipeline due to the SSC are
643 affected by various material (metallurgical) and environmental factors like (i) type of steel and
644 its microstructure; (ii) wet H2S-containing media/solution composition and pH value; (iii)
645 temperature; and (iv) partial pressure of hydrogen sulfide [88,89].
646 4.2. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
647 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC), as one of the most aggressive manifestations of corrosion, and a
648 prominent type of environmentally assisted cracking (EAC), is a serious failure mechanism of
649 the buried oil and gas pipelines (see Fig. 11: SCC case). SCC of pipeline steel can occur both in
650 the acidic [58] and alkaline soil environments [56].
651
Page 30 of 77 30
654 SCC in an alkaline soil environment occurs in the narrow range of cathodic polarization
655 potentials from -650 to -750 mV Cu/CuSO4. When the soil pH value is in the range of 5.5 to 7
656 (acidic soil environment), SCC typically occurs when the potentials are in the range of -760 to -
657 790 mV [23]. SCC crack velocities of propagation are typically in the range of 10 −3 to 10 mm/h
658 depending on the material and environmental conditions [23]. Figure 14 presents the external
659 fracture of the oil and gas pipeline due to the SCC [89,90]. Industrial practice shows that external
660 SCC incidents are detected on the pipelines which were protected by field-applied coatings [18].
661
662
663
664 Fig. 14 External SCC of high-pressure gas transmission pipelines: (a) Macro view of pipeline
665 fracture due to the SCC, plastic deformation - the local bulging [89]; (b) Colony of SCC cracks
666 on the pipeline external surface [90].
667 In the case when coatings are mill-applied (at the time of pipeline manufacture), particularly the
668 FBE type coating, no external SCC has been found even after 40 years of the pipeline service.
669 Therefore, the proper coating selection is an effective measure to minimize risks and prevent
670 external SCC [18]. Literature suggests two governing mechanisms for external SCC of pipelines
671 buried in the soil, i.e., high pH SCC, and near-neutral pH SCC, see Fig. 11: SCC case.
672
Page 31 of 77 31
675 The high pH SCC crack typically propagate intergranular [58,91], while the near-neutral pH
676 SCC provoke transgranular crack propagation [57,92].
677 Beavers and Harly [93] provided a detailed comparison of characteristics for these two types of
678 external SCC of underground pipelines. They also emphasized three major controlling factors for
679 both external SCC mechanisms which are (i) the characteristics of a specific crack-promoting
680 environment including its pH value; (ii) the metallurgical characteristics of the material and its
681 susceptibility to SCC; and (iii) the level of tensile stresses in the pipeline wall which can be
682 above some threshold value. More details about the mechanisms of high pH SCC and near-
683 neutral pH SCC, including the typical four stages of SCC, are given in this section.
684 High pH SCC. The mechanism of high pH SCC (HpHSCC) is reported due to the presence of
685 carbonate and bicarbonates in the soil, high pH values between 8.5 to 11, and on aged pipelines
686 (10 years or more in service). HpHSCC is particularly intensive at high temperatures when the
687 crack growth rate increases [58,89]. The high pH SCC requires very specific conditions to occur
688 and it is operative over a limited temperature range, pH values range, and cathodic polarization
689 potentials values range (from -650 to -780 mV). HpHSCC of oil and gas pipelines leads to the
690 formation of intergranular cracking with little crack branching. The typical HpHSCC crack is
691 without prominent external corrosion damages (local stress concentrators) or evidence of
692 corrosion of the crack faces, Fig. 15 [89,93]. This type of SCC can occur without obvious signs
693 of external corrosion (stress concentrators) on the exterior pipeline surface.
694
695
Page 32 of 77 32
698 About 85% of pipeline failures reported in North America (1965-2010) were due to the HpHSCC
699 occurring at the threshold hoop stress level in the pipeline wall (provoked by the internal
700 pressure). This threshold stress is found to be greater than 60% of the specified minimum yield
701 stress (SMYS) for the used pipeline steel [94]. The presence of pitting corrosion on the external
702 surface of a pipeline, as a stress concentrator, lowered this threshold stress for the HpHSCC
703 initiation. However, both the presence of external pitting and the cyclic stresses are not a
704 necessary prerequisite for HpHSCC occurrence [94,95]. There are no dominant metallurgical
705 factors responsible for the susceptibility to high-pH SCC of oil and gas pipelines made of API 5L
706 X grades of steel. This type of SCC has been detected in various grades of pipeline steel [95].
707 Apart from the sufficient tensile stress level (applied stress plus residual stress), the main
708 environmental, material, and coating state factors influencing high pH SCC (HpHSCC) are as
709 follows [95-98]:
710 • Wet and warm environments with a likelihood for the generation of CO2.
711 • Pipelines coating failures (particularly on coal tar type and rarely on thin film and FBE
712 types) and the possible occurrence of MIC.
713 • Presence of a high concentration of both carbonates and bicarbonates and often also
714 chlorides and sulfates in high-pH SCC cracking electrolyte beneath the coating defects.
715 Also, partial loss of cathodic protection contributes to their higher concentrations.
716 • Particular steel grades that are susceptible to HpHSCC.
717
718
719
Page 33 of 77 33
722
723
724
725
726
727 Fig. 15 Intergranular cracks of oil and gas pipelines due to the high pH SCC (HpHSCC) [89,93].
728 Near-neutral pH SCC. The oil and gas pipelines suffering near-neutral pH SCC (NNpHSCC) at
729 pH between 6.5 to 7.5 [56,57,93] were found to have cracks colonies and leaks on their external
730 surface, Figs. 16(a) and 16(b) [89]. The surface fractured due to the NNpHSCC was found to
731 have transgranular cracks with the predominant quasi-cleavage surface morphology, Figs. 16(c)
732 and 16(d) [89]. NNpHSCC is not as strongly affected by temperature as HpHSCC [18]. It was
