Iwasaki Hawii 0085A 10915

GATHERING THE STORY:
APPLYING INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN TO DOCUMENTARY FILM RESEARCH
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY

OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
LEARNING DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY
May 2021
By
Patsy Y. Iwasaki
Dissertation Committee
Curtis P. Ho, Chairperson
Daniel Hoffman
Michael Menchaca
Seungoh Paek
Dennis M. Ogawa
Keywords: instructional design, instructional content development, film studies, documentary

filmmaking, documentary film research and data collection, documentary film instructional
module, five tips from filmmakers, ADDIE design model, ARCS motivational design concepts.
Acknowledgements
It has been a five-year doctoral adventure since I first met with Dr. Curtis Ho, chair of the
LTEC program at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa College of Education in Spring 2015. I
was in Honolulu checking out the different PhD programs and he enthusiastically convinced me
that the first alternative hybrid LTEC PhD cohort set to begin in Fall 2015 would be a good fit
for me, a resident of Hilo already teaching at UH Hilo who wanted to conduct research in the
humanities, specifically film documentary research and studies. The rest, as they say, is now
thankfully history, having completed my three-study format dissertation that successful
integrated learning sciences theory and instructional design with humanities and arts research.
I would like to acknowledge and express my deepest thanks and appreciation to my
dissertation committee members: Dr. Curtis Ho, Dr. Daniel Hoffman, Dr. Michael Menchaca,
Dr. Seungoh Paek, and Dr. Dennis M. Ogawa for their support, guidance, reviews, and for their
constructive and helpful feedback. A special heartfelt thank you goes to Dr. Ho and Dr. Hoffman
for meeting with me throughout the dissertation journey, including summer breaks and a
sabbatical, to provide their knowledge and expertise to help me develop, revise, refine, and
improve my research process and dissertation studies.
Thank you to all of the LTEC faculty and staff, 2015 PhD program cohort members,
other LTEC students and alumni, and my UH Hilo English department colleagues who helped
me on this academic quest. Thank you very much to the professional filmmakers for sharing their
vast, impressive filmmaking experience and wisdom with me, and to the students who
participated in the research and shared their important and relevant feedback. Thank you to the
LTEC Student Travel Committee for funding the registration to the International Academic
Forum’s 11th Asian Conference on Media, Communication & Film that was held in Kyoto, Japan
virtually in fall 2020; and to the UH Mānoa Graduate Student Organization for funding
equipment that helped with my research and data collection.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to my husband Alan and
children Kellie and Jairus who have gifted me with their constant encouragement, patient
understanding, and ardent support during my PhD journey that enabled me to have the
persistence, endurance, and energy to cross the finish line. I also want to acknowledge my
parents, although no longer here to share in my accomplishments, but who grounded me in my
rich, immigrant roots and empowered me to see the world through diverse perspectives.
ii
Abstract
The documentary film genre is a powerful and influential information and
communication medium that educates, inspires, and motivates its audience. Its increasing
utilization in education timely coincides with technological advances in film and video
production today. What has historically been an expensive and prohibitive undertaking is now a
progressively democratic endeavor using inexpensive equipment and software. Information on
the overall documentary filmmaking process is available; however, literature on the subject
research and data collection step of documentary filmmaking, which is crucial to the production
process, is limited. The three studies that comprise this dissertation addressed this gap by
designing and developing an online instructional module about subject research and data
collection for documentary film, and then implementing and evaluating that module. A three-
manuscript format was used, each presenting a different approach and methodology, but they
were all connected and integrated with the same overarching content focus and conceptual
frameworks: the ARCS model of motivation and the ADDIE model of instructional design. The
first study in Chapter 3 used an interpretive qualitative approach to explore and capture the real-
world wisdom and expertise of professional documentary filmmakers from their actual
filmmaking experiences with research and data collection. After analysis and interpretation were
completed, the results were presented as beneficial suggestions to guide and assist beginner and
student filmmakers with subject research and data collection for documentary film. The second
study in Chapter 4 used the results from Chapter 3 to develop the content of the instructional
module. In addition, Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning informed and guided the
development of the module. Multiple formative assessments were conducted with qualified,
experienced reviewers which informed the strategic design decisions with each iteration. What
started out as a basic, simple educational resource evolved to become a content rich, technology-
enhanced, interactive, user-friendly, instructional module on a website. The third study in
Chapter 5 used a mixed methods approach to gather data from the implementation of the
instructional module with the target audience, the beginner and student filmmakers who are
exploring documentary film production. Participants successfully reviewed the module and
completed evaluation surveys that were designed to examine the educational value of the
module. After analysis and interpretation were completed, the significant findings confirmed that
the instructional module did indeed have a positive, educational impact on the target audience
iii
and accomplished its purpose. The overall goal was to add an original, quality educational
resource to help beginner and student documentary filmmakers share their meaningful stories
with the world using the increasingly accessible and effective medium of film. The use of this
relevant and informative instructional module will be helpful as a constructivist educational
resource. It will contribute to the literature of documentary film research and studies, and the
fields of instructional design, education, and the humanities. This research project successfully
and innovatively merged social sciences theory and instructional design with humanities and arts
research. It has significant potential to influence and impact the broad possibilities of
interdisciplinary and intersectional research design and collaboration.
iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xiii
Chapter 1. Introduction................................................................................................................ 1
Phase I Consulting the Filmmakers ............................................................................................ 5
Phase II Designing the Instructional Module.............................................................................. 6
Phase III Evaluating the Instructional Module ........................................................................... 6
Background and Supporting Literature ....................................................................................... 7
The Problem Focus ..................................................................................................................... 9
Structure of the Dissertation ..................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................... 12
Conceptual Frameworks ........................................................................................................... 13
ARCS Model of Motivational Design .............................................................................. 14
Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning ................................................................ 17
ADDIE Model of Instructional Design ............................................................................. 18
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................... 19
Resarch Design and Methodology ............................................................................................ 19
Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................... 20
Participants ................................................................................................................. 20
Consent Process ......................................................................................................... 21
Instruments and Procedure ......................................................................................... 21
Data Collection and Analysis..................................................................................... 22
Interviews with Participants ............................................................................... 23
v
Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................... 26
Development and Procedure ...................................................................................... 26
First Prototype .................................................................................................... 27
First Formative Assessment ............................................................................... 30
Second Prototype ............................................................................................... 31
Second Formative Assessment .......................................................................... 32
Third Prototype .................................................................................................. 33
Third Formative Assessment ............................................................................. 33
Fourth Prototype ................................................................................................ 34
Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................... 35
Participants ................................................................................................................. 36
Consent Process ......................................................................................................... 37
Instruments and Procedure ......................................................................................... 38
Data Collection and Analysis..................................................................................... 40
Pre-Module Survey ............................................................................................ 40
In-Module Surveys on the Five Tips ................................................................. 42
Post-Module Survey........................................................................................... 46
Rigor ......................................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................... 52
First Formative Assessment ....................................................................................... 53
Second Formative Assessment .................................................................................. 53
Third Formative Assessment ..................................................................................... 53
Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................... 54
Definition of Key Terms ........................................................................................................... 55
Chapter 2. Literature Review .................................................................................................... 57
Documentary Film Description and Background ..................................................................... 58
Documentary Film as Research Practice .................................................................................. 61
Steps to a Documentary Film .................................................................................................... 62
Lack of Subject Research and Data Collection Information .................................................... 65
ARCS Model of Motivation...................................................................................................... 68
vi
Background ....................................................................................................................... 70
Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction .......................................................... 70
Research and Practice ....................................................................................................... 73
Phase I, II, and III (Chapters 3, 4 and 5) ........................................................................... 75
Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning ........................................................................ 76
ADDIE Model of Instructional Design ..................................................................................... 79
Background ....................................................................................................................... 79
Research and Practice ....................................................................................................... 80
Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate ....................................................... 82
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 84
Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................................................... 86
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 86
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 87
Literature Review...................................................................................................................... 89
Documentary Film Production .......................................................................................... 89
Documentary Film Application in Education ................................................................... 90
The Current Study ..................................................................................................................... 91
Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 92
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 92
Research Design................................................................................................................ 93
ARCS Model of Motivational Design ....................................................................... 93
Instruments ........................................................................................................................ 94
Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 95
Rigor ................................................................................................................................. 95
Results ....................................................................................................................................... 96
Interviews with Participants .............................................................................................. 97
Review ............................................................................................................................ 100
Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 102
Conclusion and Future Research ............................................................................................ 103
Chapter 3 References .............................................................................................................. 105
Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................... 109
vii
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 109
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 110
Literature Review.................................................................................................................... 111
Documentary Film Production Process .......................................................................... 111
Documentary Film and Technology ............................................................................... 114
Documentary Film and Education .................................................................................. 114
The Current Study ................................................................................................................... 115
Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 116
Analyze ........................................................................................................................... 116
Problem Identification ............................................................................................. 117
Needs Assessment .................................................................................................... 117
Task Analysis ........................................................................................................... 119
Design ............................................................................................................................. 119
ARCS Model of Motivational Design ..................................................................... 119
Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning ....................................................... 122
Development ................................................................................................................... 122
First Prototype .......................................................................................................... 123
First Formative Assessment ..................................................................................... 125
Second Prototype ..................................................................................................... 126
Second Formative Assessment ................................................................................ 127
Third Prototype ........................................................................................................ 128
Third Formative Assessment ................................................................................... 128
Fourth Prototype ...................................................................................................... 129
Implementation and Evaluation ...................................................................................... 131
Discussion and Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 131
Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................................... 139
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 139
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 140
Literature Review.................................................................................................................... 141
Steps to a Documentary .................................................................................................. 141
viii
Documentary Film and Technology ............................................................................... 143
Documentary Film and Education .................................................................................. 143
How Documentary Films are used in Education ..................................................... 143
How Students Learn about Documentary Filmmaking ........................................... 144
The Current Study ................................................................................................................... 145
Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 146
Research Design.............................................................................................................. 146
ADDIE Model of Instructional Design .................................................................... 147
Participants ...................................................................................................................... 151
Instructional Module ....................................................................................................... 152
Instruments ...................................................................................................................... 155
ARCS Model of Motivational Design ..................................................................... 156
Pre-Module Survey .................................................................................................. 157
In-Module Surveys on the Five Tips ....................................................................... 158
Post-Module Survey................................................................................................. 158
Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 159
Results ..................................................................................................................................... 161
Pre-Module Survey ......................................................................................................... 161
In-Module Surveys on the Five Tips .............................................................................. 163
Post-Module Survey........................................................................................................ 168
Discussion and Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 173
Chapter 6 Discussion and Conclusion ..................................................................................... 181
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 181
Methodologies......................................................................................................................... 182
Major Findings ........................................................................................................................ 183
Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................... 183
Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................... 186
Chapter 5 ......................................................................................................................... 187
Connecting the Findings ......................................................................................................... 191
Documentation of Artistic, Creative Endeavor ............................................................... 193
ix
Addressed the Lack of Literature .................................................................................... 194
ARCS Motivational Model ............................................................................................. 194
Importance of Experts in Content Development ............................................................ 195
Contributions to Theory .......................................................................................................... 196
Keller’s ARCS Motivational Model ............................................................................... 196
ADDIE Model of Instructional Design ........................................................................... 196
Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning .............................................................. 197
Significance of Body of Work ................................................................................................ 197
Implications for Practice ......................................................................................................... 199
Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 200
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................. 201
Conclusions and Summary ..................................................................................................... 203
Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 206
Appendix A - Questions to Phase I Participant Sample: Professional Filmmakers ............... 206
Appendix B - Evaluation Surveys to Phase III Participant Sample: Student Filmmakers ..... 207
Appendix C - Journaling, Field Notes and Observations Template ....................................... 209
Appendix D - Recruitment Email: Professional Filmmakers ................................................. 210
Appendix E - Consent Form: Professional Filmmakers ......................................................... 211
Appendix F - Recruitment Presentation: Student Filmmakers ............................................... 214
Appendix G - Consent Form: Student Filmmakers ................................................................ 215
Appendix H - Recruitment Email: Student Filmmakers ......................................................... 218
Dissertation References .............................................................................................................. 219
x
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Six Primary Types of Documentary Films
Table 1.2 Keller’s ARCS Model Concepts and Definitions
Table 1.3 Alignment of Qualitative Interview Questions and Answers with ARCS
Table 1.4 Five Major Recommendations from Professional Filmmakers and ARCS
Table 1.5 Average Interest and Familiarity Ratings from Pre-Module Survey
Table 1.6 Examples of Pre-Module Survey Answers and Relationship with ARCS
Table 1.7 Examples of Qualitative Results from the Instructional Module’s Five Tips
Table 1.8 Average Interest and Familiarity Ratings from Post-Module Survey
Table 1.9 Post-Module Survey Qualitative Question Answers and Alignment with ARCS
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Six Primary Types of Documentary Films
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Alignment of Qualitative Interview Questions and Answers with ARCS
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Steps to a Documentary
Table 5.2 Five Major Tips from Professional Filmmakers and ARCS
Table 5.4 Examples of Pre-Module Survey Questions
Table 5.5 Example of Post-Module Survey Questions and ARCS Concept “Attention”
Table 5.6 Average Interest and Familiarity Ratings from Pre-Module Survey
Table 5.7 Examples of Pre-Module Survey Answers and Relationship with ARCS
Table 5.8 Examples of Results from the Instructional Module’s Five Tips
Table 5.9 Post-Module Survey Quantitative Question Answers and ARCS
Table 5.10 Post-Module Survey Qualitative Question Answers and ARCS
xi
Chapter 6
Table 6.2 Post-Module Survey Quantitative Question Answers and ARCS
Table 6.3 Post-Module Survey Qualitative Question Answers and ARCS
xii
List of Figures
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Representation of the ADDIE Model used in the Dissertation
Figure 1.2 First Prototype of the Module
Figure 1.3 Second Prototype of the Module
Figure 1.4 Screenshot of “Tip 1. Do the Research” page from the website
Figure 1.5 Class Standings of the Participants
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Keller’s ARCS Model
Figure 2.2 Representation of the ADDIE Model used in the Dissertation
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 First Prototype of the Module
Figure 4.2 Second Prototype of the Module
Figure 4.4 Screenshot of “Tip 2. Tell the Story Visually” page from the website
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Representation of the ADDIE Model used in Chapter 5
Figure 5.2 Facts about the Participants’ Profile in Chapter 5
Figure 5.3 Class Standings of the Participants
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Representation of the ADDIE Model used in Chapter 4
xiii
This dissertation features the three-study format option that the Learning Design and
Technology Department at the UH Mānoa College of Education offers to doctoral students to
help build their portfolios for careers in research or academia. Each of the three studies presents
a different approach and methodology, but they all are connected and integrated with the same
overarching content focus and each study operationalizes the same conceptual frameworks.
Chapter 1 features an introduction with the overall background information, conceptual
frameworks, research designs and methodology, rigor, and the definition of key terms of the
dissertation. This chapter includes informative summaries with tables and figures of the
following for each of the three studies: participants, consent process, instruments and procedure,
and data collection and analysis. For a complete discussion and documentation of the three
studies, please see chapters 3, 4 and 5 of this dissertation. Chapter 2 is a traditional literature
review. Three individual stand-alone studies comprise Chapters 3, 4 and 5. The dissertation ends
with a concluding Chapter 6 that connects the important and relevant findings and discusses
contributions to theory, significance of work, implications for practice, recommendations for
future research, and the benefits of the three-study option for this dissertation.
Chapter 1 Introduction
communication medium that is widely recognized and utilized successfully in educational
settings (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston, Vanstone & Chi, 2017). Its
increasing use in education timely coincides with technological advances in film and video
production today. What has historically been a very expensive and prohibitive undertaking is
now a progressively egalitarian vocation; documentary filmmaking can now be accomplished
with inexpensive equipment, software applications and smartphones (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018;
Winston et al., 2017). Democratizing the industry from restrictive costs allows more people,
young and old, from diverse populations, to actively participate in telling meaningful stories via
documentary film.
Information about the overall documentary filmmaking process is available and sources
suggest many steps (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire,
2014). The first step is quite straightforward: find a topic or subject that is important to the
filmmaker and others. The second step is research and data collection, which is crucial to the
1
documentary film process because it determines the content of the film (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell,
2011; Frank 2013; Winston, et al., 2017). Research and data collection include background,
history and context of the subject, as well as the interesting, emotional and inspiring material
featuring the key points that will resonate with the audience.
However, the literature on this step appears to be more ambiguous and limited. In fact,
there is a notable lack of information and educational resources on the “research and collection”
step. This is a problem as many beginners and students exploring documentary film production
might need help to know how to begin subject research and data collection for documentary film
and there are no relevant, easy-to-use resources. As documentary filmmaking becomes a more
accessible endeavor due to technological advancements, there is a greater need for educational
resources to support this essential part of the film process. There is a clear need for informative,
beneficial, user-friendly educational resources to fill this gap. In this dissertation, educational
resources refers to the information, instruction, or processes available in literature on how to
conduct research and collect data for documentary film (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank,
2013; Winston et al., 2017).
Therefore, the overall goal of this dissertation was to develop an original, quality
educational resource for documentary film subject research and data collection that may guide
and assist student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film production. The
educational resource designed in this dissertation has been labeled “instructional module”
because of the outcome of the progressive, iterative instructional design process that was applied.
What started out as a basic, simple educational resource evolved to become a content rich,
technology-enhanced, interactive instructional module on a website. This dissertation will use
the term “educational resource” to define any resource available in literature about subject
research and data collection; and will use the term “instructional module” to define the specific
resource that was designed and developed in this dissertation.
This module is intended to help beginner and student filmmakers share their valuable
stories with the world more quickly and efficiently. This guidance in the film process would not
only benefit beginner and student filmmakers, but also audiences and society at large (Leavy,
2015; Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018). Audiences would be able to gain expanded learning
opportunities with an increased availability of timely documentaries from filmmakers. Although
technology has evolved and nearly everyone in the industry uses digital video recording methods
2
rather than photographic film stock, the terms “film,” “filmmaker” and “filmmaking” are still
used today and will be used in this study to define traditional film stock or digital video and the
person who controls and communicates perceptions, ideas, stories, and feelings using moving
images and sound (AMC Filmsite, 2020; Studio Binder, 2020).
The documentary is a genre in the motion picture, film and video media field. It is a
nonfictional documentation of fact-based reality, and its purpose can be to provide information,
increase understanding, or preserve the historical record. Aufderheide (2007) defines a
documentary as a film or video that “tells a story about real life, with claims to truthfulness”
(p. 2). Documentary film’s grounding in reality and facts, rather than fiction, makes it an
extremely powerful medium, providing images, narratives, sounds and experiences that can
educate and inspire its viewer audience (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018). The documentary film’s
accessibility and relevance to broad and diverse audiences can increase engagement in a
technology-connected world (Friend & Caruthers, 2016; Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018), and it is
widely used successfully in educational practice today to engage learners of all ages (Frank,
2013; Nash, Hight, & Summerhayes, 2014; Winston et al., 2017). Documentary film has become
an extremely popular and well-received medium of information and communication for all
audiences, including educational and training settings (Goldman, Pea, Barron, & Derry, 2007;
Nash et al., 2014; West, Hoffman, & Costello, 2017).
For the most part, traditional documentary film takes a highly subjective approach; the
filmmaker directs the entire process, from subject selection, research, and data collection from
resources, to creative approaches (Bell, 2011; Friend & Caruthers, 2016). Filmmakers claim that
making a documentary can be one of the most fulfilling and rewarding, yet extremely
challenging creative endeavors (Adorama Learning Center, 2018). It can be a thrilling adventure,
but it can also be very difficult because there are no definitive rules or procedures. It is a
creative, artistic process, and one learns by intuitively doing what is necessary to move the
project to completion. It is often a long, complicated process involving many steps including
budgeting, planning, script writing, production, editing and distribution (Adorama Learning
Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014). Since the documentary
filmmaking process is so formidable and arduous, the choice of subject needs to be something
the filmmaker cares about deeply and completely, and needs to be both energizing and sustaining
for the long journey (Studio Binder, 2018).
3
In order to help address the problem of inadequate educational resources in the area of
research and data collection for documentary film, the three research studies in this dissertation
(Chapters 3-5) were conducted in three phases and data was collected in two of the phases with
two participant sample groups in chapters 3 and 5. The first phase of the dissertation (Phase I) in
Chapter 3 collected data to design an instructional module for documentary film subject research
and data collection. The participants in Phase I were comprised of professional filmmakers. The
data collected from the participants about film documentary research and data collection was
analyzed, interpreted, organized and condensed to become the content in the instructional
module for documentary film subject research and data collection that was developed in the
second phase (Phase II) in Chapter 4. The third phase of the study (Phase III) in Chapter 5
reviewed and evaluated the educational value of the module. The participants in Phase III were
comprised of student filmmakers.
Each of the three studies featured a different approach and methodology, and produced
distinct outcomes in the overall dissertation plan, but they were all connected and integrated with
the same overarching content focus and utilized the same conceptual framework, Keller’s ARCS
model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017). The ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick,
Carey, & Carey, 2001; McGriff, 2000; Molenda, 2015; Molenda, Pershing, & Reigeluth 1996;
Serhat, 2017) was used as the systematic design process that bridged across the three chapters of
the dissertation. Figure 1.1 shows a representation of the ADDIE model of instruction process
that was used in the chapters of this dissertation.
4
ADDIE
Model of
Instructional Design
PHASE II: EVALUATION PHASE III: ANALYSIS

