INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND of matter, combine to form simple or complex molecules

PHYSIOLOGY such as water, carbohydrates and proteins. These

Introduction
The curiosity to determine the reason why human
get sick and how certain food can attribute to this or the
other way around, why humans become vulnerable to any
diseases as they get older, and how can we be healed
naturally or with medical interventions? So many
questions in mind and these questions might bring fear to
everyone especially when there is no clear understanding
of what is happening in our body. The study of anatomy
and physiology would help one to be familiar with our
body, help us make healthful choices and immediately
respond when signs of illness arise. This is not only
applicable to health professionals but also beneficial to
single human being who wants to learn about how our
body parts are put together and how they work.
molecules in turn associate in specific ways to form the
cell, the basic unit of all living things. Inside a cell are
organelles, for example nucleus or mitochondria. Each
organelle performs specific cellular functions.
Next to the level of organization are tissues. A
tissue is composed of similar type of cell that have
common function. An organ is a structure composed of
two or several type of tissues which hold specific function
within an organ system. For instance, the small intestine
has four different type of tissues in its organ, which
performs digestion and absorption of food is part of the
digestive system. An organ system generally composes of
several organs group together to accomplish a common
purpose. An example would be the digestive system that
includes organs such as mouth, esophagus, stomach,
small and large intestines and other organs under it.

This module begins with an overview about this
branch of biology and introduction of terms used to refer
to directions, regions, planes and positions of the body. It
also covers how the body is structured and organized to
function normally to be able to maintain stable conditions.
There are 11 organ systems to be discussed in
this module and these organ systems make up the living
body or the organism, the highest level in the structural
organization.

Unit 1. Definition of Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy is the study of the structure or the

morphology of the body, and the organization of its parts.
Physiology is the study of how the body parts work or
function. These two areas are always related and difficult
to be separated because the parts of the body form a well-
organized unit, each part performs a job to make the body
operates as a whole. For example, our mouth has teeth to
break down food mechanically, a tongue that tastes the
food and manipulates it, salivary gland that produces
saliva containing enzymes to aid in mechanical
breakdown. This begins the process of digestion. The
relationship of anatomy and physiology is highly
emphasized in this discourse for full understanding and
appreciation of our human body. Unit 3. Anatomical Terminology

Whenever we look a large body structure or
organ, example the heart or lungs, we are observing
gross anatomy, simply studying the large, easily
observable structure. The word anatomy is derived from
the Greek word “tomy” meaning to cut, and “ana” meaning
apart, “to cut apart”. The study of body structure that are
too small to be seen by the eye is called microscopic
anatomy, hence cells and tissues fall under this study.
During identification of parts of the human body, it
is important for anatomist to learn some specialized
terminology in reference to body positions, the following
are directional terms that you need to be familiar with in
order to be précised in describing body parts (Figure 4)