733 found that typical NNpHSCC cracking electrolytes are dilute solutions containing both carbonic
734 acid and bicarbonate with lower pHs than the electrolytes associated with HpHSCC [95].
735 Particularly endangered areas on the pipeline external surface prone to NNpHSCC are those
736 without adequate cathodic protection.
737 The "material" factor includes its (i) metallurgy; (ii) chemical composition; (iii) grain sizes; (iv)
738 inclusion sizes; (iv) surface roughness; and (v) microhardness, which are the key influencing
739 parameters for the NNpHSCC of the oil and gas pipelines [99].
740
743
Page 34 of 77 34
744 Pipeline failures due to NNpHSCC were detected on pipelines with applied both tape
745 (particularly with polyethylene tape (PET) coating) and asphalt types of coating while there are
746 no such failures on pipelines with the coal tar type of coating [95].
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756 Fig. 16 Near-neutral pH SCC of oil and gas pipeline: (a), (b) Macro view of cracks colonies and
757 leaks on the external surface; (c), (d) Fractured surface, transgranular cracks. Adapted from [89].
758 It was suggested that the NNpHSCC mechanism is controlled by the possible synergistic effects
759 of (i) hydrogen embrittlement (HE); (ii) anodic dissolution (AD) of the pipeline steel; and (iii)
760 cyclic stress due to the loading fluctuation and corrosion fatigue (CF) [100-102]. Still, there is a
761 strong polarization of opinions among the researchers about the underlying mechanism of
762 NNpHSCC of buried oil and gas pipelines.
Page 35 of 77 35
765 Various NNpHSCC mechanisms have been proposed, as recently pointed out by Sun et al. [103].
766 Three different categories of NNpHSCC mechanisms - models were proposed by different
767 authors based mainly on the experimental results:
768 • An anodic dissolution (AD) mechanism for NNpHSCC, facilitated and enhanced by
769 hydrogen [104].
770 • Hydrogen embrittlement (HE)-enhanced and controlled NNpHSCC mechanism which is
771 controlled primarily by the dissolved hydrogen from the environment rather than due to
772 the AD of the pipeline steel [105-108].
773 • NNpHSCC mechanism based on the predominant role of cyclic stress on the crack
774 propagation, so-called corrosion fatigue (CF)-enhanced NNpHSCC mechanism
775 [56,58,109].
776 Stages of SCC. Literature provides four stages of SCC crack initiation and growth [110] in oil
777 and gas pipelines under field conditions, according to the bathtub model [111], as shown in Fig.
778 17 [110]. The first, so-called incubation stage, includes the formation of the defects, the
779 disbonding of the coating, and the localized corrosion on the exterior surface of the pipe. The
780 second stage is the initiation of SCC cracks with a decrease in crack growth rate controlled by
781 both environmental and mechanical factors. The third stage is characterized by the crack growth
782 rate which is stochastic and typically constant.
783
784
785
786
789
Page 36 of 77 36
790 The fourth stage, characterized by a stable or rising crack growth rate, is the final stage that can
791 lead to the failure of the pipeline due to the formation of large cracks under loading and final
792 tearing of the pipe’s surface [58].
793
794
795
796
797
798 Fig. 17 Four stages of SCC crack initiation and growth in oil and gas pipelines under field
799 conditions [110].
800 Both field and laboratory research studies have been carried out for the control and prevention of
801 external corrosion-induced SCC [112,113]. Due to inadequate coating performance, under the
802 disbonded coating, the electrochemical potentials required for NNpHSCC can develop as a result
803 of the shielding effects of the coating [112,114]. However, further research is needed to be done
804 as external SCC combined with other damage mechanisms including HE, can significantly
805 contribute to the frequent fracture and failure of buried oil and gas pipelines.
806
807
Page 37 of 77 37
810 4.3. Stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms (SCC + HE)
811 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC), as a serious form of damage mechanism, is often accompanied
812 by hydrogen embrittlement (HE) effects on the crack propagation which can simultaneously
813 induce fracture of pipelines [37,38,115,116]. The hydrogen-related SCC mechanisms provoke
814 subcritical hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC), particularly in a near-neutral pH environment. It
815 is often referred to as HE-controlled SCC or HE-enhanced and controlled near-neutral pH SCC
816 (NNpHSCC), Fig. 11: SCC + HE case. The mechanisms for the HE-controlled SCC include the
817 tensile stresses and diffusion of hydrogen and its sufficient concentration in the fracture process
818 zone (FPZ) at the SCC crack tip in the steel [42], Fig. 18. The complex process of stress-driven
819 hydrogen diffusion causes its local high accumulation in the FPZ at SCC crack tip with high
820 triaxial stresses which leads to the local HE and hydrogen (HE)-enhanced SCC crack
821 propagation.
822
823
824
825
826 Fig. 18 SCC and hydrogen embrittlement (HE) mechanisms: HE-enhanced and controlled SCC.
827 Adapted from [116].
830
Page 38 of 77 38
831 Several effects of hydrogen at the crack tip and the degree of local HE during SCC (SCC + HE
832 model) are primarily controlled by the activity of several proposed HE mechanisms [117],
833 including both HELP and HEDE mechanisms of HE (HELP + HEDE model) [39,41,42,44]. The
834 HELP mechanism, as one of the plasticity-mediated HE mechanisms [42], enhances dislocation
835 mobility and velocity, provoking localization of a plastic flow and the local material softening
836 [82,118]. Plasticity with the local shear crack growth mode II is enhanced by the activity of the
837 HELP mechanism of HE. The activity of the HEDE - decohesion mechanism of HE, results in a
838 reduction of the cohesive strength of the lattice provoking brittle fracture of steel [42,83].
839 Consequently, the HEDE activity can significantly accelerate crack propagation and observed
840 EAC brittle crack growth modes II and III [119]. Sun et al. [103] showed that HE-enhanced and
841 controlled NNpHSCC model by Xing et al. [108] provides more accurate predictions of the crack
842 growth rate than the CF-based NNpHSCC model. This HE-enhanced NNpHSCC model is based