(Chapter 5) (Chapter 5)
Evaluate the results of the Analyze and determine what is
implementation of the instructional needed:
module and evaluation surveys with Problem identification.
the target audience.
Summative assessment; results of the Needs assessment of the target
evaluation surveys. audience.
PHASE I and II: DESIGN

PHASE II: IMPLEMENTATION (Chapters 3 and 4)
(Chapter 5) Design the content (Chapter 3)
Implement the instructional module and the module (Chapter 4):
with the target audience. Use the ARCS model to inform
Implement the evaluation surveys and guide the design.
for the instructional module. Use Mayer’s 12 principles of
multimedia learning.
PHASE II: DEVELOPMENT
(Chapter 4)
Develop prototypes of the
module:
Conduct formative assessments.
Three prototypes to be reviewed.
Each assessment informs and
guides the design decisions for
the next iteration.
Figure 1.1. Representation of the ADDIE model design process used in this dissertation.
Phase I Consulting the Filmmakers

The purpose of Phase I (Chapter 3) was to collect data from the first participant sample
group, the professional filmmakers, to design an educational resource to assist with research and
data collection for documentary filmmaking. This purposive sample group was comprised of 11
participants out of a pool of 14 professional filmmakers in the Asia-Pacific region with extended
professional practice and experience in documentary film. Besides other requirements discussed
in the Participants section of the study on page 106 in Chapter 3, the professional filmmakers
were required to have completed a minimum of one to two documentary films with public
distribution on a topic that is relevant or related to Hawai‘i, or who is based in Hawai‘i.
The ARCS model of motivation concepts (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) served as the
framework to design the data collection instrument, the interview questions. After semi-
5
structured interviews were conducted with the participants, and then transcribed, an inductive
approach was implemented in phases to analyze, interpret and categorize the data. Five major
themes emerged about how participants approached subject research and data collection for
documentary film. For a complete discussion and documentation of the research study in Phase I,
please see Chapter 3 of this dissertation which begins on page 100.
Phase II Designing the Instructional Module

The five recommendations in Phase I (Chapter 3) were then used as the content to
develop the educational resource in Phase II (Chapter 4). In this study, in addition to Keller’s
ARCS motivational model (1983, 2010, 2017), Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning
(2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) served as an additional framework to inform
and guide the development of the resource. While applying educational best practices, the
ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001, 2001; McGriff, 2000;
Molenda, 2015; Molenda et al., 1996; Serhat, 2017) systematically guided and organized the
study’s learning design process. During the development phase, multiple formative assessments
on the prototypes were conducted with experienced educator/reviewers which informed the
strategic design decisions with each iteration. A basic, simple educational resource evolved to
become an engaging, online, interactive instructional module on a website that featured the five
major themes which were renamed as five tips for filmmaking. The educational “resource” final
product was also appropriately renamed as an “instructional module” in the fourth and final
iteration in Chapter 4.
Phase III Evaluating the Instructional Module

Phase III (Chapter 5) of the dissertation focused on implementing the instructional
module and evaluating its educational value which was designed and developed to aid students
with subject research and data collection for documentary film. In order to test the instructional
module with its intended audience, student filmmakers, implementation was conducted with a
target group with appropriately matching demographics. This sample group was comprised of 17
participants out of a pool of 20 attending an 11-week non-credit film and video production
course at a comprehensive four-year university in the western United States, and other students
interested in documentary film production at the same institution. The ARCS model of
6
motivation concepts (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) served as the framework to design the
quantitative and qualitative data collection instruments while using a convergent mixed methods
approach (Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2007, 2009, 2015, 2018). After implementation, analysis and
interpretation were completed, the findings confirmed that the instructional module had a
successful, positive, educational impact on the target audience. For a complete discussion and
documentation of the research study in Phase III, please see Chapter 5 of this dissertation which
begins on page 139.
To summarize, this research dissertation was designed to add a relevant and useful
instructional module to guide and assist student filmmakers on how to conduct research and
collect data for a documentary film. Such a module may help student filmmakers share their
meaningful stories using the influential medium of film that is becoming increasingly accessible
through affordable equipment and technology (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston et al., 2017).
Background and Supporting Literature

Many in the documentary film field stand by the six primary types of documentaries
established by Bill Nichols (2012), a Swedish film critic, theoretician and educator, best known
for founding the contemporary study of documentary film (Biesterfeld, 2019). Table 1.1 below
lists the six primary types of documentaries.
Table 1.1. Six Primary Types of Documentary Films

Expository: Research and aims to educate and explain using interviews, visuals, photos and
graphics with scripted narration.
Observational: Observation with the filmmaker as a neutral observer and it often called cinema
verite, direct cinema or fly-on-the-wall documentary.
Participatory: Direct engagement between the filmmaker and subjects of the film.
Reflexive: The constructed nature of the documentary and flaunts it.
Cinematic values of visuals, design, composition and rhythm over content.
Performative: A “being there” perspective in a location, culture or event and its impact on the
audience.
7
Other categories exist and may be called by a variety of names, but they generally fall
under the six primary types. Some of the other categories include: biography, sociological or
ethnographic examination, history, concert, live performance, expose, subject examination,
nature and science-related themes, “making of” or “behind the scenes,” mocku-mentary, docu-
drama, docu-comedy and pseudo-documentary (Aufderheide, 2007; AMC Filmsite, 2018).
Documentary films are used for a variety of purposes in various fields. One purpose is for
entertainment; another is social commentary. Yet another is educational research and instruction.
With internet accessibility, digital technologies, and lower production costs, documentaries have
escalated and their use in research and instruction across the disciplines has increased (Leavy,
2015; Winston, et al., 2017). Social science research (Frank, 2013; Goldman et al., 2007)
including anthropology, often utilizes documentary film using terms such as ethnographic film
and ethnocinema (Leavy, 2015). Video Research in the Learning Sciences provides a
comprehensive exploration of key theoretical and methodological use of documentary film in
studies (Goldman et al., 2007).
Frank (2013) sought to expand awareness of the vast and important educational
applications of documentary film and Bell (2011) emphasized the importance of the genre in
historiographical research and scholarship. Documentary film is now used in many different
research and educational contexts and presentations using a wide reach of styles and approaches.
They can range from loosely planned, informal short projects to fully storyboarded, scripted and
rehearsed professional productions that require hiring a cinematographer, crew and staff, as well
as a cast and actors for reenactments. Some may also feature the researcher(s), participants, and
other sources (Leavy, 2015; Leavy & Chilton, 2014).
The people making documentary films vary widely, from high-profile celebrities to
relatively unfamiliar, perhaps beginner and student filmmakers. While one end of the
documentary film spectrum lists significant, successful filmmakers such as Michael Moore,
whose Fahrenheit 9/11 earned over $221 million in the United States and international box
office revenues in 2015 (IndieWire, 2014), and 33 million Americans watched Ken Burns’ The
Roosevelts: An Intimate History (Burns, 2014), the other end is no less important. Increased
accessibility and lower equipment costs help filmmakers share their stories and experiences
globally. People and voices who were in the past ignored, excluded and dismissed can now be
8
heard, with reference to the smartphone’s filming capabilities, advances in digital film and
editing, along with free and low-cost software applications (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston
et al., 2017).
When it comes to making a documentary film, subject research and data collection is a
critical step in the film process because it determines the film’s content. While subject research
and data collection are recommended in academic and popular literature, a review reveals that
educational resources about how to conduct this important step in the documentary film process
are lacking. Thus, the focus of this dissertation was to design and develop an educational
resource that may address this gap and help student filmmakers share their valuable stories with
the world. This resource would not only benefit beginner and student filmmakers, but also
audiences and society at large (Leavy, 2015; Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018). Audiences would be
able to gain expanded learning opportunities with an increased availability of timely
documentaries from filmmakers.
An academic search about documentary film resulted in a list of important scholarship
about documentary analysis; however, there are few resources addressing the “how to basics” of
research and data collection for a documentary film. A popular search revealed abundant “How
to Make a Documentary” step-by-step guides or “insider tips” such as Michael Moore’s 13 Rules
for Making Documentary Films, yet again, there is no substantial guidance on the research and
gathering of data (Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014). An educational resource that
would guide and assist student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film
production would be very helpful with this essential step.
The Problem Focus

Documentary film is widely recognized, encouraged and used successfully in educational
practice and public scholarship today to engage learners of all ages. Information related to the
overall documentary filmmaking process is available; however, there is a lack of literature and
educational resources about subject research and data collection which is an essential step in the
documentary film process because it determines the film’s content (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell,
2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). A review of academic and popular sources reveals that
educational resources about how to conduct this important step of the documentary film process
are limited. In this study, educational resources refers to the information, instruction, or
9
processes available in literature on how to conduct research and data collection for documentary
film (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). Generally, the entire
practice may appear to be lacking the kind of systematic approach that is used in other fields
such as instructional learning and design. Applying a methodical approach could increase
learning and successful outcomes (Anderson & Dron, 2011; Dunaway, 2011; Gagne, Wager,
Golas, & Keller, 2005; Russell, 2005).
Due to advances in equipment and technology, documentary filmmaking and the
possibility of sharing stories have significantly increased; yet the availability of educational
resources has not followed suit. There should be a corresponding amount of information and
educational resources on how to conduct subject research and data collection for documentary
film, a crucial step in the documentary film process. This is a disadvantage for many beginners
and students exploring documentary film production who might not know how to begin or may
need help in the area of subject research and data collection for documentary film. Thus, there is
a clear need for informative, beneficial, user-friendly educational resources to fill this gap. The
design, development and evaluation of an educational resource for documentary film subject
research and data collection would help address this need.
Therefore, this dissertation features three separate, stand-alone research studies that
support an overarching goal of designing, developing, implementing and evaluating an
educational resource intended to guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers with
documentary film subject research and data collection. A progressive, integrated approach
connects them all together. Phase I (Chapter 3) captured the valuable wisdom and expertise of
professional filmmakers from their actual filmmaking experiences. This information was
categorized and condensed into five beneficial recommendations to guide and assist beginner and
student filmmakers. Phase II (Chapter 4) developed the information from Chapter 3 into a
content-rich, interactive, online, and easy-to-use instructional module on a website. Results from
the target audience in Phase III (Chapter 5) successfully confirmed the educational value and
quality of the instructional module because of its content and format. The instructional module
addresses the lack of literature and educational resources about subject research and data
collection for documentary film. There is potential for the use of this relevant and important
10
instructional module that will contribute to the educational resources and literature of
documentary film research and studies, and the fields of instructional design, education, and the
humanities.
Structure of the Dissertation

The research in this dissertation is presented in three chapters. The researcher elected to
pursue the three-study dissertation option that the Learning Design and Technology Department
at the UH Mānoa College of Education offers to doctoral students with the intent to aid them in
building their portfolios for careers in research or academia. Each of the three studies is a stand-
alone research article featuring a different and unique approach and method. However, they all
had the same overarching content focus and goal of designing, developing, implementing and
evaluating an educational resource intended to guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers
with documentary film subject research and data collection. A progressive, integrated approach
and the utilization of the same conceptual frameworks connects all of the studies together. The
research and data collection instruments in all three studies were informed and guided by a well-
established model in motivation and instructional design, Keller’s ARCS model (Keller, 1983,
2010, 2017), which also guided the analysis and interpretation of the data collected in the studies.
The ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2001; McGriff,
2000; Molenda, 2015; Molenda, Pershing, & Reigeluth 1996; Serhat, 2017) was used as the
systematic design process that bridged across the three chapters of the dissertation.
Chapter 3
The first study in Chapter 3 focused on capturing and collecting professional filmmakers’
knowledge, experiences and insight on subject research and data collection for documentary
film. It discussed the study’s application of Keller’s ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) of
motivation as a framework to guide, develop and design the interview questions to the
professional documentary filmmakers, as well as the analysis and interpretation of their
interview transcriptions. The study discussed the findings of the professional filmmakers’
experiences with documentary film subject research and data collection and categorized the
emergent dominant themes into five major beneficial recommendations designed to guide and
assist beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary film production.
11
The abstract of this study was assessed and accepted in a double-blind peer review, and a
20-minute presentation was given online November 12-14, 2020 at the IAFOR (International
Academic Forum) 11th Asian Conference on Media, Communication & Film (MediAsia) held
virtually from Kyoto, Japan. The full article was subsequently published in the MediAsia official
conference proceedings publication and became available online in January 2021.
Chapter 4
The completion of the research in Chapter 3 led the way for the study in Chapter 4. The
information that resulted from Phase I (Chapter 3) was used as the content to design and develop
the instructional module in Phase II (Chapter 4). In addition to Keller’s ARCS model concepts,
Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011)
served as the frameworks to inform and guide the design and development of the module. The
ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Serhat,
2017) systematically guided and organized the study’s learning design process. Multiple
formative assessments were conducted with experienced educators/reviewers which informed the
prototype design modifications with each iteration. After three iterations, a basic, simple
educational resource became a content-rich, technology-enhanced, interactive, instructional
module on a website that featured the five major recommendations from Chapter 3.
Targeted outlets for submission of the article include Innovations in Education and
Teaching International, Tech Trends – Linking Research and Practice, Educational Technology
Research and Development, The International Journal of Design Education, The International
Journal of New Media, Technology and the Arts, IAFOR Journal of Media, Communication &
Film, and the International Journal of Humanities Education.
Chapter 5
Chapter 5 presented the research and results from Phase III regarding the data collected
from the second participant sample group, the target audience comprised of beginner and student
filmmakers exploring documentary film production. The empirical study discussed the findings
from the implementation and evaluation of the instructional module by the target audience.
Keller’s ARCS model of motivation (Keller, 1983, 2010; 2017) served as the framework to
analyze and interpret the data collected from the student filmmakers. The ADDIE model (Allen,
12
2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Serhat, 2017) systematically organized the learning
design process for the study. The results convincingly confirmed that the instructional module
did indeed have a positive, educational impact on the participants and successfully accomplished
its purpose.
Possible targeted outlets include New Directions for Teaching and Learning, The
Learning & Technology Library, IAFOR Journal of Education, IAFOR Journal of Media,
Communication & Film, Journal of Film & Video, The International Journal of New Media,
Tech Trends – Linking Research and Practice, and Technology and the Arts.
Conceptual Frameworks
This study sought to address the problem of a lack of educational resources about how to
conduct research and collect data for documentary film. As explained earlier, educational
resources in this study refers to the information, instruction, or processes available in literature
on how to conduct research and collect data for documentary film. (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell,
2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). The dissertation addressed the lack of educational
resources by designing, developing, implementing and evaluating an instructional module that
will inform, guide and assist student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film
production.
Although the three studies featured different approaches and methods, they were all
connected and integrated. In addition to applying educational best practices, each study produced
a specific outcome in the overall plan, process and goal of the dissertation. The research and data
collection instruments in all three studies were informed and guided by a well-established model
in motivation and instructional design, Keller’s ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017;
Peterson, 2003; Pappas, 2015), to increase the likelihood that the instructional module and
evaluation instruments would resonate with the target audience, beginner and student
filmmakers. The ARCS model also guided the analysis and interpretation of the data collected in
the studies. Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark &
Mayer, 2011) was also applied to the design and development of the instructional module in
Phase II (Chapter 4). After the third iteration of the instructional module was completed, all of
Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia learning were successfully utilized.
13
ARCS Model of Motivational Design
The ARCS motivational factors of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction
(Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Peterson, 2003; Pappas, 2015) (see Table 1.2 on the next page) are
strongly applicable to the field of documentary film with similar motivational goals for
documentary filmmakers, whether they are veterans or students (educators/instructional
designers), and their audience (learners/students) (Astleitner & Hufnagl, 2003; Bugis, 2018;
Hodges & Kim, 2013; Keller & Suzuki, 2004; West et al., 2017). While the educational and
motivational goals for documentary filmmakers may not be referred to as “instructional design,”
their objectives are very similar to educators and instructional designers: to increase knowledge
and educate. These are the primary reasons most documentary filmmakers produce films and
they do so through appropriate, motivational methods of film and video production (Frank, 2013;
Nash et al., 2014; Winston et al., 2017).
The ARCS model was selected for this dissertation’s conceptual framework because it
informed and guide the researcher through the process of design and development of: 1) the data
collection instruments in Phase I (Chapter 3) and Phase III (Chapter 5) of the dissertation, 2) the
instructional module in Phase II (Chapter 4), and 3) the interpretation and analysis of the data
collected in Phase I and III. The ARCS model was used to ensure that the design and
development of the interviews in Phase I (Chapter 3) with the professional filmmakers addressed
the topic of subject research and data collection from four important perspectives: attention,
relevance, confidence and satisfaction. In Phase III (Chapter 5), the ARCS model ensured that
the evaluation surveys about the instructional module, which were completed by the student
filmmakers, analyzed and interpreted the data that was collected from the same four
perspectives.
14
Table 1.2. Keller’s ARCS Model Concepts and Definitions
Attention
● Capturing interest and curiosity
● Perception and by inquiry
● Connection and participation
● Specific, relatable examples; conflict and variety
Relevance
● Immediate application
● Set example through experience
● Set example through role models
● Future usefulness
Confidence
● Enable self-confidence
● Facilitate self-growth
● Give learners control
● Ability to provide feedback
Satisfaction
● Immediate application of information
● Useful application in the future
● Acquire real world knowledge and skills
● Enable positive outcomes
In Phase I (Chapter 3) of the dissertation with the first set of participants, the professional
filmmakers, the ARCS model informed and guided:
• The design and development of the interview questions to filmmakers about their
experiences in documentary film subject research and data collection.
• The analysis and interpretation of the qualitative data. The results were categorized
into dominant themes aligned with the ARCS model concepts.
In Phase II (Chapter 4) of the dissertation the ARCS model informed and guided:
• The design and development of the instructional module for documentary film
subject research and data collection for student filmmakers learning about and
exploring documentary.
In Phase III (Chapter 5) of the dissertation, with the second set of participants, the
students exploring documentary film production, the ARCS model informed and guided:
15
• The design and development of the quantitative and qualitative surveys evaluating
the educational value of the instructional module for documentary film subject
research and data collection.
• The analysis and interpretation of the quantitative data collected from the surveys
evaluating the educational value of the instructional module.
• The analysis and interpretation of the qualitative data. The results were categorized
into dominant themes aligned with the ARCS model concepts.
Here is a sampling of the qualitative questions (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016) that
were asked of the first set of participants in the study, the professional filmmakers, in Phase I
(Chapter 3) of the dissertation which were guided by the ARCS model concepts of attention,
relevance, confidence and satisfaction (see Appendix A for a complete list of interview
questions):
• How do you approach research and data collection to capture the attention or curiosity of
your audience and maintain interest? (Attention)
• How do you present surprise, anticipation, uncertainty or suspense in your film?
(Attention)
• How do you incorporate research and data collection so that the film will be a valuable
learning experience, or provide a benefit, for the audience? (Relevance)
• How do your film projects address current issues/concerns? (Relevance)
• How do you encourage useful connections, self-growth or participatory goals for the
viewer? (Confidence)
• How does the incorporation of your research and data collection inspire the audience to
critically reflect or act upon the content of the film? (Satisfaction)
• How do you feel this documentary film helps the audience address a real-world problem
or task? (Satisfaction)
Here is a sampling of the quantitative survey questions asked of the second set of participants
in the study, the student filmmakers, in Phase III (Chapter 5) of the dissertation. The questions
were informed and guided by the ARCS concepts and used appropriate qualifiers that could be
answered using a 5-point Likert psychometric response scale (Bryman 2012; Gorard, 2003) (see
Appendix B for a complete list of evaluation survey questions):
16
• The instructional module captured my interest and attention. (Attention)
• The module is helpful for research and data collection for documentary film. (Relevance)
• I was able to read and understand the information. (Confidence)
• The module increased my knowledge on how to conduct research and data collection for
a documentary film. (Satisfaction)
The researcher was able to leverage the ARCS model in the design and development of the
research instruments, as well as with the analysis and interpretation of the collected data. This
framework and alignment helped the researcher categorize and make meaning and understanding
out of the data; thus, it enabled the researcher to establish meaningful findings and outcomes.
Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning

In order to apply best practices in the design and development of the instructional module
in Phase II (Chapter 4), the researcher used Richard Mayer’s (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark &
Mayer, 2011) well-known and widely used cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Mayer
focused on 12 principles of multimedia learning and hypothesized a fundamental educational
premise that people can learn more completely and deeply from words and pictures than from
words alone. Mayer (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) defined multimedia
learning as learning from words such as spoken or printed text, and pictures such as illustrations,
photos, maps, graphs, animation, or video. Previous findings by Mayer and other researchers
report that multimedia online delivery can actually increase the learning potential and outcomes
(Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Chiu & Churchill, 2016; Clark & Mayer, 2011; Levonen & Rouet,
2001; Mayer, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2017). Thus, the researcher used the following multimedia
learning principles as a framework for the study’s instructional module. Students learn better
when:
● Extraneous words, pictures and sounds are excluded rather than included.
● Cues that highlight the organization of the essential material are added.
● There is a combination of graphics, narration and minimal text than some graphics,
narration, and printed text.
● Corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on
the page or screen.
● Corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively.
17
● A multimedia lesson is presented in user-paced segments rather than as a continuous unit.
● They know the names and characteristics of the main concepts.
● Graphics and narration rather than animation and on-screen text.
● Words and pictures are presented rather than from words alone.
● Words from a multimedia lesson are presented in a conversational style rather than
formal style.
● Narration in multimedia lessons is spoken in a friendly human voice rather than a
machine voice.
● The speaker’s image is not necessary to add to the screen.
ADDIE Model of Instructional Design

In addition to the ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Peterson, 2003; Pappas, 2015)
and Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning, the researcher used the ADDIE model of
instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Molenda, 2015; Molenda et
al., 1996; Serhat, 2017) as the dissertation’s overarching systematic design process. This process
was selected because it systematically organized the dissertation’s phases/chapters and guided
the instructional design approach and procedures extremely well, while applying educational best
practices. Application of the ADDIE five phases of analysis, design, development,
implementation and evaluation were appropriately aligned with the dissertation’s phases that
bridged across the three chapters of the dissertation.
Research Questions
This section presents the research questions for all three studies in Chapters 3, 4 and 5.
All of the research questions were focused on the design, development and evaluation of an
educational resource for documentary film subject research and data collection to guide and
assist beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary film production.
Chapter 3
The first study in Chapter 3 presented the research and findings in Phase I that addressed
the research questions regarding the data collected from the first participant sample group, the
professional documentary filmmakers:
18
RQ 1: What are documentary filmmakers’ experiences with documentary film subject
research and data collection?
RQ 2: How can these experiences be analyzed, interpreted and categorized?
Chapter 4
The results of the research in Chapter 3 paved the way for the Phase II study in Chapter 4.
The information that resulted from Chapter 3, the five beneficial suggestions about subject
research and data collection captured from professional filmmakers, was used as the content to
design and develop an educational resource in Chapter 4 that answered the research question:
RQ1: How can filmmakers’ experiences be developed into an educational resource for
documentary film subject research and data collection for student filmmakers learning
about and exploring documentary film production?
Chapter 5
Chapter 5 discussed the research and results from Phase III regarding the evaluation of the
educational value of the instructional module designed in Phase II (Chapter 4). The data
collected from the second participant sample group, the target audience comprised of beginner
and student filmmakers exploring documentary film production, answered the following research
question:
RQ1: What is the impact of the educational tool for documentary film subject research
and data collection upon student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary
film production?
Research Design and Methodology

Although each of the three studies featured a different approach and method, they all shared
the same overarching content focus of designing, developing and evaluating an instructional
module for subject research and data collection for documentary film. This section examines the
design and methodology for each of the three chapters. Chapters 3 and 5 will discuss the
participants of Phases I and III, the consent process, instrumentation, and data collection and
analysis. Chapter 4 will discuss the instructional design process that was used to develop the
instructional module.
19
Chapter 3
The purpose of Chapter 3 was to capture and summarize the knowledge and insight about
subject research and data collection for documentary film from professional filmmakers from
their actual filmmaking experiences. For this reason, a qualitative interpretive inductive research
approach (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016) was used to seek greater understanding and
perspectives from the professional filmmaker participants. Analysis and interpretation were
completed in phases and the results that emerged were categorized into dominant themes.
Participants. A purposive sampling (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016) of 11 professional

documentary filmmakers out of a pool of 14 in the Asia-Pacific region participated in this study.
Two experienced, respected professionals in the field of documentary film, with many
accomplished products, provided suggestions on filmmakers, and reviewed and approved the
completed list. To improve the instrument and determine if the questions would appropriately
collect the information needed to answer the research question, a pilot face-to-face, semi-
structured interview was conducted with a professional filmmaker actively producing
documentary films in the Asia-Pacific region for many years. She is also the executive director
of a nonprofit organization committed to achieving intersectional gender equity in filmmaking
and is a filmmaking instructor. The pilot data was used to make minor adjustments to refine the
interview questions. The researcher then proceeded with semi-structured interviews (see
Appendix A) with 11 professional filmmakers with the requirements:
● Minimum of three years actively working in the field of documentary film production.
● Completed a minimum of one to two films (minimum of 30 minutes) with public
distribution.
● Primary purpose of the completed documentary films and falls under the definition and
interpretation of the genre.
● Asia-Pacific connection – completed a minimum of one documentary film with a topic
that is relevant or related to the Asia-Pacific region.
Along with the requirements, a list of assumptions were identified to establish guidelines
regarding the documentary filmmakers’ experiences with documentary film subject research and
data collection:
20
● Subject/topic of documentary film established.
● Educational purpose established.
● Themes relating to subject established.
● Budget limits and considerations established.
● Project time boundaries established.
Consent Process. An exempt status IRB approval was secured from the UH Mānoa
Institutional Review Board (IRB) for the study and research consent protocol was followed for
the participants. In addition to the pilot test interview, 14 professional filmmakers were selected
through purposive sampling (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016) and were invited to voluntarily
participate in the research via a recruitment email that explained the purpose of the study (see
Appendix D). Eleven participants responded with interest and availability. They were emailed a
consent form that provided a basic outline of the study, its objectives, and included an agreement
to an audio recording of the interview (see Appendix E). It also covered participants’ rights,
risks, benefits, confidentiality and privacy concerns. Participants were asked to read, sign and
return the form by email. Interviews (phone, online and face-to-face) were scheduled and the
researcher was able to complete 11 in-depth, semi-structured interviews (see Appendix A).
Instruments and Procedure. Instruments for the study’s data collection were derived from
relevant literature and designed and developed by the researcher. Triangulation, application of
different valid data collection methods, was applied to strengthen the study and increase
credibility and validity (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016):
1) Semi-structured interview questions, 20 in total. (see Appendix A)
2) Journaling, field notes and observations (see Appendix C).
3) Audio-recorded semi-structured interviews with the professional filmmakers,
followed by transcripts of participants.
Qualitative research often includes journaling, field notes and observation – part of the
triangulation method of data collection (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016). The journaling, field notes
and observations for this study were conducted and documented by the researcher during all
21
phases of the study. As the data collection researcher of the study, the researcher also assumed
the role of “participant observer” when conducting observations and taking field notes during
field work (Bryman, 2012; Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2016).
In addition to the pilot test interview, 14 professional filmmakers were selected through
purposive sampling (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016) and were invited to voluntarily participate in the
research via a recruitment email (see Appendix D) that explained the purpose of the study.
Eleven participants responded with interest and availability. They were emailed a consent form
(see Appendix E) following the UH Mānoa Institutional Review Board (IRB) research protocol
that provided a basic outline of the study, its objectives, and included an agreement to an audio
recording of the interview. It also covered participants’ rights, risks, benefits, confidentiality and
privacy concerns. Participants were asked to read, sign and return the form by email. Interviews
(phone, online and face-to-face) were scheduled and the researcher was able to complete 11 in-
depth, semi-structured interviews (see Appendix A for a complete list of questions).
The ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas, 2015) guided the design and
development of the interview questions to ensure they addressed the topic of subject research and
data collection from the four ARCS perspectives: attention, relevance, confidence and
satisfaction (Gagne, et al., 2005). To ensure the interview questions obtained useful data
necessary to answer the research question, including drawing out the rich and thick descriptions
of qualitative data (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2016), three researchers
familiar with the topic reviewed the questions and they were revised before implementation. This
provided an inter-rater reliability check, contributing to pilot data. A pilot test of the interview
questions was also conducted with one filmmaker in a face-to-face interview to evaluate the
usability of the questions. The pilot data was used to make minor adjustments to refine the
interview questions. Examples of the interview questions and their relationship to the ARCS
concepts are shown in Table 1.3 on pages 24-25. There were a total of 20 questions (see
Appendix A).
Data Collection and Analysis. This study focused on collecting the knowledge,
experiences and insight on research and data collection for documentary film, and related
information, from professional filmmakers through in-depth interviews. The researcher
conducted 45 to 60-minute semi-structured interviews with each of the participants. This enabled
22
the researcher and participants the freedom to pursue other related ideas and points that were
relevant to the interview and the data collection process. (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin,
2016). The researcher audio-recorded the interviews with a digital recorder and also used an
iPhone as a backup. Many of the interview questions were purposely designed to be open-ended
to allow for expansion, emergent or additional information from participants and to collect
information the researcher might not have anticipated (see Appendix A).
The researcher conducted the interviews to encourage thick and rich narrative responses
(Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2016)., along with the specific questions
necessary for the study, while using probes and follow-up questions. During the interview, the
researcher was cognizant of any signs from the participants of stress or uncomfortableness, and
was prepared to stop. This study was designed to have a minimal impact on the participants. The
researcher observed that all the filmmakers were comfortable with the interview, openly and
freely sharing and discussing their work and knowledge. It is clear that they were familiar and
accustomed to this type of dialogue, likely participating at screenings, discussion panels and
presentations.
Interviews with Participants. The researcher transcribed the interviews and then
analyzed and interpreted the data in phases, including the journaling, field notes and
observations, by applying the Five Phases of Analysis and their Interactions framework (Yin,
2016). An inductive approach was implemented and emergent categories and themes were
grouped according to their relationship with the concepts of the ARCS model: attention,
relevance, confidence and satisfaction (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas, 2015). This data
answered the first research question: What are documentary filmmakers’ experiences with
documentary film subject research and data collection? Table 1.3 on the next two pages lists the
alignment of the ARCS concepts and definitions with examples of the interview questions and
participant answers.
23
Table 1.3. Alignment of Qualitative Interview Questions and Answers with ARCS Concepts
Examples
ARCS Concepts and
Definitions Interview Questions Participant Answers
Attention How do you approach “I try to find stories and data
● Capturing interest research and data collection to that may be eye-opening to
and curiosity try and capture the attention or audiences and will capture their
● Perception and by curiosity of your audience and attention through emotion and
inquiry maintain interest? human interest.” – Participant
● Connection and #8
participation
● Specific, relatable “Casting is critical. I consider
examples; conflict casting as research and
and variety development. We try to find a
charismatic key character. It’s
more about how our key
characters will resonate with the
audience through their stories.”
– Participant #9
Relevance How do you incorporate “The key characters are

● Immediate research and data collection so passionate about the issue and
application that the film will be a valuable we knew they would resonate
● Set example learning experience, or with our audience. But they
through experience provide a benefit, for the don’t have PhDs or other
● Set example audience? credentials that some audiences
through role might judge them on, so we did
models research to find the top
● Future usefulness scientists and medical doctors in
the field and we interviewed
them to bolster the credibility of
our activist key characters. We
incorporated many peer
reviewed academic articles into
the film to bolster credibility
even more. Then we had
everything fact checked by our
researchers and vetted by our
attorneys. When the audiences
see that our key characters are
credible, it has a greater impact
and the audience benefits from
the story.” – Participant #4
Confidence How do you approach “I try whenever possible to

● Enable self- research and data collection to include modern-day tie-ins to
24
confidence encourage useful connections, the major issues presented in the
● Facilitate self- self-growth or participatory film so there is a real-world
growth goals for the viewer? context and perhaps an
● Give learners opportunity for audience
control members to self-reflect on their
Ability to provide own lives. A good follow-up
feedback Q&A or filmmakers’ statement
or panel discussion at the
screening can also help to
facilitate this.” – Participant #11
“Through our website, our film

screenings at festivals,
community and educational
screenings, and then through
distribution. My latest film is
streaming on many different
platforms. Believe it or not,
people who watch the film on
Amazon Prime, for example, will
get back to us and ask how they
can get involved in the issue.” –
Participant #4
Satisfaction How do you feel your “The modern-day tie-ins and

• Immediate documentary film(s) helps the examples at the end of the films
application of audience address a real-world I’ve done are a direct appeal to
information problem or situation? the audience to think about real
• Useful application world problems or perhaps to
in the future take action.” – Participant #6
• Acquire real world
knowledge and “Each of my films addresses a
skills real-world problem such as
• Enable positive climate change, rising sea
outcomes. levels, declining fisheries,
pesticide poisoning of our air,
soil, water and oceans. We also
incorporate solutions in each of
our films.” – Participant #10
Using Table 1.3 as an example, the ARCS model of motivation concepts were used to
code the filmmakers’ data on how they approached research and data collection for documentary
film. Analysis and interpretation were completed in phases using Yin’s Five Phases of Analysis
25
and their Interactions Framework (2016) and the developing results were categorized into
dominant themes. Subsequently, five major themes emerged from the analysis (see Table 1.4 on
page 28). This iterative approach and process consequently answered the second research
question: How can these experiences be analyzed, interpreted and categorized?
Since the overall goal of this study was to generate an original educational resource that
would help beginner and student filmmakers with subject research and data collection for
documentary film, the information was then organized and arranged into five sections of
beneficial suggestions intended to guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers.
Chapter 4
The five major categories that emerged from the data collected from the professional
filmmakers in Phase I (Chapter 3) were then used as the content to design an educational
resource in Phase II (Chapter 4). In this study, Keller’s ARCS motivational model (1983, 2010,
2017) and Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark &
Mayer, 2011) served as frameworks to inform and guide the development of the resource. While
applying educational best practices, the ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick
et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Serhat, 2017) systematically guided and organized the study’s
learning design process.
Development and Procedure. In this study’s phase of ADDIE (Allen, 2006; Dick et al.,
2001; Molenda et al., 1996), the researcher used the ARCS concepts (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017)
and the 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer,
2011) to develop and generate the educational resource and the necessary material that would be
used for it. The iterative design process of the educational resource included multiple formative
assessment reviews. Each review informed and guided the critical design decisions for the next
iteration. There were three prototypes and each one was reviewed by one or more of the
following: a professional graphic designer, experienced researcher/educators, and a student
filmmaker. In the first prototype, the educational resource began as a simple infographic. During
the third prototype iteration, the “educational resource” was appropriately renamed as an
“instructional module” because the resource had evolved to become a technology-enhanced,
26
multiple page website. After three formative assessment reviews, the fourth and final prototype
became the final content-rich, easy-to-navigate, interactive, online multimedia instructional
module.
First Prototype. The first prototype started out as a single page infographic that was
made using a graphic design platform using the information from Phase I (Chapter 3) that
summarized the knowledge and experiences of 11 professional filmmakers with subject research
and data collection for documentary film acquired from the actual filmmaking process. Table 1.4
on the next page features the five major themes that emerged from analysis and interpretation of
that study and their alignment with the ARCS model (Astleitner & Lintner, 2004; Keller, 1983,
2010, 2017). The themes were organized as beneficial suggestions intended to guide beginner
and student filmmakers exploring documentary film production.
27
Table 1.4. Five Major Recommendations/Categories Emerged from the Data Collected from
the Professional Filmmakers and their Relationship to the ARCS Model Concepts
Tell the Story Visually (Attention)
● Collect interesting interviews, historical documents, material, photos, videos and
supplemental footage.
● Answer why this story needs to be presented visually.
● Determine if the sources and materials are accessible.
● Establish an organized system for all of the data.
● “Show” the audience, not just tell the audience.
Find Strong “Characters” (Attention)

● Focus on the strength of your interview sources.
● Feature genuine interview characters who are engaging, fascinating, vulnerable,
revealing, and who feel true.
● Create an emotional and impactful audience connection.
● Generate affinity and empathy with the audience.
● Guide the audience on a storytelling journey.
Support Universal Themes (Relevance)

● Focus on all-embracing topics such as love, joy, peace, family, survival, pain,
suffering, equity, or the striving and struggling one takes to reach a goal.
● Unravel the universal human stories and relationships.
● Shed light on the shared and collective human experience.
● Select topics that entertain and move audiences.
Do the Research (Confidence)

● Complete an exhaustive resource search.
● Collect existing material about your subject.
● Identify key characters who can tell the story.
● Determine experts who can add legitimacy.
● Pinpoint a gap in the story, or a lack of the story.
● Fill that void with your documentary film
Relate to your audience (Relevance and Satisfaction)

● Create a meaningful, relevant story that resonates, informs, educates, inspires and
empowers audiences to action.
● Help the audience apply the story to the real world, current issues, and to their own
lives and circumstances.
● Encourage viewers to insert their own stories, experiences and struggles into what
they’re seeing.
28
Since this study’s goal was to create an educational resource to help student filmmakers,
and the information was being presented as constructive recommendations, the five themes were
renamed in this study as “tips” as in “five tips for filmmaking.” The text for this first prototype
already included some of the elements of Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning (2001,
2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) such as extraneous words are excluded, characteristics
of the main concepts are featured, corresponding words and pictures are presented
simultaneously and near each other, and text is presented in a conversational style.
The researcher had originally planned to implement the educational resource at a face-to-
face presentation with students taking a class on film and video production at a university located
in the western United States. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, face-to-face
gatherings were cancelled out of caution and safety. Thus, the researcher considered designing
and developing online possibilities of implementing the resource with the target audience. While
the inability to meet face-to-face was unexpected, the obstacle was not impossible to overcome.
Previous findings by Mayer and other researchers report that multimedia online delivery can
actually increase the learning potential and outcomes (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Chiu & Churchill,
2016; Clark & Mayer, 2011; Levonen & Rouet, 2001; Mayer, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2017).
The online delivery enabled greater multimedia possibilities. More of Mayer’s
multimedia principles were added to this prototype, most notably an audio component embedded
into the infographic; thus, following Mayer’s principle of combining graphics, narration and text.
Participants would be able to click on a link to listen to a short audio clip of a filmmaker
discussing that specific filmmaking tip, adding valuable insight, experience and context. These
audio clips were part of the 11 interviews conducted in Phase I (Chapter 3). There were five
audio clips for each of the five filmmaking tips and due to IRB and privacy concerns, the
researcher did not include images of the filmmakers. This addressed two of Mayer’s principles:
narration in multimedia lessons is spoken in a friendly human voice rather than a machine voice,
and the speaker’s image is not necessary to add to the screen. Instead of following the ARCS
acronym, the information was rearranged in a manner that made organizational and logical sense
to the target audience, the beginner and student filmmakers.
Moving to an online delivery platform would also allow participants to complete the
educational resource at their own pace. The original plan was for the researcher to give an in-
person presentation and move through the educational resource and listen to the audio clips being
29
played together as a class. An online presentation and delivery would encourage participants to
proceed at their own pace, taking as little or more time to review the educational resource and
listen to the audio clips, allowing for increased learning, which would also meet the academic
needs of the target audience (Beyond Campus Innovations, 2019; Education Dive, 2017;
McGraw Hill, 2020; National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). Figure 1.2 is an image of
the first prototype of the educational resource.
Figure 1.2. First prototype of the module.