Unit 2. Structural Organization of Human Body

The body exhibits many levels of complexity

(Figure 2). The simplest level is an atom, building blocks
Directional Terms
• Anterior (or ventral) - the front or direction toward the
front of the body. The toes are anterior to the foot.
• Posterior (or dorsal) - the back or direction toward the
back of the body. The popliteus is posterior to the patella.
• Superior (or cranial) - a position above or higher than
another part of the body proper. The orbits are superior to
the oris.
• Inferior (or caudal) - a position below or lower than
another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in
humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column).
The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.
• Lateral - the side or direction toward the side of the
body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.
• Medial - the middle or direction toward the middle of the
body. The hallux is the medial toe.
• Proximal - a position in a limb that is nearer to the point
of attachment or the trunk of the body. The brachium is
proximal to the antebrachium.
• Distal - a position in a limb that is farther from the point
of attachment or the trunk of the body. The crus is distal to
the femur.
• Superficial - a position closer to the surface of the body.
The skin is superficial to the bones.
• Deep - a position farther from the surface of the body.
The brain is deep to the skull.
Body Planes
It is also useful to describe the body as having
imaginary flat geometric surfaces passing through it called
planes. These terms are used when dissecting an organ
or body as a whole (Figure 5).
• Sagittal plane - the plane that divides the body or an
organ vertically into right and left sides.
• Midsagittal or median plane- if this vertical plane runs
directly down the middle of the body.
• Parasagittal plane or less commonly a longitudinal
section- if it divides the body into unequal right and left
sides.
• Frontal plane - the plane that divides the body or an
organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear)
portion. The frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal
plane. (“Corona” is Latin for “crown.”)
• Transverse plane - the plane that divides the body or
organ horizontally into upper and lower portions.
Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross
sections.
Figure 6. Planes of the Body. The most commonly used in
anatomical and medical imaging are the sagittal, frontal
(or coronal), and transverse plane.
Body Cavities
The body is divided into two major cavities that
provide certain degree of protection to the organs. These
are dorsal (posterior cavity) and ventral (anterior
cavity). These cavities are subdivided into lesser cavities.
The dorsal cavity contains the organs of the
nervous system that coordinates the body functions. It is
divided into:
• Cranial cavity which contains the brain, and
• Spinal cavity or vertebral cavity which contains the
spinal cord.
The ventral cavity contains organs that are
involved in maintaining homeostasis or a constant
environment within small ranges of deviation. The ventral
cavity allows significant changes in the size and shape of
the organs as they perform their functions. It is also
subdivided into:
• Thoracic cavity is surrounded by the rib cage and
contains the lungs and heart located in the mediastinum.
The mediastinum separates the lungs into right and left
cavities. It also houses the heart, lungs and visceral
organs. The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic
cavity and separates it from abdominopelvic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in the body
which houses the stomach, liver, intestines, pancreas,
spleen and reproductive organs.
Membranes
There are also terms associated to body cavities
and the membranes covering them. Parietal layers of the
membranes or parietal peritoneum line the walls of the
body cavity. Visceral layers of the membrane also term as
visceral peritoneum cover the abdominal organs.
Unit 4. Homeostasis
The survival of an organism depends on its ability
to maintain homeostasis. The word homeostasis
describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable
internal conditions even though the external environment
is continuously changing. It indicates a dynamic state of
equilibrium, or a balance in which internal conditions
change and vary but always within relatively narrow limits.
In general, the body demonstrates homeostasis when its
needs are adequately met and it is functioning smoothly.
Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body
continuously monitor its internal conditions. As the body
works to maintain homeostasis, any significant deviation
from the normal range (restricted set of values that is
optimally healthful and stable, example, normal body
temperature of 370C) will be resisted and homeostasis
restored through a process called negative feedback.
Negative feedback is a mechanism that prevents a
physiological response from going beyond the normal
range by reversing the action once the normal range
exceeded. The maintenance of homeostasis by negative
feedback goes on throughout the
body at all times, and an understanding of negative
feedback is thus fundamental in understanding human
physiology.
A good example of negative feedback is body
temperature regulation. When we go out during summer
day and our body temperature rises above 370C, the
hypothalamus of the brain detects this change and sends
signals to various organs for us to sweat (sweating gives
cooling effect). As water excreted out onto the skin, it
evaporates in the air (evaporation is a cooling process). In
addition, our blood vessels dilate to bring the blood near
the skin’s surface to dissipate body heat. On the other
hand, when the body falls below 370C during cold days,
the hypothalamus sends signals to muscles causing us to
shiver to raise our body temperature. It also allows our
blood vessels to constrict to conserve heat.
Figure 4. Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities. The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their
subdivisions. The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and spinal cavities.
Figure 5. Negative Feedback Loop. In a negative
feedback loop, a stimulus—a deviation from a set point—
is resisted through a physiological process that returns the
body to homeostasis. (a) A negative feedback loop has
four basic parts. (b) Body temperature is regulated by
negative feedback.
Negative feedback system has three basic components
(Figure 5).
• Sensor or Receptor- monitors a physiological value and
reported this to the control center. It responds to changes
called stimuli. The information flows from the receptor to
control center via afferent pathway.
• Control Center- compares the value to the normal
range. When normal range has deviated, the control
center activates the effector. Here, it analyzes the
information it receives and then determines the
appropriate response or course of action.
• Effector- causes change to reverse the situation and
return the value to the normal range. The information
flows from the control center to the effector via efferent
pathway.
Most homeostatic control is through negative
feedback mechanism where the response is to either shut
off the original stimulus or reduce its intensity. Positive
feedback mechanisms happen so rarely in the body
because it tends to enhance the stimulus and the reaction
continues at a very fast rate. Common example would be
blood clotting and birth of a baby. Our organ systems in
the body help control the internal environment of the body
to maintain this homeostasis.
Figure 3. Organ Systems of the Human Body (continued). Organs that work together are grouped into organ systems.
The organism level is the highest level of organization. An organism is a living being that has a cellular structure and that
can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life. In multicellular organisms, including humans, all
cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the body work together to maintain the life and health of the organism.
Figure 2. Organ Systems of the Human Body. Organs that work together are grouped into organ systems. Image source.