843 on the synergy of one of the proposed plasticity-mediated HE mechanisms and the HEDE
844 mechanism of HE. These findings are fully in accordance with the recently reported results by
845 Djukic et al. [39,41,42], Wasim and Djukic [45], and Wasim et al. [44] about the synergistic
846 action of HE mechanisms (HELP + HEDE model of HE) in steel, see Fig 12: A unified
847 HELP + HEDE model for HE.
848 4.4 Effects of corrosion and fatigue, corrosion fatigue (CF)
849 Fatigue is the failure mechanism in which pipelines are damaged due to the application of cyclic
850 loads [120]. Fatigue produces tiny cracks resulting in leaks when coalesced to form a larger
851 crack. Consequently, failure of the oil and gas pipeline takes place.
Page 39 of 77 39
854 Flat fractured surfaces and tiny cracks are shown in Figs. 19(a) and 19(b). The SEM image of the
855 fatigue-caused striations of the pipeline sample is shown in Fig. 19(c). The internal pressure of
856 fluid in oil and gas pipelines has a dynamic character and usually fluctuates which provoked
857 cyclic stresses in the pipeline wall. This cyclic stress, together with the stress concentrators on
858 the external pipeline surface in the various forms of external corrosion and underdeposite
859 damages like pits and crevices, provides the condition for the initiation of corrosion fatigue (CF)
860 cracks, Fig. 11: CF case. Recent research focuses on the design guidelines for the fatigue control
861 of the welded structures [121].
862 Fatigue and corrosion fatigue of the corroded oil and gas pipelines can accelerate the chances of
863 their sudden failures [122]. In the literature, there is little data about corrosion fatigue (CF) of
864 pipeline steel and its synergistic effects during near-neutral pH SCC (NNpHSCC) in a dilute
865 carbonate/bicarbonate environment upon the coating disbondment [123,124].
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
Page 40 of 77 40
878 Fig. 19 Fatigue of the oil and gas pipeline: (a) Flat fractured surface; (b) Tiny cracks; (c) Poorly
879 formed striations due to fatigue. Adapted from [89].
880 As mentioned in section 4.2, some authors like Yu et al. [125] and Zhao et al. [126,127], which
881 belong to Prof. Chen's research group from the University of Alberta, Canada, have suggested
882 that the NNpHSCC cracks growth process is significantly affected, controlled, and enhanced by
883 the CF. They further proposed a model for service life prediction of steels pipelines based on the
884 coupled SCC and fatigue analysis, including both crack initiation and early-stage crack growth in
885 Stage II and steady-state crack growth in Stage III [126,127] (see Fig. 17).
886 Still, there is no consensus in proposed models regarding the predominant mechanism or
887 multiple governing mechanisms, controlling the SCC crack growth rate da/dN depending on the
888 degree of corrosive activity of the environment and applied stress intensity factor range ΔK. It is
889 most probable that the SCC crack growth rate is driven by synergistic effects of the cyclic stress
890 and CF, together with HE mechanisms and anodic dissolution (AD) processes. The crack growth
891 rate and the dominance of various fracture development mechanisms together with the EAC
892 mode: (i) SCC; (ii) stress corrosion fatigue cracking; (iii) corrosion fatigue, or (iv) fatigue,
893 depending on the environment corrosiveness and ΔK, are shown in Fig. 20 [128,129].
894
895
896
899
Page 41 of 77 41
900
901
902
903
904
905 Fig. 20 SCC crack growth rate da/dN in gas pipelines and dominance of damage mechanisms
906 (EAC modes) depending on the environment corrosiveness and stress intensity factor range ΔK:
907 (a) SCC; (b) Stress corrosion fatigue cracking; (c) Corrosion fatigue; (d) Fatigue. Adapted from
908 [128,129].
909 4.5 Microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC)
910 Bacteria on the exterior surface of oil and gas pipelines can cause microbiologically induced
911 corrosion (MIC). The MIC can be localized - pitting (commonly) as well as uniform or in the
912 form of corrosion patches under deposits (concentrated colonies of bacteria) in the presence of
913 the biofilms, see Fig. 11: MIC case. Different biochemical influencing factors that control
914 complex MIC mechanisms of steel pipelines buried in the soil can be broadly classified into five
915 categories (i) biofilm characteristics; (ii) differential aeration; (iii) acidity; (iv) galvanic cells; and
916 (iv) elevation of electron exchange.
917
920
Page 42 of 77 42
921 All these influencing factors are discussed in detail in comprehensive review papers by Spark et
922 al. [70], Anandkumar et al. [130], and Usher et al. [131].
923 The bacterial activities on the external surface of pipelines are most pronounced at a pH range of
924 4-9 and a temperature range of 10-50°C [132]. The sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB)-induced
925 pitting corrosion morphology for specimens exposed 14 days to the simulated soil solutions with
926 different SRB counts is shown in Fig. 21 [133]. The degree of SRB-induced corrosion attack
927 increase with a higher SRB count in the simulated soil solution. The complex mechanisms of
928 SRB (MIC) are well established and thoroughly discussed in the literature [70,130,134].
929 Literature suggests that about 20 to 30% of the external corrosion is reported to be due to MIC
930 for buried oil and gas pipelines [135]. Other types of bacteria are also reported to cause MIC of
931 pipelines in a form of pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking [136].
932 There are two general proposed approaches [130,131] in the prevention of MIC of pipelines
933 buried in the soil. Both approaches are based on the prevention of biofilm formation, its
934 attachment, and growth on the external pipeline surface [136]. The first approach is based on
935 ensuring that the surrounding soil's physical characteristics and chemical composition are not
936 favorable for biofilm formation and growth as a necessary prerequisite for the MIC initiation
937 [137]. The unfavorable soil characteristics which favor the MIC appearance are (i) high oxygen
938 level [138]; (ii) high sulfide level [139]; and (iii) high moisture diffusion into the soil [140].