First Formative Assessment. A professional graphic designer in the graphic arts industry
was asked by the researcher to review this first prototype. His overall comment was, “It is really
about the content. The visual treatment of the type, and color should be in service of the points
30
you want to get across and the readers’ ability to consume and understand your message,”
(Yugawa, personal communication, 2020). Feedback on typography, images, color, font, and
sections were provided to improve the first iteration.
Second Prototype. In this second prototype, the researcher used the professional graphic
designer’s constructive feedback to inform and guide the strategic design decisions of the second
iteration (see Figure 1.3 on the next page). Examples of the modifications included: the film reel
image was removed; the italics from the title was removed; the orange background for the tip
headings was removed; the color scheme was changed to compliment the images; and the stock
graphic images from the design platform were removed and replaced with real photography with
a similar style. In addition to the woman of color in “Tip 2. Tell the story visually,” the
researcher wanted to include greater diversity and added another female for “Tip 1. Do the
Research.” In addition to diversity, with 11.2 million females attending college compared to 8.7
males, it seemed to be a reasonable choice (Beyond Campus Innovations, 2019).
31
Figure 1.3. Second prototype of the module.
Second Formative Assessment. In order to ensure the information in the resource was
being presented using educational best practices, the researcher conducted a review of the second
prototype with two experienced, qualified researcher/educators familiar with the topic and a
student filmmaker. The overall feedback from the reviewers was positive and they felt the
information would be very useful and helpful to beginner and student filmmakers on how to go
about researching and collecting data for documentary film. The student filmmaker thought the
information was especially valuable and advantageous for him; he also wished he had this
information earlier in his filmmaking journey as it would have helped him immensely.
However, they felt that while the infographic was satisfactory, it wasn’t engaging, rich or
interactive enough for student filmmakers from a learning design approach, especially if this was
32
to be presented online. The audio clips were a good addition, but they felt it would be helpful to
be able to listen to the audio while viewing and studying the infographic so that they would be
able to experience the visual and audio together. In this second prototype, clicking on the audio
clip icon opened another window. Both researcher/educators suggested that perhaps a single
webpage or multiple page website would improve the educational experience for students.
Third Prototype. With technical assistance from one of the reviewers, the researcher was
able to use all of the text and graphics from the second prototype to create a multiple page
website using HTML style sheets via the researcher’s university personal homepages site.
Expanding beyond a single page infographic, the educational “resource” could indeed now be
called a multimedia instructional “module.” From this point, the educational resource will be
called an instructional module.
The website was a significant improvement from the second prototype because the
website enabled advancement of pages. Thus, the researcher was able to present each of the five
filmmaking tips on separate web pages, applying two other principles of Mayer’s multimedia
learning: 1) a multimedia lesson is presented in well-organized, user-paced segments rather than
as a continuous unit, and 2) characteristics of the main concepts, the five tips for filmmaking,
strengthened the presentation. All of Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia learning were
successfully applied to this iteration (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011).
Third Formative Assessment. The two experienced, qualified researcher/educators who

reviewed the second prototype, and an additional researcher/educator, evaluated the third
prototype. They acknowledged and appreciated the streamlined, polished third prototype, noting
the ease of use of the module. Participants will be able to remain on the page, view the visuals,
and read the text while listening to the audio clips. There were two parts to their constructive
feedback. The first part focused on mechanical and other usability concerns such as including a
begin button, back and next buttons on each page; enlarging the photos; increasing the font size
of the text; and centering the material.
The second part of their feedback focused on important design strategies that would guide the
next iteration:
● Include a welcome page that briefly describes the research.
33
● Include an overview page briefly describing all the steps required in the module.
● Create clear and simple instructions.
● Include the ability to take the evaluation surveys in the website.
● Feature each of the five tips on a separate webpage to reinforce the learning.
● Add audio clip progress bars that would allow participants to see the length of each of the
five clips and how far along they are in the process of listening to the clip. Although all
the clips are quite short, ranging from 34 seconds to 2:05 minutes, the reviewers felt it
would be helpful to participants moving through the module.
Fourth prototype. With technical assistance once again from one of the reviewers, the
researcher was able to apply the design modifications and strategies recommended on the third
prototype to the fourth prototype. This included applying Mayer’s principle of “Words from a
multimedia lesson are presented in a conversational style rather than formal style” to the
module’s instructions by using language contractions. For example, instead of writing “Here is
an overview of what you need to do as a project participant,” the researcher used the contraction
“Here’s.”
This fourth prototype became the final iteration of the instructional module on subject
research and data collection for documentary film. After multiple reviews and formative
assessments, a single page infographic became an engaging, content rich, easy-to-navigate,
technology-enhanced, interactive multimedia instructional module presented as a website for
beginner and student filmmakers. The module addressed the academic, cognitive and physical
needs of the target audience including the increased demand for digital technology. Students feel
that digital technology helps improve focus, grades, efficiency, effectiveness, and career
readiness (Beyond Campus Innovations, 2019; Education Dive, 2017; McGraw Hill, 2020).
Here is the link to the website titled Five Tips from Filmmakers for Documentary Film
Research and Data Collection. (Please note that the completed website includes the embedded
evaluation surveys for the instructional module that were designed and developed in another
study (Iwasaki, in progress). Figure 1.4 is a sample screenshot of the page featuring “Tip 1. Do
the Research” from the instructional module website.
34
Figure 1.4. Screenshot of “Tip 1. Do the Research” page from the website.
Chapter 5
In Chapter 5, a convergent mixed methods design (Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2007, 2009,
2015, 2018) approach was used to gather both quantitative and qualitative data from the target
audience, the beginner and student filmmakers, during the same time frame. This was done to
rigorously strengthen the data collection, analysis and interpretation of the empirical study in
order to provide better understanding and examination of the research topic. Along with the
quantitative and qualitative instruments, field notes and observations were recorded during the
study’s phases and used in analysis and interpretation. Thus, triangulation, the application of
different valid collection methods, was applied to strengthen the study and increase credibility
and validity (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016). Pilot testing (Bryman, 2012) confirmed that
the research instruments worked well to collect the necessary data, and integration of the study’s
mixed methods approach ensured feasibility (Curry & Nunez-Smith, 2015). The ADDIE model
of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Serhat, 2017) guided the
study’s overall learning design process. Participants reviewed the module and completed
evaluation surveys that were designed using Keller’s ARCS motivational model (1983, 2010,
35
2017) to examine the educational value of the module. (Please note that the embedded evaluation
surveys for the instructional module were designed and developed in another study (Iwasaki, in
progress).
Participants. There were 17 participants in this study, out of a pool of 20; and there was
one student who completed a pilot test of the instructional module and evaluation instruments.
This student was able to smoothly and successfully navigate the module and complete the
evaluation surveys with no problems. The participants were students taking an 11-week non-
credit class on film and video production at a four-year university in the western United States,
and other students interested in documentary film production at the same institution. Sponsored
by the university’s Center for Community Engagement department, the free non-credit course
was open to students registered at the university. Taught by two instructors, professionals in the
field of film and video, including documentary film, the class schedule covered development,
pre-production, production and post-production instruction, including educational and
documentary filmmaking. Some of the students taking the course were also associated with the
university’s video production program which is an affiliate student organization under the Board
of Media funded by student fees. An exempt status IRB approval was secured for the study.
The majority of students, seven students (44%) were sophomores. Figure 1.5 on the next
page features the class standings of the 17 students who participated in the study. College majors
of the participants varied widely. Two participants declared Administration of Justice as their
major, two Business, two Education, two Kinesiology, and the rest were individually different:
Accounting, Biology, Communication, English, Environmental Science, Hawaiian Studies
Nursing, Political Science, and Psychology.
36
Figure 1.5. Class standings of the 17 students who participated in the study.
Consent Process. An exempt status IRB approval was secured from the UH Mānoa
Institutional Review Board (IRB) for the study and research consent protocol was followed for
the participants. The researcher worked with the two instructors of the film and video production
class and visited the in-person class in January 2020 to introduce herself and provide an
overview of the research project with a recruitment presentation letter (see Appendix F). She
emphasized that participation was entirely voluntary and would not affect their participation in
the class at all. The researcher let the class know that she would be returning in March, on the
first scheduled class after Spring break, to present the hard copy educational resource (it had not
yet evolved to become an online instructional module after multiple iterations applying the
instructional design process) for them to review and evaluate. Hard copy recruitment letters and
appropriate consent forms following research protocol would also be passed out at that time.
However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the university moved entirely to online
learning and face-to-face classes were cancelled out of caution and safety. The researcher was
not able to meet with the students in person at their first scheduled class after Spring break. With
37
the intent to continue the data collection process, she request and received participants’
university email addresses from the instructors and was able to move forward with an online
implementation and evaluation of the instructional module. Participants were sent a recruitment
email with a link to the instructional module (see Appendix H), recruitment letter (see Appendix
F) and a consent form (see Appendix G) via email in late April 2020. Participants were asked to
return signed Consent Forms or respond affirmatively to the email, and were asked to review the
module and complete the evaluation surveys embedded in the module within two weeks.
Instruments and Procedure. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the university moved
entirely to online learning and face-to-face classes were cancelled out of caution and safety. The
researcher was not able to meet with the students in person to present the educational resource
for them to review and evaluate as she had originally planned. Thus, the researcher was
motivated to consider online possibilities of implementing the educational resource and the
evaluation instruments. Previous findings by Richard Mayer and other researchers report that
multimedia online delivery can increase learning potential and outcomes (Alessi & Trollip, 2001;
Chiu & Churchill, 2016; Clark & Mayer, 2011; Levonen & Rouet, 2001; Mayer, 2001, 2005,
2009, 2017). Self-paced learning and a demand for online learning’s flexibility and convenience
were important academic needs for the generalized target audience; thus, the move to online
implementation may have been a very helpful development (Beyond Campus Innovations, 2019;
Education Dive, 2017; McGraw Hill, 2020).
The researcher received participants’ university email addresses from the instructors and
was able to move forward with the online implementation and evaluation of the instructional
module. Participants were sent a recruitment email with a link to the instructional module (see
Appendix H), recruitment letter (see Appendix F) and a consent form (see Appendix G) via
email in late April 2020. Participants were asked to return signed Consent Forms or respond
affirmatively to the email, and were asked to review the module and complete the evaluation
surveys embedded in the module within two weeks.
Participants were expected to progress through the instructional module in the following
manner: welcome, overview page with detailed instructions, pre-module survey, review and
evaluation of the five filmmaking tips with a two-question in-module evaluation survey
following each tip, with the last tip also asking which one of the five tips was the most helpful
38
overall. A webpage featuring all of the five filmmaking tips with images and audio clips served
as a reminder and review of all of the tips, and overall purpose of the module. Participants were
then instructed to complete the post-module survey. All of the survey questions are in Appendix
B. Lastly, a webpage thanked the participants for their time and effort in completing the review
and evaluations.
During the two-week period of data collection, the majority of students, 15 students
(88%) did not have any problems with viewing and completing the instructional module. After
completing the module, some of the students emailed the researcher with positive comments
such as: “This is great information!” “The next time I create an educational video or short
documentary, I’ll remember those five tips.” “I was able to complete the module with ease.” “I
listened to all of the five tips and finished all of the surveys.” “I’m glad to have participated in
this process.”
However, the researcher also received emails from two students, who were having
difficulties such as: “I couldn’t sign in using my school email.” “I couldn’t do the surveys.”
“There was no audio for me.”
The researcher tried to resolve these problems with the two participants, which included
advising them to use another web browser, clearing out history on their browser, and sending the
links to the Google Forms surveys directly to them via email. The researcher also had a
discussion with a member of the ITS department of her university who said: “syncing” needs to
be turned off when using Google Chrome as a browser and the school email address. The online
security system is not compatible with it. After troubleshooting the issues, the two participants
were able to complete viewing the instructional module and the surveys.
This experience highlights the unforeseen technical complications with online delivery of
educational material. Although the researcher pilot tested the instructional module and surveys
with a student filmmaker, it didn’t occur to her to test out different web browsers or browser
syncing issues with the university online security system. This was an informative learning
opportunity for the researcher and perhaps others designing and implementing online educational
resources. In future design projects, an important element to add to the instructional design
process would be to consult a university ITS specialist, especially if collecting data via university
email addresses. Fortunately, the two students were able to view the instructional module and
39
complete the surveys. Documented field notes and observations like this strengthened the study
by utilizing triangulation, the application of different valid collection methods (Glesne &
Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016).
Data Collection and Analysis. Pre-Module Survey. Table 1.5 below features the results
of the 5-point Likert psychometric response scale (Bryman, 2012; Gorard, 2003) items for the
pre-module survey and their alignment with the appropriate ARCS model concepts of attention,
relevance and confidence. When asked to rate their level of interest in film and video production,
the 17 participants reported an average rating of 4.12 (SD = 0.78). Four participants (24%)
selected 5.00 (Strongly Agree). Their familiarity with the documentary film genre reported an
average rating of 4.00 (SD = 0.71); thus, the participants’ familiarity and interest in film and
video production were quite strong. However, their familiarity and knowledge about research
and data collection for documentary film were weaker. Participants reported an average rating of
2.88 (SD = 1.11) when asked about their familiarity with the process of creating documentary
film; 2.82 (SD = 1.01) when asked about their familiarity with the tools of documentary film; and
2.76 (SD = 1.09) when asked about their knowledge of research and data collection for
documentary film. This evidence aligns with the researcher’s theory that students need more
information and resources in this area.
Table 1.5. Average Interest and Familiarity Ratings from Pre-Module Survey (n=17)
ARCS Statements
Categories Mean SD Min Max
Attention Interest in film and video production 4.12 0.78 3.00 5.00
Relevance Familiarity with documentary film genre 4.00 0.71 2.00 5.00
Relevance Familiarity with many documentary films 3.65 0.61 2.00 4.00
Confidence Familiarity with process of creating 2.88 1.11 1.00 4.00

documentary film
Confidence Familiarity with tools of documentary film 2.82 1.01 1.00 4.00
Confidence Knowledge of research and data collection for

documentary film 2.76 1.09 1.00 4.00
40
Participants were asked one open-ended qualitative question to explain their interest in
film and video production. This question allowed for thick and rich, narrative type responses. An
inductive approach (Bryman, 2012; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2016)
was implemented and responses were analyzed and interpreted using Yin’s Five Phases of
Analysis and their Interactions Framework (2016) and the developing results were grouped
according to their relationship with the ARCS model concepts of attention, relevance, confidence
and satisfaction (Astleitner & Lintner, 2004; Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017). Examples of
participants’ answers and their relationship with ARCS are shown in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6. Examples of Pre-Module Survey Qualitative Answers and Relationship with ARCS
Model Concepts
Attention
“Film is a creative artform, and it is an effective method of reaching out to a variety of
audiences. It is a very exciting and interesting medium to create and learn from.”
– Participant #17
“I am obsessed with technology, and advancements in the film industry in terms of special
effects, editing, and sound design truly amaze me.” – Participant #3
Relevance
“Communication and getting information across to people is more through video and film
today. I think we connect more with video and film than just reading text.” – Participant #13
“I think it increases learning. It’s an excellent educational resource.” – Participant #2
Confidence
“The COVID-19 pandemic highlights the importance of accessible, digital educational
resources that you can learn from at your own pace.” – Participant #1
“I would like to learn to make and produce quality films to share my ideas, my stories and my
message.” – Participant #15
Satisfaction
“I have always found expressing myself through multimedia and journalism as a very
transcending way to do so.” – Participant #6
“I have always loved creating videos for my family to see; furthermore, I feel like it is an
important useful skill I can utilize in my future career.” – Participant #4
41
In-Module Surveys on the Five Tips. The five in-module surveys about each tip were
designed as open-ended, qualitative questions to collect rich, expressive, thoughtful answers and
an inductive approach (Bryman, 2012; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2016)
and Yin’s Five Phases of Analysis and their Interactions Framework (2016) were implemented to
analyze, interpret, and organize the data. Table 1.7 on pages 44-46 presents examples of the
responses from 17 participants for each of the five tips and their relationship to the ARCS
concepts (Astleitner & Lintner; Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017). Due to the similarity of the two
questions: “What stood out to you most?” and “What was the most helpful element? Why?” the
researcher found that the responses often overlapped. The researcher learned that this is an
important point to consider when designing future evaluation instruments. Thus, only the
responses to the first question “What stood out to you most?” will be featured in the table along
with the response to the last question for the in-module surveys: “Which of the 5 tips did you
find most helpful and will “take away” from the instructional module?” The purpose of this
question was to be a helpful reminder and review of all of the five tips and the overall purpose of
the instructional module.
One example of the depth and detail of the responses not listed on the table, but worth
mentioning, is a participant who associated Tip 3. Find Strong “Characters” to the Hawaiian art
of hula, saying “Similar to hula, filmmaking is the art of capturing the audience and making them
feel a part of the story. Just as hula needs the right wahine (female) or kane (male), the characters
for the film need to be a perfect match.” Another student said Tip 3 “made him think back to one
of my favorite Japanese artists and storytellers, Hirohiko Araki, where he says characters help
bring the world and themes together in a story.”
Participants often answered using the short, concise, bullet point information of each tip
that was featured, by either using the exact words, for example for Tip 2: Tell the story visually:
“‘Show’ the audience, not just tell the audience,” or they paraphrased the bullet points. This
demonstrates the learning effectiveness of the short, bullet point content on each of the five tips
pages. Each tip page also featured just one photo that was appropriate to the content on the page.
The instructional module was designed and developed using Mayer’s 12 principles of
multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) in another study (Iwasaki,
in progress) and one of the principles states: extraneous words, pictures and sounds are excluded
rather than included. The successful collection of data in this study supports this principle.
42
The short audio clips, ranging from 34 seconds to 2:05 minutes, featuring professional
filmmakers discussing and sharing their vast real-wisdom and experience were the highlights of
the module. In each tip, the majority of responses for the two questions “what stood out most and
was most helpful” included the audio clips of the filmmakers discussing each tip. Participants
often quoted or paraphrased material from the clips such as the “cookie crumbs” when the
filmmaker describes the little details that can connect audiences to the subject in Tip 4: Support
Universal Themes. Another word that stood out to the participants was “positively transcendent”
when another filmmaker discussed the power of true stories in Tip 5: Relate to your audience.
Participants also expressed their appreciation of the integration of multimedia within the
instructional module. One participant said, “Having the audio file while reading through the tips
and seeing the photo on the page was helpful. It made me understand how important the visual
is.” Another said “The text helped me understand what the filmmaker was talking about.” This
supports Mayer’s multimedia design principles of combining graphics, narration and text and
that narration is spoken in a friendly human voice. The researcher believes the success of the
instructional module was due to the real-world wisdom and experience from professional
filmmakers about subject research and data collection for documentary film. The audio clips
supported the validity and truth of the information by featuring actual voices from real
filmmakers producing documentary films. One of the participants said, “Having the audio file to
explain did help. Giving context on who it is would help as well.” However, as part of the IRB
research protocol, the researcher was not able to identify the filmmakers.
In answering which tip was the most helpful overall, participants selected each of the five
tips almost equally except no one selected Tip 2. Tell the Story Visually. This may be because
participants were already convinced of the validity of using film to visually tell stories. Instead of
selecting one tip to highlight, one student said, “In order to develop an astonishing documentary,
all tips should be considered. Being able to generate ideas into film is not an easy task, so taking
these words of recommendation can really help with the process of creating a documentary.
Having the foundation of making a documentary can leave you with discussions about
noteworthy topics or undiscovered realms in the film world. The possibilities are endless!”
Another student also commented on all of the tips instead of focusing on one of the tips, saying
“These tips make sense and may help create an even better product at the end of the
documentary/video.”
43
Table 1.7. Examples of Qualitative Results of the Surveys on each of the Instructional
Module’s Five Tips and the most Helpful Tip of the Five Tips
Tip 1: Do the Research
(Confidence)
What stood out to you most? What was most helpful of all the tips
and you will “take away?”
“Know what’s out there. We want to look into Having lots of important and relevant
things, and we get “ultra-passionate” about it, just information about your subject will give
to find out it has already been researched and you a strong foundation for your film.
done." – Participant #1 Overall, the research portion decides
whether you have a story worth telling
Watching all your competitors’ work and other or not.” – Participant #3
documentaries to learn what you can do differently
and make yours better, standout and more “Figuring out your topic and finding
informative. Not in the same fashion, but so the your interesting characters is probably
audience can learn or feel something new. – the most challenging portion and once
Participants #4, #10, #17 that is established, the other tips make
sure your story is right for your
audience.” Participant #14
Tip 2: Tell the Story Visually

(Attention)
“Have experts on screen”; that portion of the Not answered by participants

audio and tip makes a lot of sense as it provides a
very strong sense of ethos for a documentary.” –
Participant #5
It’s important to have captivating images/video.