939 The second approach in the prevention of biofilm formation and MIC of an external surface of
940 pipelines buried in the soil is based on altering the metal substrate - pipe external surface.
943
Page 43 of 77 43
944 The particular pipe external surface characteristics which contribute to the MIC occurrence are
945 (i) high roughness [141]; (ii) pipeline welded regions with the specific welding geometry [142];
946 (iii) application of unfavorable but adequate cathodic protection [143]; (iv) presence of deposits;
947 and (v) coating degradation processes and their failures.
948
949
950
951
952
953
954 Fig. 21 The SRB (MIC)-induced pitting corrosion morphology (2D and 3D representations) for
955 specimens exposed 14 days to the simulated soil solutions with different SRB counts:
956 (a), (b) 105 cells/ m2; (c), (b) 107 cells/ m2 [133].
957 5. Prediction models for the external corrosion and failure of oil and gas pipelines
958 Prediction of external corrosion always remained critical for the management of service life and
959 corrosion of buried gas and oil pipelines. Various models for the prediction of the extent of
960 corrosion and the remaining life of buried pipelines have been proposed.
961
Page 44 of 77 44
964 Risk-based models [144-147], models employing fuzzy approaches [148-150], and reliability-
965 based models [151-153], were developed for the corrosion and failure predictions of pipelines.
966 Prof. Khan (C-RISE) and co-workers have provided ample contribution to risk-based integrity
967 management of corroded pipelines. They did that through numerous published research and
968 review papers on (i) risk assessment techniques [154,155]; (ii) corrosion rate prediction [156];
969 (iii) optimal risk analysis [157]; (iv) risk-based maintenance (RBM) [158]; and (v) risk-based
970 pipeline integrity management [159]. Another major contribution in the development of
971 advanced approaches to pipeline corrosion modeling/prediction and risk-based maintenance
972 analysis employing fuzzy logic approaches is achieved by Prof. Ratnayake and his team from the
973 University of Stavanger, Norway. They published several important papers on (i) structural
974 integrity control and management [160,161]; (ii) risk-based inspection and machine learning
975 [162]; and (iii) risk-based maintenance analysis with fuzzy logic [163].
976 Advanced approaches to corrosion modeling and risk management of long-distance oil and gas
977 transportation pipelines have recognized four main risk-deteriorated factors, each containing
978 several sub-factors. These four factors are (i) corrosion damage; (ii) misuse of factors; (iii) third
979 party damage; and (iv) design flaws [146]. However, typically, insufficient data of the operation
980 history of a pipeline is available, including corrosion provoked failures and other failure data.
981 Hence, fuzzy set theories are used to evaluate the probability of the basic failure events when
982 there is little quantitative information [164]. The probabilities of basic events are treated as fuzzy
983 numbers, and the failure probabilities are treated as random variables with known probability
984 distributions [148-150].
Page 45 of 77 45
987 Reliability approaches are commonly used for the prediction of the remaining service life of
988 various steel structures and infrastructures including also buried pipelines [165,166]. Time-
989 dependent approaches, the use of safety index (β index), and the first-order second-moment
990 (FOSM) method are popular approaches for the pipeline's service life predictions [167-169].
991 Recently, Qin and Cheng [170] published a comprehensive critical review on pipeline external
992 and internal corrosion defect assessment, including contemporary multi-physics models. Another
993 comprehensive review of failure prediction models for oil and gas pipelines was also recently
994 published by Zakikhani et al. [171]. These two review papers [170,171] highlighted the
995 following main limitations of current corrosion prediction models:
996 • Corrosion prediction models request expensive experiments and complex inspection
997 programs for their application.
998 • Most models are mainly based on expert judgment.
999 • Models are based on the limited corrosion defects/failure data while advanced simulation
1000 tools are necessary to overcome input data lack and uncertainties.
1001 • Older code-based procedures (burst pressure criteria) are rather conservative
1002 [167,168,172].
1003 • The huge complexity of contemporary models requires comprehensive knowledge
1004 associated with corrosion science, electrochemistry, mechanics, FEM, FEA, and
1005 advanced numerical/computational methods and modeling approaches.
1006
1007
Page 46 of 77 46
1010 Amaya-Gómez et al. [172] reported in their review paper about the level of conservatism of
1011 various proposed burst pressure criteria depending on the corrosion rate and steel toughness and
1012 their applicability in reliability assessments of corroded pipelines. Miran et al. [173] proposed a
1013 time-dependent probabilistic model using the power-law-based corrosion damage growth model
1014 for the reliability analysis of a buried pipeline with defects caused by external corrosion. Qin et
1015 al. [174] developed a finite element-based quantitative model for time-dependent 3D prediction
1016 (i.e., in longitudinal, radial, and circumferential directions) of an external corrosion defect
1017 growth taking into account the mechano (stress)-electrochemical (M-E) interaction. The
1018 proposed flowchart for an external corrosion defect growth multi-physics modeling on an API
1019 5L X100 steel pipe exposed to an anaerobic near-neutral pH bicarbonate solution (NS4 solution)
1020 is presented in Fig. 22 [174]. Recently, various hybrid methodologies, including Monte Carlo
1021 simulation (MCS), were proposed and successfully applied for structural and reliability analysis
1022 of pipelines with corrosion defects, including burst pressure prediction [175-177].
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
Page 47 of 77 47
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043 Fig. 22 The flowchart of an external 3-D corrosion defect growth multi-physics model.
1045 Legend FE - Finite element; M-E - Mechano (stress)-electrochemical
1046 The various industrial codes and other advanced methods have been used for corrosion defects
1047 assessment and general structural integrity analysis of pipelines with external corrosion damages
1048 such as uniform corrosion and pitting, Fig. 23 [178].
1049
1050
Page 48 of 77 48
1053 For example, Adib-Ramezani et al. [178] proposed the method for structural integrity analysis of
1054 an API X52 steel pipeline with an external corrosion defect based on the Structural Integrity
1055 Assessment Procedure (SINTAP) using a modified Notch-based Failure Assessment Diagram
1056 (NFAD). They further compared obtained modeling results with other analytical codes for
1057 pipeline corrosion defect assessment, i.e., ASME B31G, modified ASME B31G, and DNV RP-
1058 F101 (see Fig. 23).
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067 Fig. 23 Industrial codes and other methods for the structural integrity assessment of pipelines
1068 with external corrosion defects and damages. [178].
1069 The set of predictive phase-field models for the reliability assessment was also proposed by
1070 implementing different physical aspects of the SCC and EAC (electrochemistry, diffusion, and
1071 mechanics) into a numerical FEA framework [179].
Page 49 of 77 49
1074 However, so far, various advanced prediction models are yet to be established for determining
1075 external corrosion and consequent failures of oil and gas pipelines provoked by different or
1076 combined damage mechanisms (SCC, HE, CF, and MIC). Apart from classic reliability
1077 approaches, emphasis is now on modern approaches for the reliability predictions of corroded
1078 industrial structures and infrastructures based on the application of machine learning (ML) and
1079 artificial intelligence (AI).
1080 The techniques such as machine learning (ML) [180-182], deep learning [183,184], optimization
1081 neural network [185], digital twin [186,187], etc., can be used for the determination of active
1082 corrosion damage mechanisms, service life assessment and failure prediction of pipelines.
1083 Soomro et al. [188] have recently published a comprehensive review on the application of
1084 machine learning in the integrity assessment of corroded oil and gas pipelines, including artificial
1085 neural networks, support vector machines, and hybrid models. They pointed out that the most
1086 obvious problem related to proposed ML models for corrosion prediction is insufficient
1087 corrosion data. Therefore it is advisable to combine several machine learning models. Another
1088 comprehensive review on the applications of ML during the pipeline integrity management
1089 process was published in 2021 by Rachman et al. [189]. They pointed out the importance of
1090 using actual/historical pipeline operation conditions data instead of simulated data, as the input
1091 for the future ML models for the prediction of corrosion rate and corrosion defect depth.
1092 The recently proposed basic concept/model in the study of external pipeline corrosion based on
1093 machine learning and statistical modeling methods is shown in Fig. 24 [20].
1094
Page 50 of 77 50
1097 This contemporary multi-scale approach should provide a valid estimation of all major macro
1098 and micro soil corrosion parameters, their relationship, and their influence on the external
1099 corrosion of buried pipelines [20]. The coupling of modern multi-physics modeling and
1100 simulation techniques [190-192] is recommended, along with the FEA-based predictive phase-
1101 field models [193], to account for corrosion factors that cannot be measured onsite. This coupled
1102 (multi-physics + phase-field) approach can provide an accurate prediction of various corrosion
1103 failure mechanisms (see section 4) and the remaining life estimation of oil and gas pipelines with
1104 external corrosion. Besides, analysis of the techniques for corrosion protection, such as cathodic
1105 protection, can be carried out using the finite element method (FEM) [194,195].
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111 Fig. 24 A multi-scale concept/model in the study of external pipeline corrosion and influence of
1112 macro and micro soil parameters based on machine learning and statistical modeling methods.
1114
1117
Page 51 of 77 51
1118 These approaches can be merged into various modern artificial intelligence (AI) models and
1119 tools [196,197] for the automatic determination of remaining service life and the inspection
1120 interval calculation of corroded oil and gas pipelines. Consequently, the sudden external
1121 corrosion-induced failure mechanisms can be predicted and hence avoiding pipeline fracture.
1122 6. Corrosion monitoring of pipe’s exterior surface and protection
1123 Corrosion monitoring is one of the key aspects for preventing leaks and catastrophic failure of oil
1124 and gas pipelines. Various monitoring techniques are used. Varela et al. [198] presented a review
1125 of major methods for external corrosion monitoring and inspecting of onshore pipelines
1126 including the advantages and obvious limitations of major monitoring techniques. These include
1127 both non-electrochemical and electrochemical monitoring methods like (i) corrosion coupons;
1128 (ii) electrical resistance (ER) probes; and (iii) inductance probes, as well as (iv) linear
1129 polarization resistance (LPR); (v) electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS); (vi) galvanic
1130 probes, and other methods. They further pointed out that the applicability of the currently
1131 available electrochemical corrosion monitoring methods is limited due to the application of
1132 coatings and CP and due to the soil resistivity [198]. Apart from various in-line inspection (ILI)
1133 tools, several other assessment methods, like external corrosion direct assessment (ECDA) [25-
1134 27], are recommended and often used for the detection of external corrosion. Xie and Tian [199]
1135 reviewed and summarized in-line inspection (ILI) tools for external corrosion detection. Varela
1136 et al. [200] highlighted the necessity of further development of advanced ILI sensor technologies
1137 and external corrosion management practices, including new monitoring sensors for studying
1138 corrosion beneath disbonded coatings.
Page 52 of 77 52
1141 LPR measuring device is used for the external corrosion monitoring of oil and gas pipelines