But first need to determine whether this story needs
to be presented visually. Documentary films are
hard and expensive so if the story can be told on
paper, best not to make a documentary. –
Participants #3, #4, #10, #12
Tip 3: Find Strong “Characters”

(Attention)
44
Generate affinity and empathy with the audience. “Make sure the audience is
The relationship built between the film and its “compelled” to watch and feel how the
audience comes from the characters that will not characters feel.” – Participant #8
only move the audience, but will also resonate with
them. – Participants #2, #5 “Good documentaries are ones where
we want to know what happens to the
Compel the audience to watch. We want to watch a characters we care about (or even about
movie that keeps the audience engaged on an the animal, star, volcano, etc.). If it is
exciting subject matter or personality. Participants treated as a character, it is more
#8, #13 interesting.” – Participant #9
“You want to make sure the characters

and narrator are entertaining, reliable,
clear, and trustworthy.” Participant #15
Tip 4: Support Universal Themes

(Relevance)
Filmmaker discussing the “bottom up” approach. “Supporting universal themes is

Pay attention to the little details. Don’t leave imperative because if a film is going to
behind the rich, dense details. It’s the little details be a success, every little detail needs to
that no one pays attention to that should be brought be good to make the big picture work.”
into focus. Look fr om the smallest point and – Participant #16
expand from there. – Participants #2, 4, 13
“I think a lot of documentaries only
“Topic selection - appealing to the audiences’ share information without any
emotion is really important and choosing an emotional attachment, which makes the
entertaining or moving topic is crucial to making entire film very surface-level.
the audience invest themselves in the film.” – Pinpointing specific experiences and
Participant #11 sharing unfiltered, ‘real’ information is
what gains the attention and investment
of the audience.” – Participant #17
Tip 5: Relate to Your Audience

(Relevance and Satisfaction)
“The importance of the audience. The tone, “Help the audience see themselves in
emotion and delivery of your story, if done right, the film. Maybe not the actual problem
can be transcending and empowering for not only or issue, but they can relate somehow to
the filmmaker and his/her personal experience, but the struggle. Then you can apply that
45
more importantly for the audience.” – Participant feeling to your own life and maybe make
#4 a difference.” – Participant #10
In my experience, a “good film” always made me Connection can motivate action. Finding
think which is why the importance of helping the the connection to your audience will
audience apply the story outside of the film stuck take your story out into the world and
out to me. Documentaries can help people see live through your audience.”
parallels between the film and current events. – Participants #5, #13
Participants #6, #9
“When you can create an emotional
bond, you can share the documentary’s
message more effectively.” – Participant
#12
Post-Module Survey. In the post-module survey, 16 participants answered 16 Likert

response scale items and one qualitative question. Table 1.8 features the results of the 5-point
Likert psychometric response scale (Bryman, 2012; Gorard, 2003) and their alignment with the
ARCS model concepts.
Table 1.8. Average Interest and Familiarity Ratings from Post-Module Survey (n=16)
ARCS Statements Mean SD Min Max
Categories
Attention Module captured interest and attention 4.38 0.81 2.00 5.00
Attention/ Ability to read and understand information on the 4.81 0.40 4.00 5.00
Confidence module
Attention Module’s layout and design are appealing 4.44 0.63 3.00 5.00
Attention Module’s colors are appealing 4.63 0.50 4.00 5.00
Attention/ Module’s graphics are interesting and appropriate 4.50 0.52 4.00 5.00
Relevance
Attention/ Module’s sound clips are engaging and 4.19 0.91 2.00 5.00
Relevance interesting
Confidence/ Ability to navigate the module 4.69 0.79 2.00 5.00

Satisfaction
Confidence/ Ability to listen to the sound clips 4.13 1.36 1.00 5.00
Satisfaction
46
Confidence/ Ability to access the surveys 4.50 1.21 1.00 5.00
Satisfaction
Attention/ Module increased interest in watching 4.50 0.89 2.00 5.00

Relevance documentary films
Confidence/ Module increased familiarity with documentary 4.56 0.51 4.00 5.00
Satisfaction filmmaking
Confidence/ Module increased familiarity with research and 4.56 0.51 4.00 5.00
Satisfaction data collection for documentary film
Attention/ Module increased interest in research and data 4.44 0.73 3.00 5.00
Relevance collection for documentary film
Confidence/ Module increased knowledge of how to begin the 4.56 0.51 4.00 5.00
Satisfaction process of creating a documentary film
Relevance/ Module increased knowledge of how to conduct 4.50 0.73 3.00 5.00
Satisfaction research and data collection for documentary
film
Relevance/ Module is helpful for research and data collection 4.44 0.63 3.00 5.00
Satisfaction for documentary film
Participants found the instructional module captured their interest and attention; layout
and design, and colors were appealing; graphics interesting and appropriate and the sound clips
engaging and interesting. When asked to rate their ability to read and understand information on
the module, the 16 participants reported an average rating of 4.81 (SD = 0.40); 13 participants
selected 5.00 (Strongly Agree). Another high average rating of 4.69 (SD = .79) was reported in
the participants’ ability to navigate the module, which also received 13 “strongly agree”
responses. These two items received the most 5.00 (Strongly Agree) selections. These findings
validate the successful application of Keller’s ARCS motivational model (1983, 2010, 2017) and
Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011)
as frameworks and theories in the design and development of the instructional module (Iwasaki,
in progress) and the application of best practices in instructional design and development. The
lowest average rating of 4.13 (SD = 1.36) was reported when participants were asked about their
ability to listen to the sound clips. This could be accounted for by two students who had
47
difficulty accessing the module, evaluation surveys, and listening to the audio clips as discussed
at the beginning of the Results section.
As a posttest, the post-module survey provided positive results of the effectiveness of the
instructional module. After reviewing the module, when participants were asked to rate their
level of familiarity with documentary filmmaking, the participants reported an average rating of
4.56 (SD = 0.51), an increase of 0.56 from the 4.00 average in the pre-module survey. Marked
rating increases were seen especially with familiarity about the process of creating a
documentary film, and familiarity and knowledge of research and data collection for
documentary film.
When asked to rate their familiarity with the process of creating a documentary film, the
participants reported an average rating of 4.56 (SD = .0.51), a significant increase of 1.68 from
the 2.88 average in the pre-module survey. When asked to rate their familiarity with research and
data collection for documentary film, participants reported an average rating of 4.56 (SD = 0.51);
and when asked about knowledge of research and data collection for documentary film,
participants reported an average rating of 4.50 (SD = 0.73), a substantial increase of 1.74 from
the 2.76 average in the pre-module survey. In the post-module survey, 10 participants selected
5.00 (Strongly Agree), four selected 4.00 (Agree), and two selected 3.00 (Neutral). There were
no “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree” responses. Since the original number is zero, this
represents a 100% increase in the “strongly agree” category. In the pre-module survey, 0
participants selected 5.00 (Strongly Agree), five selected 4.00 (Agree), six selected 3.00
(Neutral), three selected 2.00 (Disagree), and three selected 1.00 (Strongly Disagree). Clearly,
participants were not very familiar with subject research and data collection for documentary
film before reviewing the instructional module, and the module was a positive and successful
learning experience for the participants about the topic.
The instructional module substantially increased participants’ familiarity with
documentary film, knowledge of the process of creating a documentary film, and interest in and
knowledge on how to conduct research and data collection for a documentary film after deciding
upon a subject. The results also reveal that applying the ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017)
as a design and development (Iwasaki, in progress) framework helped motivate students to
become interested in subject research and data collection for documentary film. It also helped
successfully inform, guide and instruct students about the process of subject research and data
48
collection for documentary film, and increased their understanding and knowledge. These were
important additional purposes in utilizing ARCS and the data and significant results confirm that
the instructional module accomplished this.
The final response item was “This module is helpful for research and data collection for
documentary film,” and participants reported an average rating of 4.44 (SD = 0.63). Eight
participants selected 5.00 (Strongly Agree), seven selected 4.00 (Agree), and one selected 3.00
(Neutral). There were no “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree” responses. This demonstrates that
the instructional module is a valuable and useful resource to guide and assist beginner and
student filmmakers with documentary film subject research and data collection.
In the post-module survey, participants answered one qualitative question when they
were asked to explain: Why is the instructional module helpful for research and data collection
for documentary film? This open-ended question allowed participants to answer with narrative
type responses. As was done with the qualitative question in the pre-module evaluation survey,
an inductive approach (Bryman, 2012; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016) and Yin’s Five
Phases of Analysis and their Interactions Framework (2016) were applied and the results were
grouped according to their relationship with the ARCS model concepts of attention, relevance,
confidence and satisfaction (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas, 2015). Participants affirmed that
the instructional module was helpful and useful to guide and assist beginner and student
filmmakers. “The module gave a lot of useful information for people who are beginning their
filmmaking career,” said one participant; and another said, “It's a very useful and helpful module
for filmmakers beginning their projects.” These results confirm the quality and importance of the
instructional module. Table 1.9 on the next page lists the alignment of the ARCS concepts and
definitions with a sampling of participant answers.
49
Table 1.9. Post-Module Survey Qualitative Question Answers and Alignment with ARCS
Model Concepts
The instructional module is helpful for research and data collection for documentary film.
Please explain why.
Attention
“It is appealing and credible product.” – Participant #1
“Really encouraged connecting with others using visuals, personal stories, and being
relatable.” – Participant #7
“To include a message that resonates with your audience and makes them want to apply it to
their daily lives.” – Participant #3
Relevance
The module gave a lot of useful information for people who are beginning to start their
filmmaking career. – Participants #8, #13
“Lists detailed tips on what to do, what to look for and how to go about it which I find very
helpful.” – Participant #10
“Gives a more complete picture of the process.” – Participant #11
Confidence
“Explains how one should be collecting information.” – Participant #1
“Very thorough, easy-to-digest and informative.” – Participant #4
“Provides detailed steps that could be overlooked in writing. This was wonderful! It should be
shared with all majors!” – Participant #7
“I feel like I have a base knowledge that could help me get started.” – Participant #15
Satisfaction
“Learned more about what to do for the audience and how to become a better filmmaker.” –
Participant #5
“This survey was well done! It was effective in providing organized and easy to understand
information.” – Participant #12
“Everything was organized in a way that was easy for me to follow and access everything I
needed to complete the instructional module.” – Participant #16
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These substantial qualitative and quantitative findings, as well as field notes and
observations that utilized triangulation, (Bryman, 2012; Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016)
confirm that the instructional module did indeed have a positive educational impact on the
participants. The overall positive results of the instructional module as evidenced by the data
collected from the evaluation surveys substantiates the educational quality, value and
significance of the instructional module and this study.
Rigor
The research for this dissertation used qualitative and mixed methods research
approaches, establishing rigor in multiple ways. In this section, strategies to enhance rigor for
each chapter are discussed.
Chapter 3
This Chapter 3 study was designed to capture and summarize professional filmmakers’
experiences with subject research and data collection for documentary film. Like many other
qualitative research studies, this research was exploratory and experimental, thus it was difficult
to assess outcomes (Goldie, 2016; Hoffman, 2017) without conditions to demonstrate the quality
of empirical research data. Thus, the following four research assessments were applied: 1)
triangulation of data: audio-recorded interviews, transcripts, observations, journaling and field
notes, 2) inter-rater reliability, 3) respondent validation and member check, and 4)
trustworthiness and authenticity of data sources. The triangulation principle, seeking a minimum
of three ways to verify and validate data or findings, has long been recognized in qualitative
research to determine credibility (Bryman 2012; Yin, 2016).
Two experienced, respected professionals in the field of documentary film, with many
accomplished products, provided suggestions on filmmakers to minimize bias. They also
reviewed and verified the completed list of filmmakers (Ifenthaler & Schumacher, 2016),
providing inter-rater reliability checks (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016).
To ensure the interview questions obtained useful data necessary to answer the research
question, three researchers familiar with the topic reviewed the questions and provided helpful,
constructive feedback. The questions were revised before implementation (see Appendix A).
This provided another inter-rater reliability check that contributed to the pilot data. A pilot test of
51
the interview questions was also conducted with one filmmaker in a face-to-face semi-structured
interview to evaluate and confirm appropriateness and feasibility of the instrument (Bryman,
2012). The pilot data was used to make minor adjustments to refine the interview questions.
Respondent validation, or member checks, is a term referring to the process of obtaining
feedback from participants to lessen the misinterpretation of interview answers and views of the
topic or subject and to ask if the researcher accurately recorded or described the interview,
experience or intent of the interviewee (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016). Transcripts
were emailed to the participants, who approved and validated their accuracy and intent of
answers, adding to the credibility of the study. The study was designed to have minimal impact
on the participants.
By its nature, basic qualitative/interpretive research must depend on the trustworthiness
and integrity of the researcher, and the data, observations, interpretations and findings must be
reliable, authentic and, as much as possible, documented and validated. (LaBoskey, 2006;
Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Sandretto, 2009; LaBoskey, 2006; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994;
Sandretto, 2009; Tidwell, Heston, & Fitzgerald, 2009; Yin, 2016). One suggestion to ensure
professionalism, quality and rigor is to consider and examine the work as public and community
property, thus available for review, critique and exchange (Borko, Liston, & Whitcomb, 2007;
Shulman, 2000).
Chapter 4
In Chapter 4 the researcher used the ARCS concepts (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) and the
12 Principles of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) to
develop and generate the instructional resource and the necessary material that would be used for
it. Applying the ADDIE model’s iterative design process (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001;
McGriff, 2000, Serhat, 2017) to the instructional resource included multiple formative
assessment reviews. Each review informed and guided the critical design decisions for the next
iteration. There were three prototypes and each one was reviewed by one or more of the
following: a professional graphic designer, experienced researcher/educators, and a student
filmmaker.
52
First Formative Assessment. A professional graphic designer in the graphic arts
industry was asked by the researcher to review the first prototype. His overall comment was, “It
is really about the content. The visual treatment of the type, and color should be in service of the
points you want to get across and the readers’ ability to consume and understand your message,”
(Yugawa, personal communication, 2020). Feedback on typography, images, color, font, and
sections were provided to improve the first iteration.
about researching and collecting data for documentary film.