1142 [201,202]. The corrosion rates obtained using LPR can be used to estimate the time required for
1143 the next inspection, maintenance time, and suitable repair techniques. Besides, the welding
1144 defects of oil and gas pipelines and the extent of hydrogenation due to the welding can be
1145 detected and monitored by LPR [203]. It is worthy to mention that the drop in the fracture
1146 resistance of pipeline steels is often associated with the welding processes because of the local
1147 hydrogen embrittlement of the pipeline steel [204].
1148 Moreover, the cracks formed within the microstructure of the pipeline due to the external
1149 corrosion can be determined using sensors, cameras, and scanners to map the extent of external
1150 corrosion. Laboratory testing in simulated soil solutions is often used for the assessment of
1151 external corrosion of pipelines [205,206]. This approach is becoming more popular due to its
1152 simplicity [12,133-135], repeatability [20], and the possibility of extrapolation of long-term
1153 onsite corrosion rates by simulated laboratory testing. Also, the application of simulated soil
1154 solutions during laboratory testing of external corrosion provides avoidance of the typical
1155 variation in onsite corrosion test results due to the inherent heterogeneity of the soil.
1156 Nevertheless, the experimental application of various simulated soil solutions can not fully
1157 replicate often more corrosion aggressive soil and obtained corrosion rates based on field tests in
1158 soil [50,70,72]. The high corrosivity of the soil is often controlled by its high heterogeneity in
1159 composition and chemistry. The data from non-destructive testing (NDT) and environment
1160 monitoring (soil’s pH, moisture content, dissolved oxygen, etc.) can be used for developing
1161 models for the accurate estimation of the remaining service life of corroded pipelines.
1162
Page 53 of 77 53
1165 Corrosives from the soil can diffuse into the microstructure consequently affecting the macro-,
1166 micro-, and nano-mechanical properties of buried pipelines [207,208]. The change in the
1167 chemical composition of the failed parts of the pipeline can be examined using an X-ray
1168 fluorescence spectrometer (XRF), scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron backscattered
1169 diffraction (EBSD), and ion combustion method [209,210]. Moreover, microbial analysis by
1170 chemical testing contributes to the corrosion monitoring of the buried pipelines [211,212]. The
1171 sophisticated microstructural characterizing techniques, i.e., transmission electron microscope
1172 (TEM) with and without and energy-filtered, can contribute to understanding the extent of
1173 corrosion degradation of oil and gas pipelines at the nanoscale (grains and the crystalline levels)
1174 [213]. The reliable measurement of both global and local hydrogen contents in steel [214], with
1175 microstructural hydrogen mapping using advanced experimental techniques [215,216], is
1176 necessary for a better understanding and quantification of multiple HE mechanisms (HELP +
1177 HEDE model, see Fig. 12) [39,42,44] and hydrogen-material interactions [38,217]. By knowing
1178 the pipeline’s material microstructural degradation due to corrosion [216], along with
1179 degradation of ductility and mechanical properties, accurate models for the corrosion failure
1180 prediction can be developed [44]. Measurements of nanomechanical properties by
1181 nanoindentation machine, along with macro mechanical properties of the simulated pipeline’s
1182 material, can be performed [217,218].
1183
1184
1187
Page 54 of 77 54
1188 Corrosion monitoring coupled with the changes in the material’s chemical composition and long-
1189 term degradation of its microstructure, along with the macro, and micro-mechanical properties
1190 degradation represents a powerful tool in corrosion management of oil and gas pipelines [39,43-
1191 45]. A better understanding of external corrosion damage mechanisms and numerous influencing
1192 factors could lead to the development of very accurate predictive models and remaining life
1193 assessment methods for oil and gas pipelines. Coatings protect pipelines from corrosives in soils
1194 such as dissolved oxygen and moisture content of the soil, hydrogen diffusion, and other
1195 corrosive agents [219,220]. Besides, an alternate material like geopolymer concrete can be used
1196 for corrosion protection [221].
1197 7. Conclusions and recommendations
1198 This paper has presented a comprehensive review of the external corrosion of oil and gas
1199 pipelines. Externally stimulated forms of corrosion, mechanisms, and various factors influencing
1200 external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines were reviewed. A review of the major external
1201 corrosion damage and failure mechanisms (hydrogen damage: HE, HIC, and others; SCC-
1202 HpHSCC and NNpHSCC; combined SCC + HE; CF; and MIC) of oil and gas pipelines were
1203 also presented. Combined effects of corrosion damage mechanisms (SCC, HE, and CF) were
1204 also covered. The various possible forms of environment-assisted cracking (EAC) mechanisms
1205 of pipeline steels due to external corrosion in the soil, like SCC, TGSCC, IGSCC, HIC, HEAC,
1206 HAC, HSC, HE-enhanced NNpHSCC, and CF-enhanced NpHSCC, are discussed.
1207
1208
Page 55 of 77 55
1211 In addition, classical models involving reliability and probability approaches were presented,
1212 along with the modern advanced methods, such as machine and deep learnings, and
1213 computational and advanced FEM/FEA models. The concept for the automatic prediction of
1214 external corrosion for oil and gas pipelines and reliability assessment was presented. Moreover,
1215 corrosion monitoring techniques along with discussions on microstructural characterization
1216 techniques, mechanical testing at macro and nano levels of externally corroded oil and gas
1217 pipelines were presented.
1218 The complex interactions in the system metal (pipeline) - environment (soil) and numerous
1219 interrelated and nonrelated influencing factors for external corrosion are the main reasons for the
1220 huge losses in the oil and gas industry worldwide. The structural integrity of these pipelines is