prototype. There were two parts to their constructive feedback. The first part focused on
mechanical and other usability concerns such as including a begin button, back and next buttons
on each page; enlarging the photos; increasing the font size of the text; and centering the
material.
The second part of their feedback focused on important design strategies that would
guide the next iteration:
53
With technical assistance once again from one of the reviewers, the researcher was able to apply
the design modifications and strategies recommended on the third prototype to the fourth
prototype.
Chapter 5
A convergent mixed methods design approach (Creswell, 2007, 2009, 2015, 2018) was
used to address the research question in Chapter 5 in this dissertation. This particular research
approach was used in order to collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data from the
target audience, the beginner and student filmmakers, during the same time frame. Applying both
quantitative and qualitative methods rigorously strengthened the data collection, analysis and
interpretation of the study in order to provide a better understanding and examination of the
research topic. Along with the quantitative and qualitative instruments, field notes and
observations were recorded during the study’s phases and used in analysis and interpretation.
Thus, triangulation, application of different valid collection methods, was also applied to
strengthen the study and increase credibility and validity (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016).
A pilot test (Bryman, 2012) of the instrument, the interview questions, was conducted
with a veteran filmmaker in Phase I (Chapter 3), and a pilot test of the instructional module and
evaluation instruments, the surveys, was also conducted with a student in Phase III (Chapter 5).
Pilot testing confirmed that the research instruments worked well in Phase I and III to collect the
necessary data, and integration of the study’s mixed methods approach in Phase III ensured
feasibility (Curry & Nunez-Smith, 2015). The research conducted and data collected in each of
the chapters were recorded, documented, and validated as much as possible (Bryman, 2012).
54
Definition of Key Terms
ARCS Model – A problem-solving instructional design framework developed to activate and
sustain learning motivation in educational and training environments. The motivational factors of
attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction are often used to guide the design and
development of research instruments, implementation, data collection and analysis.
ADDIE Model – the ADDIE model is an iterative, systematic instructional design process that
originated with military instruction and training. The letters are an acronym that stand for:
analyze, design, develop, implement and evaluate.
Beginner/Student filmmakers – The term “beginner and student filmmakers” in this study
refers to: 1) The target audience of the instructional module that is the focus of the dissertation,
students learning about and exploring the documentary film documentary production under the
definition and interpretation of the genre; and 2) The participant sample group in Phase III
(Chapter 5) of the dissertation, the student filmmakers who are an appropriate demographic
match as the target audience. The group will be a sampling of students attending an 11-week
non-credit video production course, including learning about documentary film, and other
students exploring documentary film, at a four-year university in the western United States.
Documentary film - The term “documentary film” in this study refers to all visual
representations, including motion picture, movie, film, video, digital and all types of moving
images and media with content that can fall under the definition and interpretation of the genre:
A nonfictional documentation of fact-based reality, and its purpose is instruction, education,
entertainment, persuasion, motivation or historical record preservation (Aufderheide, 2007;
Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018).
Educational resource - Educational resources refers to the information, instruction, resources,
modules or processes available in literature on how to conduct research and data collection for
documentary film. This dissertation will use the term “educational resource” to define any
resource available in literature about subject research and data collection; and will use the term
“instructional module” to define the specific resource that was designed and developed in this
dissertation.
Film/Filmmaker/Filmmaking - Although technology has evolved and nearly everyone in the
industry uses digital video recording methods rather than photographic film stock, the terms
“film,” “filmmaker” and “filmmaking” are still used today and will be used in this study to
55
define traditional film stock or digital video and the person who controls and communicates
perceptions, ideas, stories, and feelings using moving images and sound.
Instructional Module - During the third prototype iteration in Phase II (Chapter 4), the
instructional “resource” became an interactive, content-rich, online module with multiple
webpages and was appropriately renamed as an instructional “module.” “Instructional module”
refers to the module designed and developed in this research study. This dissertation will use the
term “instructional module” to define the specific resource that was designed and developed in
this dissertation.
ISD – Instructional Design System that was developed through instructional systems training and
research in the U.S. military following WWII. The purpose of ISD was to create technical
training programs for new recruits that would enable them to quickly learn about and master
standardized military procedures and processes.
Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning – A well-known and widely used cognitive
theory of multimedia learning. Mayer focused on 12 principles of multimedia learning and
hypothesized a fundamental educational premise that people can learn more completely and
deeply from words and pictures than from words alone. Mayer defined multimedia learning as
learning from words such as spoken or printed text, and pictures such as illustrations, photos,
maps, graphs, animation, or video.
Professional filmmakers – The term “professional filmmakers” in this study refers to those who
the researcher has identified as people with extended professional experience and practice in
documentary film and completed a minimum of one to two documentary films with public
distribution on a topic that is relevant or related to Hawai‘i or who is based in Hawai‘i. They
comprise the participant sample group in Phase I (Chapter 3) of the dissertation.
56
Chapter 2 Literature Review
As discussed in Chapter 1, the documentary film genre is a powerful and influential
information and communication medium that is widely recognized, encouraged and used in
educational practice and public scholarship today to engage learners of all ages (Aufderheide,
2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). Its increasing use in education timely
coincides with the technological advances in film and video production today. What has
historically been a very expensive and prohibitive endeavor can now be accomplished with
inexpensive equipment, software applications and smartphones (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018;
Winston et al., 2017). Democratizing the industry from restrictive costs allows more people,
young and old, from diverse populations, to actively participate in telling meaningful stories via
the documentary film genre.
Although information about the overall filmmaking process is available, literature on the
research and data collection aspect of documentary filmmaking, which is essential to the
production process, is limited. There is a lack of information and educational resources about the
“how to” conduct subject research and collect data for documentary film in either scholarly or
popular sources (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire,
2014). In this study educational resources refers to the information, instruction, or processes
available in literature on how to conduct research and collect data for documentary film
(Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank, 2013; Winston et al., 2017).
However, this is the fundamental core for any documentary film and is the essence, the
heart, of any documentary film project because it determines the content of the film
(Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston, et al., 2017). Simply, without research
and data, there is no documentary film. This is a problem as many beginners and students
exploring documentary film production might need help to know how to begin subject research
and data collection for documentary film and there are no easy-to-use resources. Thus, there is a
clear need for informative, beneficial, user-friendly educational resources to fill this gap.
An educational resource about subject research and data collection, generated from the
knowledge and experiences of professional filmmakers, would be extremely helpful for beginner
and student filmmakers. Instead of learning the craft of documentary filmmaking by instinct and
intuition, as is often the case which results in many questions and challenges, beginner
filmmakers would have the advantage of the real-world wisdom and recommendations from
57
veteran filmmakers. This could be considered gaining a head start in the formidable and complex
filmmaking process, allowing beginner and student filmmakers to share their important stories
with the world more quickly and efficiently. This expert guidance in the film process would not
opportunities with an increased availability of timely documentaries from filmmakers.
Therefore, the focus of this dissertation was to design, develop, implement and evaluate
an educational resource for documentary film subject research and data collection that will guide
and assist beginner and student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film
production. This resource is intended to help them share their valuable stories with the world
using the increasingly accessible, dynamic and effective medium of documentary film
(Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018).
To understand the context of this dissertation, this literature review chapter explores the
world of documentary film and how the researcher applied the ARCS model of motivation
(Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas, 2015) and Mayer’s (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer,
2011) as conceptual frameworks, and operationalized the ADDIE model of instructional design
as the study’s overarching design and evaluation process (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; Gagne,
et al., 2005; McGriff, 2000; Molenda, 2015; Molenda et al., 1996; Serhat, 2017).
The researcher was able to access, gather, read and view academic and popular literature
for the dissertation by utilizing the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa OneSearch tool and
databases, including Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, Emerald Insight, ERIC ProQuest,
Film & Television Literature, JSTOR, and other databases; Google Scholar; other educational
sites such as Taylor & Francis Online, ResearchGate, International Review of Research in Open
and Distributed Learning, American Educational Research Association; and a wide variety of
popular sources, including multimedia. When possible, the researcher borrowed hard copy texts
available in the UH system libraries and other libraries throughout the United States through the
Interlibrary Loan (ILL) Services system as well as obtain access to articles via ILL.
Documentary Film Description and Background

The documentary is a genre in the motion picture, film and video media field. It is a
nonfictional documentation of fact-based reality, and its purpose can be instruction, education, or
58
historical record preservation. Aufderheide (2007) defines a documentary as a film or video that
“tells a story about real life, with claims to truthfulness,” (p. 2). Documentary film’s grounding
in reality and facts, rather than fiction, makes it an extremely powerful medium, providing
images, narratives, sounds and experiences that can educate and motivate its viewer audience
(Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018).
Documentary film’s accessibility and relevance to broad and diverse audiences can
increase engagement in a connected world (Friend & Caruthers, 2016; Loustaunau & Shaw,
2018), and it is widely used successfully in educational practice today to engage learners of all
ages (Frank, 2013; Nash et al., 2014; Winston et al., 2017). Documentary film has become an
extremely popular and well-received medium of information and communication for all
audiences, including educational and training settings (Bugis, 2018; Goldman, et al. 2007;
Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; West et al., 2017). Documentary film’s acceptance and adoption in
instructional practice and use in distributing information to broad and extensive audiences timely
coincides with the field’s advances in accessible, low-cost, high quality equipment. What was
once an expensive venture that only well-funded projects could execute, documentary films can
now be created with inexpensive video equipment and smartphones along with modest or free
software applications for editing (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston et al., 2017).
Democratizing the industry from restrictive cost allows more people, young and old, from
diverse populations, to actively participate in telling meaningful stories via the documentary film
genre.
Many in the documentary film field stand by the six primary types of documentaries
established by Bill Nichols (2012), a Swedish film critic, theoretician and educator, best known
for founding the contemporary study of documentary film (Biesterfeld, 2019). Table 2.1 on the
next page lists the six primary types of documentaries.
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Table 2.1. Six Primary Types of Documentary Films
Expository: Research and aims to educate and explain using interviews, visuals, photos and
graphics with scripted narration.
Observational: Observation with the filmmaker as a neutral observer and it often called cinema
verite, direct cinema or fly-on-the-wall documentary.
Participatory: Direct engagement between the filmmaker and subjects of the film.
Reflexive: The constructed nature of the documentary and flaunts it.
Cinematic values of visuals, design, composition and rhythm over content.
Performative: A “being there” perspective in a location, culture or event and its impact on the
audience.
Other categories may often be called by a variety of other names, but they all can generally fall
under the six primary types. Some of them are: biography, sociological or ethnographic
examination, history, concert, live performance, expose, subject examination, nature and science-
related themes, “making of” or “behind the scenes,” mocku-mentary, docu-drama, docu-comedy
and pseudo-documentary (Aufderheide, 2007; AMC Filmsite, 2018).
The documentary film began at the same time as entertainment films in the late nineteenth
century in both the United States and France. At first, they were very short newsreels,
instructional films, current event shorts or travelogues of exotic lands of a few minutes long and
were shown at public venues. Then they developed into longer, educational projects. The films
were often presented with lectures and demonstrations, and quickly became an educational
resource. Film technology and sound improved and national film industries in America and
Europe were firmly established by 1914 (AMC Filmsite, 2018; Science + Media Museum).
Many consider Nanook of the North (1922) to be the first official film documentary. It
was a non-fiction narrative film that took an ethnographic look at the harsh life of Canadian Inuit
Eskimos living in the Artic by Robert J. Flaherty. Although Flaherty manipulated and staged
some of the scenes by asking his subjects to recreate obsolete customs, he is regarded as the
“Father of the Documentary Film,” and has been praised for Nanook, as well as Moana (1926) a
documentary or “docu-fiction” about Samoan Pacific Islanders (Aufderheide, 2007; Grimshaw,
2014; AMC Filmsite, 2018). His co-director and wife Frances H. Flaherty, and three daughters
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lived, worked with and filmed the people on the island of Savai‘i in Samoa for a year with 16
tons of film equipment (Robert J. Flaherty’s Moana, 2017). As with Nanook, Flaherty took the
artistic liberty of reenacting obsolete earlier practices in Samoa (Hood, 2017).
Documentary Film as Research Practice

entertainment; another is social commentary. Yet another is educational research practice. With
Internet accessibility, digital technologies, and lower production costs, documentaries have
escalated and their use as a research practice across the disciplines has increased (Leavy, 2015;
Winston, et al., 2017). Social science research (Frank, 2013; Goldman et al., 2007) including
anthropology, often utilizes documentary film using terms such as ethnographic film and
ethnocinema (Leavy, 2015). Video Research in the Learning Sciences provides a comprehensive
exploration of key theoretical and methodological use of documentary film in studies (Goldman
et al., 2007). New Documentary Ecologies: emerging platforms, practices and discourses reports
on the research applications of the powerful and relevant medium and its recent surge in digital
platforms (Nash et al., 2014).
Frank (2013) sought to expand the educational significance, practice and application of
the documentary film and Bell (2011) emphasized the importance of the genre in
historiographical research and scholarship. Whiteman (2004) discussed its political impact and
Fonda (2014) combined art therapy and filmmaking. Documentary film is now used in different
research contexts and presentations using a wide range of styles and approaches. They can range
from loosely planned projects to fully storyboarded, scripted and rehearsed professional
productions that require hiring a cinematographer, crew and staff, as well as a cast and actors for
reenactments. Some may also feature the researcher(s), participants, and other sources (Leavy,
2015; Leavy & Chilton, 2014).
Documentary film has proven to be a popular medium for researchers and educators
hoping to inspire and promote knowledge and awareness of diverse issues (Aufderheide, 2007;
Frank, 2013) such as social justice to various audiences in education, from elementary to post-
secondary, and beyond (Friend & Caruthers, 2016; Hanley, Noblit, Sheppard, & Barone, 2013);
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migration and immigration from Central and South America (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018); to the
global environmental and health concerns of agricultural chemicals (The Monsanto Papers,
2018).
A fundamental component of the documentary film is featuring the life, knowledge,
experience and voice of the actual participants and sources of the documentary. With the
understanding that the women from Rwanda and Bangladesh in her film about gender and
genocide do not represent the incidents, gender or nations, Azra Rashid (2014) believed in the
importance of allowing the survivors to speak for themselves and communicate their personal
stories. Similarly, seeking to explore inequities in urban public education in the United States,
Friend and Caruthers (2016) believed that documentary film created opportunities for subject
participants to share real, credible stories and perspectives that they hope will motivate people to
bring about change and improvement. The stories and narrative storytelling of the documentary
“expands our understanding of shared human experience, fostering an informed, compassionate
and connected world,” believes Loustaunau and Shaw (2018, p. 2).
Increased accessibility to the necessary technology and lower costs for equipment also
helps participant, and subject stories and experiences to be progressively shared globally. People
and voices who were in the past ignored, excluded and dismissed are now being heard, with
reference to the $100 smartphone’s filming capabilities, advances in digital photography and
editing along with free and low-cost software applications (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018 Winston
et al., 2017). The people making documentary films vary widely, from high-profile celebrities to
relatively unknown student filmmakers. While one end of the documentary film spectrum lists
significant, successful filmmakers such as Michael Moore, whose Fahrenheit 9/11 earned over
$221 million in U.S. and international box office revenues in 2015 (IndieWire, 2014), and 33
million Americans watched Ken Burns’ The Roosevelts: An Intimate History (Burns, 2014) the
other end is no less important.
Steps to a Documentary Film

Generally, traditional documentary film usually takes a highly subjective approach with
the filmmaker directing the entire process, from subject selection, research, and data collection,
to creative approaches (Bell, 2011; Friend & Caruthers, 2016). Filmmakers claim that making a
documentary is one of the most fulfilling, rewarding, yet extremely challenging creative
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endeavors one can embark on. It can be a thrilling adventure, but it can be also very difficult
because there are no definitive rules or procedures. It is a creative, artistic process and often a
filmmaker learns by intuitively doing what is necessary to move the project to completion.
(Desktop Documentaries, 2018). Paradoxically, filmmaker Michael Moore (IndieWire, 2014)
insists that the first step to documentary filmmaking is to not make a documentary. Instead, he
emphasizes, one should make a movie. “Stop making documentaries. Start making movies.
You’ve chosen this art form — the cinema, this incredible, wonderful art form, to tell your story.
You didn’t have to do that.” (para. 1).
Whether it’s a fluid, intuitive, creative development or a step-by-step, meticulously planned
process, the consensus seems to be: one needs to first make that decision, simply and quietly, and
begin. There are no standard, fixed, definitive rules, but there are some general guidelines such
as telling an important story, encouraging thorough research and data collection, planning, script
writing, production, editing, and distribution (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop
Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014). Although this is by no means a complete,
comprehensive list and does not include many elements of the filmmaking process, including
funding and budgets, here are some suggestions from several sources (Adorama Learning Center,
2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014):
• Step 1: Tell a “worthy” story
Documentaries need to be about a subject that excites the filmmaker, a “worthy” subject
of interest to the filmmaker and, of course, to others. The documentary filmmaking
process is formidable, so one needs a fire burning inside that is both energizing and
sustaining on the long journey. The subject must be something one cares about deeply
and completely, something that allows one to express personal worldview, values and
beliefs (Studio Binder, 2018). While not all documentaries will be political or dangerous,
Moore claims that if one wants to achieve real success, one needs to make the film with
the intensity, drive and commitment as if it will be the last job one ever does in life
(IndieWire, 2014).
• Step 2: Research and collection
Learn everything about the documentary subject by putting on the
researcher/investigator/reporter hat and find out as much as possible using digital,
physical and human sources. Search out material, gather facts, follow leads and
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recommendations on interesting resources, take a lot of notes, conduct initial interviews,
pay attention to interesting, emotional and inspiring material, and include key points that
will resonate with the audience (Adorama Learning Center, 2018). The precious treasures
of the film may often be hidden, buried away, and may need uncovering and revelation
(Desktop Documentaries, 2018).
• Step 3: Make a plan
Create a plan with an outline and think about how the story will be told; its structure and
style. Search for existing footage or photos that help tell the story. Questions to ask: Who
is the primary character? What are the core story points? What are the elements of the
story that are compelling and/or make one “tingle” with intrigue and excitement?
(Adorama Learning Center, 2018).
• Step 4: Production
Create a detailed plan to shoot and film the documentary film: 1) interviews, 2) B-roll,
supplemental footage that helps to tell the story, and 3) reenactments or recreations if
applicable.
• Step 5: Write a script
Once all of the footage has been filmed, the production elements covered, including the
necessary audio, video and other material, and the interviews transcribed, the script needs
to be developed and written. “Pinpoint the most compelling elements of your story and
start crafting chapters and mini-scenes around those events” (Adorama Learning Center,
2018).
• Step 6: Edit
Using computers and video editing software, it is time to cut, edit and paste the footage
into sequences of the documentary film according to the script. Sources say that the art to
editing is to keep the audience on its toes by creating a roller coaster ride of emotion,
with some parts fast and quick, and other parts slow, meaningful and deep, in order to
create a dynamic viewing experience (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop
Documentaries, 2018).
• Step 7: Distribute
From theaters to television, DVD to digital, and today’s direct streaming media
platforms, there are greater opportunities and challenges in film and video distribution.
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The distribution process is its own myriad web including hiring a distributor or self-
marketing and other decisions (Studio Binder, 2018).
Lack of Subject Research and Data Collection Information

According to these sources (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries,
2018; IndieWire, 2014), the second step on the documentary film path as discussed above is
research and data collection. Documentary filmmakers are encouraged to search out material,
gather facts, follow leads and recommendations on interesting sources and conduct interviews.
Other than that, there is scant information on the “research and data collection” step of the
documentary film. Indeed, as this study has introduced, there is a lack of information about the
methods, guidelines and procedures in either popular or scholarly sources. Veteran documentary
filmmakers might know how to undertake the central question: where does one begin to tell a
meaningful story after deciding upon the subject? However, beginners and students exploring
documentary film production may not know where to start. With documentary filmmaking
becoming an increasingly egalitarian pursuit with unlimited informational and educational
possibilities, there should be a corresponding amount of information and educational resources
about this important second step. Educational resources in this study refers to the information,
instruction, or processes available in literature on how to conduct research and collect data for
documentary film.
While subject research and data collection are recommended in academic and popular
literature, a review reveals that educational resources about how to conduct this important step in
the documentary film process are lacking. Yet this research and collection of data is the
fundamental core and foundation for any documentary film because it determines the film’s
content (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). Research and data
collection include background, history and context of the subject, as well as the interesting,
emotional and inspiring material featuring the key points that will resonate with the audience
(Adorama Learning Center, 2018). It is the essence, the heart, of any documentary film project.
Simply put, without research and data collection, there is no content, therefore there is no
documentary film. Generally, the research and data collection process for documentary film may
appear to be lacking the kind of systematic approach that is used in other fields such as
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instructional learning and design. Applying a methodical approach could increase learning and
successful outcomes (Anderson & Dron, 2011; Dick et al., 2001; Dunaway, 2011; Piskurich,
2015; Russell, 2005).
An academic search resulted in a list of important scholarship about the extensive and
diverse world of documentary research and analysis studies; however, there is a lack of the “how
to basics” of research and data collection for a documentary film. Regarding popular sources,
although there is the “How to Make it in Film” series with episodes consisting of behind the
scenes interviews with regional, national and international filmmakers, editors, directors, writers,
cinematographers, producers and many others who work in the documentary film industry, it is
not a guide to data collection. Covering many aspects of the filmmaking process, each program
is designed to take beginning filmmakers through the steps to make it in documentary film
production. (Kanopy, 2018). Featured filmmakers have included Aviva Kempner, Mike Walter,
Caren Cross and Lance Kramer, who is the co-founder of Meridian Hill Pictures, a platform for
producing independent social impact documentaries and innovative media arts education
programs. In 2014, Kramer accepted the Mayor's Arts Award in Innovation, the highest honor
given to a working artist in Washington, DC” (Meridian Hill Pictures, 2020). Yet, these
films/videos do not spend much time explaining the research and collection phase of filmmaking.
As listed in the Steps to a Documentary section, there is an abundance of popular type
“How to Make a Documentary” step-by-step guides or “insider tips” such as Michael Moore’s 13
Rules for Making Documentary Films, yet again, there is no guidance on the research, gathering
and collecting of data and subject sources (Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014).
Professional documentary filmmakers might know how to carry out the central question:
where does one begin after deciding upon the subject? However, beginners and students
exploring documentary or educational video and film production may not know where or how to
begin and this is problem. The design and development of an educational resource for
documentary film subject research and data collection would be helpful in addressing this need.
Therefore, this dissertation presents research in three studies focusing on the design,
development, implemention and evaluation of an educational resource by capturing the real-
world wisdom and expertise of professional filmmakers from their actual filmmaking
experiences about subject research and data collection for documentary film. This output of the
three studies would add a relevant and valuable educational resource to the limited body of
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knowledge in this area. This information is intended to help guide and assist beginner and
student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film production so they can share
their valuable stories with the world using the increasingly accessible and effective medium of
documentary film (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018). This contribution to the literature and field of
documentary film research and data collection, as well as film studies and education, was the
overall goal of this dissertation. As far as the researcher’s knowledge, no previous research has
explored and examined this topic in this manner before.
While documentaries have the capacity of reaching a wider public audience than academic
historians or researchers, the filmmaker may rarely exercise academic rigor in the documentary
film process, unless perhaps creating a public television production or educational programming
that requires a professional advisory board (National Endowment for the Humanities).
Documentary filmmakers might prefer to tell the story in a way that elicits a greater emotional
response, while academia may demand precision and accuracy over narrative storytelling,
emotional storytelling (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011).
Indeed, filmmakers may often avoid consulting a range of experts. Too often for
filmmakers’ liking, historians and academics may become enforcers of precise historical
sequences, discussion of multiple interpretations, and the need to insert minor characters or
precise accuracies, all of which may frustrate the clarity of filmed storytelling for broad
audiences (Aufderheide, 2007, p. 92).
However, researchers understand the advantages and benefits of academic application to
documentary film projects. Most documentary filmmakers are occupied with filmmaking or
fundraising to be able to describe their work and document the process of data collection.
Journalists as well do not have the time to conduct extensive historical research in the field; it is
an uneasy marriage. Thus, researchers appreciate the potential of academic endeavor for film
documentary studies, including scholarly research, data collection and documentation to add
greater validity, depth and accuracy (Aufderheide, 2007; Petrarca & Hughes, 2014; Woo, 2008).
Therefore, to examine the possibilities of research and data collection, this most important
phase of the documentary film process, the researcher applied the ARCS model of motivation
(Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas, 2015) and Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning
(2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) as conceptual frameworks, and utilized the
ADDIE model of instructional design as a systematic process (Dick, et al; 2001; Gagne, et al.,
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2005; McGriff, 2000; Serhat, 2017) that bridged the three chapter research studies. The intent
and hope of this educational resource for documentary film subject research and data collection
is to help guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers learning about and exploring
documentary film production. The purpose of this resource is to help them share their
meaningful stories with the world using the increasingly affordable, effective and dynamic
medium of documentary film.
ARCS Model of Motivation