1221 severely impacted by external corrosion. This review paper addresses the missing comprehensive
1222 overview of external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines. The major focus is on influencing
1223 factors, corrosion-induced fracture mechanisms, prediction, repairs, and preventions of external
1224 corrosion of both bare and coated buried pipelines.
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
Page 56 of 77 56
1233 The main premise of this review paper was to propose the necessary shift in the paradigm of
1234 external corrosion management from protection to prevention and prediction. Based on the
1235 comprehensive review, the following conclusions, and recommendations for future
1236 investigations, can be suggested:
1237 • Greater focus on external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines is needed. Internal corrosion is
1238 more likely to occur and easier to quantify and predict statistically due to the lesser number of
1239 influencing factors. Contrary, models for external corrosion prediction are still in development
1240 due to the great number of influencing factors and not yet completely resolved interactions in
1241 the system material (steel) - environment (corrosive soil). The critical macroscale and
1242 microscale parameters that influence the soil’s corrosiveness need additional in-depth
1243 investigations.
1244 • The assessment of external corrosion in terms of its intensity and frequency of pipelines
1245 failure needs to be carried out by both field testing and laboratory experiments. That is
1246 necessary to fully reveal various external corrosion-provoked degradation phenomena for their
1247 prevention, prediction, and control.
1248 • The current standard practices for control and assessment of the external corrosion of oil and
1249 gas pipelines give little information on how to recognize the conditions that contribute to the
1250 development of external corrosion. Mostly, the focus in these standards is laid on the various
1251 external corrosion protection techniques and mitigation strategies, including applications of
1252 coating and cathodic protection. The recommendations on how to effectively prevent and
1253 predict external corrosion are missing.
1254
Page 57 of 77 57
1257 • The frequent reported external corrosion incidents in the oil and gas industry are due to the
1258 improper pipeline’s external surface treatment, inadequate coating application, coating
1259 failures, or as a result of the overlooking of the necessary technical requirements for coating
1260 application. The dominant cause of external corrosion on coated and cathodically protected
1261 pipelines is the defective coatings and not inadequate cathodic protection.
1262 • The frequent coating failures onsite accompanied with activation of various external corrosion
1263 mechanisms (SCC, HE, MIC, etc.) need to be investigated deeply.
1264 • It is necessary to further investigate the combined effects of HE, CF, and anodic dissolution
1265 mechanisms on the external SCC crack growth process of buried oil and gas pipelines in
1266 contact with soils of various corrosiveness under field conditions. However, reliable
1267 prediction models are yet to be established for determining external corrosion provoked by
1268 different or multiple corrosion damage mechanisms (SCC, HE, CF, and MIC).
1269 • Currently, the most promising near-neutral pH SCC cracks growth model is the hydrogen
1270 embrittlement (HE)-based NNpHSCC initiation and growth model which takes into account
1271 the synergistic action of HE mechanisms (HELP+HEDE model). There is a need for careful
1272 rechecking and validation of all proposed NNpHSCC models and the development of new
1273 unified models. This is dictated by a growing need for accurate predictions of the external
1274 corrosion of pipelines and further improvements in integrity management.
1275 • Further research and advanced SCC growth models are needed which will reveal the complex
1276 interaction between SCC and HE (SCC + HE models) responsible for enhanced crack growth
1277 rate and sudden failures of pipelines exposed to external corrosion.
1278
Page 58 of 77 58
1281 • The effective approach in the prevention of MIC of an external surface of pipelines buried in
1282 the soil should be based on the metal substrate state-based approach. This approach should
1283 take into account external pipeline surface state (roughness and presence of deposits), external
1284 geometry, profile of pipeline welded regions, and coating degradation processes and their
1285 possible failures. The second approach in MIC prevention is based on ensuring that the soil's
1286 physical characteristics and chemical composition are not favorable for biofilm formation and
1287 MIC initiation. Both of these approaches are rarely applied in practice.
1288 • Although there are numerous studies on various external corrosion mechanisms using
1289 simulated soil solutions, still, there is no well-established and unified correlation model for the
1290 prediction of external corrosion rates applicable to all soil types and simulated soil solutions.
1291 The applicability of corrosion test results obtained using simulated soil solutions during the
1292 development of future predictive external corrosion models should be reconsidered, checked,
1293 and compared with long term field test results.
1294 • The promising new approach in modelling external corrosion, based on phase-field, multi-
1295 physics, and their coupling, can provide a more accurate prediction of multiple corrosion
1296 mechanisms and practical future models for life estimation of oil and gas pipelines.
1297 The presented findings will assist corrosion asset managers and provide valuable
1298 recommendations for the implementation of the latest corrosion prevention, prediction, and
1299 remediation strategies. Finally, the findings will assist asset managers and oil and gas operators
1300 to predict and prevent failures and decide about the times for the maintenance and repairs.
1301
Page 59 of 77 59
1304 Acknowledgement
1305 The funding support of The University of Melbourne is gratefully acknowledged.
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Article in Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering · April 2022

Muhammad Wasim Milos Djukic

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3 Muhammad Wasim*1 and Milos B. Djukic**2

22 external corrosion management, reliability-based models, risk-based models, and integrity

25 corrosion are presented at the end.

HELP Hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity WM Weld metal

HELP+HEDE Model of HE based on the HELP+HEDE UDC Underdeposit corrosion

HIC Hydrogen-induced cracking ΔK stress intensity factor range

HpHSCC High pH SCC β Safety index

HSC Hydrogen stress cracking

54 industry including oil and gas pipelines [4].

66 pipelines for their integrity assurance is deemed necessary.

113 characteristic HE mechanisms in pipeline steels. Those are hydrogen-enhanced localized

114 plasticity (HELP) and hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE) [39,42-44].

127 microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC), are also key concerns.

134 the ligaments between the HIC cracks [47].

159 al. [50] and Castaneda and coauthors [51,52].

183 are still not fully confirmed.

193 prevention techniques, are presented.

203 Corrosion [19].

Case Coating CP polarization The pH values State of the External

224 2.1. Literature review

232 Science and Engineering (23), etc.

233 2.2. The framework for the investigation of external corrosion

241 interrelated influencing factors.

250 system material-corrosive environment (soil)-stress conditions.

259 soil (section 3.2).

263 are comprehensively discussed.

266 of external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines.

277 3. Factors influencing external corrosion of oil and gas pipelines

282 pipelines are exposed (section 3.2).

288 suitable measures for corrosion prediction and prevention.

295 induced failure mechanisms".

296 3.1. Forms of corrosion on pipe’s exterior surface

337 Underdeposit corrosion [63]; e) Delamination-bulging, hydrogen blisters [64]; f) Coating

339 of all presented characteristic forms of external corrosion.

350 pipeline section in the clay soil, Fig. 6 [16].

416 Fig. 3).

417 3.2. Soil corrosiveness

423 buried in the soil, Fig. 8.

433 moist soil. Adapted from [20].

444 pipelines buried in the soil. Adapted from [72].

446 increase of dissolved oxygen content in the soil [50].

474 chloride-induced corrosion of buried steel pipelines, as well as compositions of corrosion

477 concentrations in soil, see Fig. 9: High Cl- case.

498 which is discussed later in section 4.2.

525 4. External corrosion-induced failure mechanisms

545 exterior of the pipe due to corrosive soil.

551 assisted cracking.

557 the recent and actual literature.

566 damage case).

590 fracture of the pipeline [43-45].

624 pipelines is shown in Fig. 13(b) [86].

633 from [86].

645 temperature; and (iv) partial pressure of hydrogen sulfide [88,89].

646 4.2. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

650 the acidic [58] and alkaline soil environments [56].

666 on the pipeline external surface [90].

676 SCC provoke transgranular crack propagation [57,92].