Each of the three studies featured a different approach and methodology, and produced
distinct outcomes in the overall dissertation plan, but they were all connected and integrated with
the same overarching purpose and utilized the same conceptual framework. The research and
data collection instruments in all three studies operationalized a well-established model in
motivation and instructional design, Keller’s ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017), to
increase the likelihood that the instructional module and evaluation instruments would resonate
with the target audience, beginner and student filmmakers. The ARCS model was selected
because it informed and guided the researcher through the process of design and development of:
1) the data collection instruments in Phase I (Chapter 3) and Phase III (Chapter 5) of the
dissertation, 2) the instructional module in Phase II (Chapter 4), and 3) the interpretation and
analysis of the data collected in Phase I and III. The ARCS model was used to ensure that the
structure and design of the interviews in Phase I with professional filmmakers addressed the
topic of subject research and data collection from four important perspectives: attention,
relevance, confidence and satisfaction. In Phase III (Chapter 5), the ARCS model ensured that
the evaluation surveys, completed by student filmmakers, examined the instructional module
from the same four perspectives. (see Figure 2.1 and Table 2.2 on the next page).
The motivational factors of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction as a problem-
solving instructional design framework (Gagne et al., 2005) are strongly applicable to the field of
documentary film with similar motivational goals for documentary filmmakers, whether they are
experienced veterans or beginners and students (educators/instructional designers), and their
audience (learners/students) (Astleitner & Hufnagl, 2003; Bugis, 2018; Hodges & Kim, 2013;
Keller & Suzuki, 2004; West et al., 2017). While the goals for documentary filmmakers may not
be referred to as “instructional design,” the motivation to increase knowledge and educate are
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very similar and are the primary goals for most documentary filmmakers through relevant,
motivational methods of film and video production (Frank, 2013; Nash, et al., 2014; Winston et
al., 2017).
Figure 2.1. Keller’s ARCS model of Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction.
Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/RobertPower1/educ5101g-session-5-presentation-
march-8-2016.

Attention
Relevance
Confidence
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Satisfaction
Background
An American educational psychologist, John M. Keller is a significant contributor to the
field of educational technology. He is best known for his work on motivation in education, and in
particular, for his work in developing the ARCS model of instructional design, which many
believe was an important breakthrough in the world of instructional technology (Francom &
Reeves, 2010; VonDrak, 2007). A synthesis of theory and practice, the acronym stands for
attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction. Keller received his doctorate in instructional
systems technology from Indiana University Bloomington and retired as an emeritus professor of
instructional technology and educational psychology from Florida State University (Francom &
Reeves, 2010; VonDrak, 2007). Combining the psychological concepts of motivation with
educational strategies, Keller said, “The objective of the ARCS model is to make the theory and
research in the field of motivation more easily adapted in actual instruction,” in order to optimize
student learning (Gagne et al., 2005, 114).
Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction

As represented in Figure 2.1 and Table 2.2, Keller (1983, 2010, 2017) offered a number
of strategies for each of the four major categories in ARCS. Learner or audience attention, the
first category could be achieved through (Francom & Reeves, 2010):
Attention
• Perceptual arousal - by surprise, doubt or disbelief.
• Inquiry arousal – using innovative methods to make the learner relate to the content with
curiosity, introducing challenging activities, questions and problems and self-selection of
projects and assignments.
• Active participation from learners and audiences.
• Humor - in introductions, stories and summaries.
• Incongruity or conflict in information or events.
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• Variety in presentation, media, format and interactions.
• Concrete visuals and examples, including real life examples and stories.
The second category, relevance, addresses the perceived relevance of the subject matter and
connection to motivate learners and audiences. Educators and presenters are encouraged to use:
Relevance
• Appropriate language is suitable for learners and audiences.
• Matching learner and audience needs to instructional strategies by providing
opportunities that encourage responsibility, authority and influence.
• Stories, anecdotes, analogies and real-life examples that learners and audiences can relate
to. This is similar to the attention category.
• Link to prior interest or experience that allows continuity, connection and engagement to
new material by expanding that knowledge base. There is the belief that learning the
material is not a waste of time.
• Immediate applicability of the material; convey that the learning material and knowledge
is directly connected to or can help resolve a present relevant situation or problem in real
life.
• Future usefulness and worth of the material; convey that the learning material and
knowledge is directly connected to or can help resolve a relevant situation in real life in
the future.
• Modeling enthusiasm for the subject and presenting examples and models of success by
those applying the model.
• Meaningful options and choices for learning.
The third category, confidence, refers to the sense of confidence that learner and the audience
feels in accomplishing their goals. Here are some ways to increase confidence:
Confidence
• Communicate and make the objectives and learning requirements clear.
• Facilitate self-growth and confidence by encouraging small steps and emphasizing
progress.
• Material should be simple and complex; and material should be presented to gradually
increase difficulty.
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• Help learners and audiences to expect success, encouraging realistic goals and attributing
success to effort.
• Provide constructive feedback to increase effective learning. Assessments should be
directly linked to the learning objectives.
• Promote environment that encourages independent learning, control and responsibility.
• Practice activities and tasks in realistic settings.
The fourth category, satisfaction, refers to how learners and audiences feel about their
accomplishments by appropriately rewarding performance based on extrinsic and intrinsic
motivation:
Satisfaction
• Schedule positive reinforcements frequently, intermittently and with variety.
• Positively praise and provide feedback to encourage a sense of achievement and
recognition.
• Reward learners and audiences unexpectedly.
• Provide positive natural consequences for learning.
• Avoid negative influences on learning.
• Immediate application of the learning material by engaging learners and audiences with a
real-world problem or task.
Satisfaction, and its connection with motivation, can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic
motivation is internal, the interest and enjoyment that is gained from the task or process itself
that can provide a sense of achievement, pride, purpose, growth, passion, curiosity and self-
expression. Extrinsic motivation is external, the rewards that come with completing the task such
as money, promotion, pay raises, bonuses, benefits and prizes. Keller (1983, 2010, 2017)
believes it is more common to find both elements in any given situation involving motivation
(Francom & Reeves, 2010).
Educators, instructional designers, presenters, film and video production creators can also
utilize these four categories of motivation to create their products for learners and audiences
(Astleitner & Hugnagl, 2003; Hodges & Kim, 2013). In addition to the motivational design
concepts, Keller’s ARCS model can also provide an instructional design process that applies the
four concepts to improve the motivational quality of instructional lessons and may address any
issues of motivation (Francom & Reeves, 2010; Keller & Suzuki, 2004). Therefore, the
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motivational factors of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction as an instructional design
framework are strongly transferable to the field of film and video production with similar
motivational goals for documentary filmmakers (educators/instructional designers) and their
audience (learners/students) (Astleitner & Hufnagl, 2003; Bugis, 2018; Hodges & Kim, 2013;
Keller & Suzuki, 2004; West et al., 2017).
Research and Practice

A well-established and effective conceptual framework in instructional design (Dick et
al., 2001; Piskurich, 2015), researchers have adapted and applied the ARCS model of motivation
to both face-to-face and technology-assisted online learning courses in the United States and the
world. Many studies have successfully operationalized the ARCS framework in both quantitative
and qualitative data collection and analysis with a wide variety of participants in educational
settings: K-12, undergraduate students, graduate students, technological and vocational students,
and in-service training groups. (Gagne et al., 2005; Keller & Suzuki, 2004; Li & Keller, 2018;
VonDrak, 2007). Many studies use all four concepts of ARCS, attention, relevance, confidence
and satisfaction, to generate strategies and instruments for data collection and analysis; however,
some studies have used one, two or three of the concepts (Li & Keller, 2018).
In a qualitative study to identify barriers and enablers for healthy weight management
among college students, researchers used the ARCS model to guide the development of the focus
group discussion guide. The study was conducted at eight universities in eight states in the
United States with 115 of the 174 recruited students participating in 16 online focus groups
(Greaney et al., 2009). The ARCS model, specifically the attention and relevance concepts, were
used to generate questions to obtain general topics of interest and health concerns that were
important for college students. The focus group questions that emerged from the ARCS process
addressed semester goals, aspects that made it challenging to maintain a healthy weight, triggers
to eating, regulating food and drink, and anxiety about body shape and size. Findings suggest
that gender might not be as important as the various barriers and enablers for healthful weight
management. Individual and environmental interventions were also more influential to assist in
changes in behavior (Greaney et al., 2009).
In another study, researchers used the ARCS model to design and develop a questionnaire
to examine 87 college students enrolled in an online course in Taiwan on their Internet self-
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efficacy and its relation to motivation and learning performance. The results indicated that
students with higher Internet self-efficacy outperformed those with lower Internet self-efficacy
and that gender differences affected learning performance in different ways. (Chang, et al.,
2014).
The ARCS model has also been applied to the design and development of instructional
strategies using text, film and video for use in educational settings. In a study of 75
undergraduate students at the University of Salzburg taking a research design course, Astleitner
and Lintner (2004) implemented ARCS strategies on a self-instructional text upon the
experimental group. Results showed that the strategies led to both positive and negative effects,
depending on the motivational concepts.
In 2003, Astleitner and Hufnagl conducted a study of 44 university students enrolled in a
multimedia course at the University of Salzburg. The attention, relevance, confidence and
satisfaction concepts of the ARCS model of motivation was used to design and develop a web-
based lecture using video. One half of the students were presented with a web-based lecture
using video without the ARCS modifications (control group) and the other half were presented a
web-based lecture using video with the ARCS modifications (experimental group). Results
showed that the group in the ARCS modified lecture led to higher perceived success estimates,
general motivation and knowledge acquisition.
In another study involving film and video, Hodges and Kim (2013) utilized the ARCS
model as a guiding framework for the development of a motivational video delivered online in a
study with 43 students enrolled in an algebra class in a large state university in the mid-Atlantic
region of the United States. The video shown in the experimental group was designed to improve
college students’ attitudes toward mathematics. Findings from the study showed statistically
significant results for improved attitudes toward mathematics with the experimental group.
Analyzing data collection and assessment is another way studies have applied the ARCS
model. Angelo used ARCS as a framework for assessment, feedback strategies and tools for
educators (2017) and Astleitner and Linter (2004) successfully used the ARCS approach in
assessment within an experimental study involving 75 undergraduate students in a course in
research design at the University of Salzburg. Results showed that ARCS strategies led to both
positive and negative effects on motivational concepts in self-regulated learning.
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Other studies have successfully operationalized the ARCS model in theory and design
(Song & Keller, 2001); data collection (Kim & Keller, 2008, Visser & Keller, 1990; Visser,
Plomp, Amirault, & Kuiper, 2002) and delivery of instruction, in both online and face-to-face
courses (Kurt & Kecik, 2017; Li & Keller, 2018) including dance instruction (Lee, Kim, Kim,
Kim, 2013).
Phase I, II and III, (Chapters 3, 4 and 5)

The ARCS model was selected for this study’s conceptual framework because it will
inform and guide the researcher through the process of design and development of: 1) the data
collection instruments in Phase I (Chapter 3) and Phase III (Chapter 5), 2) the instructional
module in Phase II (Chapter 4), and 3) the interpretation and analysis of the data collected in
Phase I (Chapter 3) and Phase III (Chapter 5). The ARCS model is used to ensure that the
structure and design of the interviews in Phase I (Chapter 3) with the professional filmmakers
address the topic of subject research and data collection from four important perspectives:
attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction. In Phase III (Chapter 5), the ARCS model
ensures that the evaluation questionnaire, to be completed by the student filmmakers, examines
the educational tool from the same four perspectives.
Here is a sampling of the qualitative questions (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016) that
were asked of the first set of participants in the study, the professional filmmakers, in Phase I
(Chapter 3) of the dissertation which were guided by the ARCS model concepts of attention,
relevance, confidence and satisfaction (See Appendix A for a complete list of interview
questions):
• How do you approach research and data collection to capture the attention or curiosity of
your audience and maintain interest? (Attention)
• How do you present surprise, anticipation, uncertainty or suspense in your film?
(Attention)
• How do you incorporate research and data collection so that the film will be a valuable
learning experience, or provide a benefit, for the audience? (Relevance)
• How do your film projects address current issues/concerns? (Relevance)
• How do you encourage useful connections, self-growth or participatory goals for the
viewer? (Confidence)
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• How does the incorporation of your research and data collection inspire the audience to
critically reflect or act upon the content of the film? (Satisfaction)
• How do you feel this documentary film helps the audience address a real-world problem
or task? (Satisfaction)
Here is a sampling of the quantitative survey questions asked of the second set of participants
in the study, the student filmmakers, in Phase III of the dissertation. The questions were
informed and guided by the ARCS concepts and used appropriate qualifiers that could be
answered using a 5-point Likert psychometric response scale (Bryman 2012; Gorard, 2003) (See
Appendix B for a complete list of evaluation survey questions):
• The instructional module captured my interest and attention. (Attention)
• The module is helpful for research and data collection for documentary film. (Relevance)
• I was able to read and understand the information. (Confidence)
• The module increased my knowledge on how to conduct research and data collection for
a documentary film. (Satisfaction)
framework and alignment helped the researcher categorize and make sense and meaning out of
the data; thus, it enabled the researcher to establish important findings and outcomes.
Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning

In order to apply best practices in the design and development of the instructional module
to meet the needs of the target audience, the researcher used Richard Mayer’s (2001, 2005, 2009,
2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) well-known and widely used cognitive theory of multimedia
learning. Mayer focused on 12 principles of multimedia learning and hypothesized a
fundamental educational premise that people can learn more completely and deeply from words
and pictures than from words alone. Mayer (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011)
defined multimedia learning as learning from words such as spoken or printed text, and pictures
such as illustrations, photos, maps, graphs, animation, or video. Thus, the researcher used the
following multimedia learning principles as a framework for the study’s instructional module.
Students learn better when:
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the page or screen.
formal style.
machine voice.
Since this study’s goal was to create an educational resource to help student filmmakers, and
the information was being presented as constructive recommendations, the five themes were
renamed in Chapter 4 as “tips” as in “five tips for filmmaking.” The text for this first prototype
already included some of the elements of Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning (2001,
2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) such as extraneous words are excluded, characteristics
of the main concepts are featured, corresponding words and pictures are presented
simultaneously and near each other, and text is presented in a conversational style.
in the western United States. The researcher had planned to present and explain the educational
resource in person to the class as a lesson, asking students to also complete hard copy
evaluations (pretest and posttest). The infographic would be shown in the lesson presentation and
audio clips of interviews with filmmakers discussing each tip would be played. Printed copies of
the infographic would also be passed out. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the
university moved entirely to online learning in March 2020 and face-to-face gatherings were
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cancelled out of caution and safety. Thus, the researcher had to consider online possibilities of
implementing the educational resource with the target audience. While the inability to meet face-
to-face was unexpected, the obstacle was not impossible. Previous findings by Mayer and other
researchers report that multimedia online delivery can actually increase the learning potential and
outcomes (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Chiu & Churchill, 2016; Clark & Mayer, 2011; Levonen &
Rouet, 2001; Mayer, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2017).
educational resource at their own pace. The original plan was for the researcher to give an in-
person presentation and move through the educational resource and listen to the audio clips being
played together as a class. An online presentation would encourage participants to proceed at
their own pacing, taking as little or more time to review the resource and listen to the audio clips,
allowing increased learning. This was a helpful move for the target audience because self-paced
learning and online delivery were academic needs of the target audience (Education Dive, 2017;
McGraw Hill, 2020).
More of Mayer’s multimedia principles were added to the first prototype, most notably an
audio component embedded into the infographic; thus, following Mayer’s principle of combining
graphics, narration and text. Participants would be able to click on a link to listen to a short audio
clip of a filmmaker discussing that specific filmmaking tip, adding valuable insight, experience
and context. These audio clips were part of the 11 interviews conducted in Phase I (Chapter 3) of
this dissertation. There were five audio clips for each of the five filmmaking tips and due to IRB
and privacy concerns, the researcher did not include images of the filmmakers. This addressed
two of Mayer’s principles: narration in multimedia lessons is spoken in a friendly human voice
rather than a machine voice, and the speaker’s image is not necessary to add to the screen.
During this development phase in Phase II (Chapter 4) of the dissertation, multiple
formative assessments were conducted with experienced reviewers which informed the strategic
design decisions with each iteration. Another example of a significant improvement developed
after the assessment of the second prototype. Web page designs on a website were explored and
implemented. Thus, the researcher was able to present each of the five filmmaking tips on
separate web pages, applying two other principles of Mayer’s multimedia learning: 1) a
multimedia lesson is presented in well-organized, user-paced segments rather than as a
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continuous unit, and 2) characteristics of the main concepts, the five tips for filmmaking,
strengthened the presentation.
Mayer’s multimedia principles were continuously added to the educational resource. In
the end, after the formative assessment on the third prototype, the final, fourth iteration had
successfully applied all of Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009,
2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011).What started out as a basic, simple educational resource had
evolved to become an engaging, content rich, technology-enhanced, interactive instructional
module on a website. The educational “resource” final product was also appropriately renamed
as an “instructional module” in Chapter 4.

The researcher applied the instructional design process specified in the ADDIE (Analysis,
Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation) model (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001;
McGriff, 2000; Molenda, 2015; Molenda et al., 2017) to the research studies of this dissertation.
This process was selected because it systematically organized and bridged the dissertation’s
phases/chapters, as well as the studies’ instructional and learning design approach and
procedures, extremely well (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000). The ADDIE phases
of analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation appropriately applied to the
analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation of the dissertation’s output, the
educational resource to aid student filmmakers with documentary film subject research and data
collection that bridged the three-chapter research studies.
Background
While the ADDIE model is a well-known instructional design process, the origins of the
term “ADDIE model” is unclear. Molenda (2015) writes “The label seems not to have a single
author, but rather to have evolved informally through oral tradition. There is no original, fully
elaborated model, just an umbrella term that refers to a family of models that share a common
underlying structure” (p. 40). However, most researchers agree that it can be traced to and that it
developed out of the general term: instructional systems design (ISD) in the U.S. military during
the mid 1970s. The purpose of ISD was to create technical training programs for new recruits
that would enable them to quickly learn about and master standardized military procedures and
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processes (Allen, 2006; Molenda, 2015). A handbook by Briggs (1970), who was affiliated with
Florida State University, emerged with a systematic model for instructional design. Branson
(1978) writes that the Center for Education Technology at Florida State University worked with
the U.S. Army to develop a model that was called the Interservice Procedures for Instructional
Systems Development (IPISD), the headings of which were very similar to ADDIE. Many
classic textbooks on instructional design including The Systematic Design of Instruction by Dick,
et al. (2001) and Instructional-Design Theories and Models (Keller, 1983) examine ID in depth,
and the systems are very similar to the five ADDIE phases – analysis, design, development,
implementation and evaluation – however, ADDIE is not mentioned until the emergence of an
article with extensive references to ADDIE in its current, widely used form (Allen, 2006;
Molenda, 2015; Molenda et al., 1996).
Research and Practice

Despite its unclear origins, the ADDIE model as a systematic instructional design process
has become a very successful and popular instructional design tool for performance, job training
and educational settings because it provides a “dynamic, flexible guideline for developing
effective and efficient instruction,” (McGriff, 2000, p. 1). Many studies have successfully
applied the ADDIE model in both qualitative studies, with smaller sampling, and quantitative
studies, with larger sampling, in the United States and the world in a wide variety of educational
settings including K-12, undergraduate students, graduate students, library instruction,
technological and vocational students, and with workforce training (Allen, 2006).
In a qualitative study that combined ADDIE with Universal Design for Learning (UDL),
researchers at a Southwestern university in the United States analyzed a design process for an
online graduate class on course design with four participants (Parra et al., 2016). Findings
provided information and support regarding the continued improvement of course design for the
class.
A quantitative study used the ADDIE process to develop an online place- and culture-
based pre-fieldtrip lesson to third through fifth grade teachers in the Pacific to prepare their
students for the field visit (Rosa, 2014). Evaluation of an online survey questionnaire from 12
participants indicated that the lesson was engaging, aligned with class learning objectives and
helpful to prepare students for the field visit, thus creating a richer, in-depth learning experience.
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The ADDIE model seems to be an appropriate, popular instructional design system for
library instruction and librarians, who appreciate the iterative, cyclical design, and formative and
summative embedded assessments (Hess & Greer, 2016; Reinbold, 2013; Swanson, 2006; West,
et al., 2017) Librarians at an East Coast medical college worked with four groups of 25 students
to successfully implement a redesign of the course following implementation of the ADDIE
model. Results of the study found that the application of ADDIE can result in instruction that
focuses on learning outcomes relevant to students, meets their needs and promotes active
learning (Reinbold, 2013).
In another study, librarians at a university in the Midwest used the ADDIE model to
incorporate best practices in teaching and learning into an online, four-credit information literacy
course with 24 students (Hess & Greer, 2016). The findings that resulted from the study using
ADDIE were: develop a variety of instructional interactions in a structured, systematic design;
consider student engagement, learning and assessment more deliberately; combine information
literacy-specific standards and other learning guidelines, such as high-impact practices; and e-
learning best practices (Hess & Greer, 2016).
Since this study involves film and video production, of special interest to this study is the
qualitative research done by Bugis (2018) who investigated 38 Saudi Arabian pre-service
teachers’ use of the ADDIE model to develop lesson plans using digital storytelling (DST), a
term that means combining various forms of multimedia to instructional material, including
visual and audio effects. Believing that DST is an effective instructional strategy, Bugis provided
a workshop for the teachers on how to use the ADDIE model to design and create a DST project
for their classrooms. Data collection from interviews and focus groups were analyzed and
findings supported and confirmed that digital storytelling can be an effective tool for
incorporating technology into instructional practices. Researchers in another study also used the
ADDIE model and a storytelling approach to produce instructional videos successfully (West et
al., 2017).
Peterson (2003) used the ADDIE model in two phases in a quantitative study involving
seven students in a master’s level course: as a framework for the development of the course and
later as a process for the creation of multimedia class projects. Completing the first phase was
essential to the second phase. This study is also of particular interest and is a good example to
the researcher as this study also has two phases that must be completed in a systematic method in
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chronological order. The findings for this study supported the ADDIE model in the development
of a course that emphasized a learner-centered approach, with greater application and meaning
for learners (Peterson, 2003).
Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate

The ADDIE model phases will appropriately be applied to the analysis, design,
development, implementation and evaluation stages as they align with the three studies of this
dissertation. As shown by the research presented in the three chapters in this dissertation, an
online educational module about subject research and data collection for documentary film was
designed, developed, implemented and evaluated. The module is intended to help guide and
assist student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film production. Here is an
outline of the process followed by Figure 2.2 on page 84: a graphic representation of the ADDIE
process that was applied to the integrated chapters in this dissertation.
A – Analyze
Phase I Chapter 3
• Design and develop interview questions to the first participant sample group, the
professional filmmakers, about their experiences in documentary film subject research
and data collection. The ARCS model will be used to guide development of the interview
questions.
• Complete semi-structured interviews with professional filmmakers about their
experiences in documentary film subject research and data collection. Transcribe the
interviews.
• Analyze the feedback and interpret the data using Yin’s Five Phases of Analysis and their
Interactions framework and the coding categories of the ARCS model.
• Draw conclusions and categorize feedback based on the ARCS model of motivation
factors.
Phase III Chapter 5
• Analyze and assess the needs of the second participant sample group, the beginner and
student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film.
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D – Design
Phase II Chapter 4
• Design an instructional module for documentary film subject research and data collection
for student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film based on the data
collected and analyzed from the filmmakers about their experiences in documentary film
subject research and data collection in Phase I Chapter 3.
• The design of the instructional module will be guided by the ARCS model and Mayer’s
12 principles for multimedia learning.
D - Develop
• Develop the instructional module for documentary film subject research and data
collection for student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film based
on the data collected and analyzed from the professional filmmakers about their
experiences in documentary film subject research and data collection in Phase I Chapter
3.
• The iterative design process included multiple formative assessment reviews conducted
by qualified and experienced reviewers. Each review informed and guided the strategic
design decisions for the next iteration.
• There were three prototypes and each one was reviewed by one or more of the following:
a professional graphic designer, experienced researcher/educators, and a student
filmmaker.
I – Implement
Phase III Chapter 5
• Implementation of the instructional module with the target audience, the second
participant sample group, beginner and student filmmakers taking a class on film and
video production at a university located in the western United States.
• Implementation of the evaluation surveys for the instructional module with the target
audience.
E – Evaluate
Phase III Chapter 5
• Evaluation of the instructional module with the target audience using the data collected
from the evaluation surveys.
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• Summative assessment of the research. Reflect on the results.
• Interpretation and discussion of results.
ADDIE
Model of
PHASE II: EVALUATION PHASE III: ANALYSIS

(Chapter 5) (Chapter 5)
the target audience.
Summative assessment; results of the Needs assessment of the target
evaluation surveys. audience.
PHASE I and II: DESIGN

PHASE II: IMPLEMENTATION (Chapters 3 and 4)
(Chapter 5) Design the content (Chapter 3)
Implement the instructional module and the module (Chapter 4):
PHASE II: DEVELOPMENT
(Chapter 4)
module:
the next iteration.
Figure 2.2. Representation of the ADDIE model design process used in this dissertation.
Summary
The documentary film genre is a powerful and influential information and communication
medium that is widely recognized and utilized successfully in educational practice and public
scholarship today to engage learners of all ages (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013;
Winston et al., 2017). Its increasing use in education timely coincides with the technological
advances in film and video production today. What has historically been a very expensive and
prohibitive undertaking is now a progressively egalitarian vocation; documentary filmmaking
can now be accomplished with inexpensive equipment, software applications and smartphones
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(Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston et al., 2017). Democratizing the industry from restrictive
costs allows more people, young and old, from diverse populations, to actively participant in
telling meaning stories via documentary film.
Information about the overall documentary filmmaking process is available and sources
suggest many steps (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; Indie
Wire, 2014). Generally, the first step is quite straightforward: find a topic or subject that is
important to the filmmaker and others. The second step is research and data collection, which is
essential to the documentary film process. This “research and data collection” step is crucial to
the documentary film process because it determines the content of the film (Adorama Learning
Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014). Content is the fundamental core
and foundation for any documentary film and is the essence, the heart, of any documentary film
project (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017).
However, the literature on this step appears to be more ambiguous and limited (Adorama
Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014). In fact, there is a
notable lack of information and educational resources on the “research and data collection” step.
While subject research and data collection are recommended in academic and popular literature,
a review reveals that educational resources about how to conduct this important step of the
documentary film process are lacking. This is a problem as beginners and students exploring
documentary film production might not know how to begin subject research and data collection
for documentary film and there are no relevant, easy-to-use resources. As documentary
filmmaking becomes a more accessible endeavor due to technological advancements, there is a
greater need for educational resources to support this essential part of the film process. There is a
clear need for informative, beneficial, user-friendly educational resources to fill this gap. The
design and development of an educational resource for documentary film subject research and
data collection would be helpful in addressing this need.
Therefore, the overall goal of this dissertation was to design, develop, implement and
evaluate an educational resource for documentary film subject research and data collection that
may guide and assist student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film
production. This resource is intended to add an original, quality educational resource that would
help them share their valuable stories with the world using the increasingly democratic, dynamic
and effective medium of documentary film.
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Chapter 3
Abstract
communication medium that educates, “embraces difference,” inspires, and motivates its
audience. Its increasing utilization in education timely coincides with technological advances in
film and video production today. What has historically been a prohibitive undertaking is now a
progressively egalitarian vocation using inexpensive equipment and software. Yet the literature
on the research and collection aspect of documentary filmmaking, which is crucial to the
production process, is still limited. This qualitative study explores professional documentary
filmmakers’ experiences with research and data collection. A motivational model served as the
framework to develop and design the instrument, as well as data analysis. The questions were
reviewed by three researchers, and a pilot test was conducted with a veteran filmmaker. Eleven
professional documentary filmmakers in the Asia-Pacific region were interviewed using a
purposive sampling. Journaling, field notes, and observations were used in addition to the in-
depth interviews. After analysis and interpretation were completed, five major themes emerged
on how the filmmakers approached research and data collection for documentary film: 1) do the
research, 2) tell the story visually, 3) find strong characters, 4) support universal themes, and 5)
relate to your audience. This research uniquely summarized the knowledge and experiences of
professional filmmakers acquired from the actual filmmaking process. These significant results
provide relevant and important information and recommendations for beginner and student
filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film. This study was designed to
contribute to the practice and literature of documentary film research and studies, data collection
and education.
Keywords: documentary film, documentary film research and data collection, documentary
filmmakers’ experiences, documentary filmmaking recommendations, motivational design.
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Introduction
The film documentary is a genre in the motion picture, film and video media field. It is a
nonfictional documentation of fact-based reality, and its purpose can be to provide information,
increase understanding, or preserve historical records. Aufderheide (2007) defines a
documentary as a film or video that “tells a story about real life, with claims to truthfulness” (p.
2). Documentary film’s grounding in reality and facts, rather than fiction, makes it an extremely
powerful medium, providing images, narratives, sounds and experiences that educates,
“embraces difference,” inspires, and motivates its viewer audience (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018).
The documentary film’s accessibility and relevance to broad and diverse audiences can increase
engagement in a technology-connected world (Friend & Caruthers, 2016; Loustaunau & Shaw,
2018). It is an extremely popular and well-received medium for information, communication,
training and education for all audiences (Bugis, 2018; Goldman, Pea, Barron, & Derry, 2007;
Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; West, Hoffman, & Costello, 2017).
Historically, documentary filmmaking was a very expensive and prohibitive undertaking.
However, increased accessibility to the necessary technology, inexpensive equipment, software
applications and smartphones (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston, Vanstone & Chi, 2017) is
helping the genre to become a progressively egalitarian vocation. Despite the fact that
technology has evolved and nearly everyone in the industry uses digital video recording methods
rather than photographic film stock, the terms “film,” “filmmaking,” and “filmmaker” are still
used today and will be used in this study to define traditional film stock or digital video and the
person who controls and communicates perceptions, ideas, stories, and feelings using moving
images and sound (AMC Filmsite, 2020; Studio Binder, 2020).
Democratizing the industry from restrictive costs allows more people, young and old,
from diverse populations, to actively participate in telling meaningful stories globally via
documentary film. The people making documentary films vary widely, from high-profile
celebrities to relatively unfamiliar, perhaps beginner and student filmmakers. While one end of
the documentary film spectrum lists significant, successful filmmakers such as Michael Moore,
whose Fahrenheit 9/11 earned over $221 million in U.S. and international box office revenues in
2015 (IndieWire, 2014), and 33 million Americans watched Ken Burns’ The Roosevelts: An
Intimate History (Burns, 2014), the other end is no less important.
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Although information about the overall filmmaking process is available, scholarly and
popular literature on the research and collection step of documentary filmmaking, is still limited.
An academic search resulted in a list of significant scholarship about the extensive and diverse
world of documentary research and analysis studies, and popular sources may address it briefly;
however, there is a lack in both about how to conduct this important step in the documentary film
process. This step is essential because it determines the content of the film (Aufderheide, 2007;
Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). According to sources (Adorama Learning Center,
2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014), this second step after deciding upon the
subject of the film encourages the filmmaker to search out material, gather facts, follow leads
and recommendations on sources, and conduct interviews.
With documentary filmmaking becoming an increasingly democratic pursuit (Loustaunau
& Shaw, 2018; Winston et al., 2017) with increased applications in education (West, et al., 2017;
Winston et al., 2017), there should be a corresponding amount of information and educational
resources on how to conduct subject research and data collection for documentary film, a crucial
step in the documentary film process. This lack of information and educational resources is a
problem because many beginners and students exploring documentary film production might not
know how to begin subject research and data collection for documentary film.
Therefore, this study explores professional documentary filmmakers’ experiences with
subject research and data collection for documentary film. The discovery, analysis and
interpretation of the wisdom and knowledge of professional filmmakers from the actual
filmmaking process would add a relevant and valuable educational resource to the limited body
of knowledge in this area. This information is intended to help guide and assist beginner and
student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film production so they can share
documentary film (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018). This contribution to the literature and field of
documentary film research and data collection, as well as film studies and education, was the
overall goal of this article. As far as the researcher’s knowledge, no previous research has
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Literature Review
Documentary Film Production
For the most part, producing a traditional documentary film takes a highly subjective
approach; the filmmaker directs the entire process, from subject selection, research, and data
collection, to creative approaches (Bell, 2011; Friend & Caruthers, 2016). Filmmakers declare
that making a documentary can be one of the most enjoyable and satisfying creative projects, yet
acknowledge that it is indeed an extremely challenging pursuit with many obstacles. (Adorama
Learning Center, 2018). A thrilling artistic adventure, but difficult; one with often no definitive
rules or methodical procedures, and that a filmmaker usually learns by simply and intuitively
doing (Desktop Documentaries, 2018). Paradoxically, filmmaker Michael Moore (IndieWire,
2014) insists that the first step to documentary filmmaking is to not make a documentary.
Instead, he emphasizes, one should make a movie. “Stop making documentaries. Start making
movies. You’ve chosen this art form – the cinema, this incredible, wonderful art form, to tell
your story. You didn’t have to do that.” (para. 1).
The first step towards creating a documentary film is to find a subject or topic that is
important to the filmmaker and is of interest to others. Since the documentary film journey is
often formidable and arduous, the subject needs to invigorate and animate the filmmaker, while
also being reinforcing for the extended work towards completion. The filmmaker needs to also
feel resolutely determined to share the story with others through the medium of film (Adorama
Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018).
Generally, the second step on the documentary film creation journey is to search out
material, gather facts, follow leads and recommendations on sources, and conduct interviews.
This is the important “research and data collection,” stage of the process (Studio Binder, 2018)
which is essential to any documentary film because it drives the content of the film
(Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). Subject research and data
collection include learning about the background, history and context of the subject using
physical, digital and human sources, as well as the interesting, credible, emotional and inspiring
material featuring the pivotal points that will connect and resonate with the audience (Adorama
Learning Center, 2018).
Although this is not a comprehensive list and does not include all the elements of the
filmmaking process, including funding and budgets, here are some suggestions from several
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sources on the steps involved in creating a documentary film (Adorama Learning Center, 2018;
Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014):
Step 1: Identify a “worthy” story of interest to the filmmaker and others.
Step 2: Conduct research and data collection from physical, digital and human sources.
Step 3: Create an outline of the story to be told; its core points and characters.
Step 4: Design a detailed production plan to record interviews, supplemental footage, and
reenactment if applicable.
Step 5: Write a script based on the most compelling elements of the story.
Step 6: Edit the footage according to the script to create a meaningful and dynamic story.
Step 7: Distribute the film using applicable approaches.
Documentary Film Application in Education

Documentary film is widely recognized and utilized successfully in education in many
ways, including increasing awareness and knowledge for learners through information and
instruction, and educational research and scholarship (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank,
2013; Winston et al., 2017). Completed, existing products are usually used as educational
resources and material, and the act of documentary filmmaking production is often utilized as a
research instrument. The increasing use of both methods in educational environments timely
coincides with technological advances in film and video production today (Loustaunau & Shaw;
2018; Winston et al., 2017). With Internet accessibility, digital technologies, and lower
production costs, documentary film production has escalated and their use in research and
instruction across the disciplines has correspondingly increased (Leavy, 2015; Winston, et al.,
2017).
Social science research (Frank, 2013; Goldman et al., 2007) including anthropology,
often utilizes documentary film using terms such as ethnographic film and ethnocinema (Leavy,
2015). Video Research in the Learning Sciences provides a comprehensive exploration of key
theoretical and methodological use of documentary film in studies (Goldman et al., 2007). New
Documentary Ecologies: emerging platforms, practices and discourses reports on the research
applications of the powerful and relevant medium and its recent surge in digital platforms (Nash,
Hight, & Summerhayes, 2014). Bell (2011) emphasized the importance of the genre in
historiographical research and scholarship.
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Frank (2013) sought to expand awareness of the vast and significant instructional
opportunities that documentary films provide to students, and Whiteman (2004) examined their
political impact upon learners and audiences. Fonda (2014) discussed the benefits of art therapy
and filmmaking in a maximum security forensic psychiatric facility. Documentary film is now
used in many different research and instructional contexts using a wide range of styles and
approaches. They can range from loosely planned, informal short projects to fully storyboarded,
scripted and rehearsed professional productions that require hiring a cinematographer, crew and
staff, as well as a cast for reenactments. Some may also feature the researcher(s), participants,
and other sources (Leavy, 2015; Leavy & Chilton, 2014).
Documentary film has proven to be a popular medium for researchers and educators
hoping to inspire and promote knowledge and awareness of diverse, global issues (Aufderheide,
2007; Frank, 2013; Rashid, 2014). For example, social justice and climate change to various
audiences (Friend & Caruthers, 2016; Hanley, Noblit, Sheppard, & Barone, 2013); migration and
immigration from Central and South America (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018); to the environmental
and worldwide health concerns of agricultural chemicals (The Monsanto Papers, 2018).
The Current Study

The purpose of this study was to address the lack of information and inadequate
educational resources about the methods and procedures of subject research and data collection
for documentary film in either popular or scholarly sources. Veteran documentary filmmakers
might know how to address the central question: where does one begin to tell a meaningful story
after deciding upon the subject? However, beginners and students exploring documentary film
production may not know where to start and there are no easy-to-use resources for them. With
documentary filmmaking becoming an increasingly democratized industry due to inexpensive
equipment and software applications (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston et al., 2017) with
unlimited informational and educational possibilities, there should be a comparable amount of
resources about this important step.
The researcher sought to address this problem by generating an original educational
resource about documentary film subject research and data collection. The researcher felt the
best way to accomplish this was to conduct in-depth interviews with professional documentary
filmmakers to find out how they go about conducting research and data collection once they have
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established their subject or topic of a documentary film. The actual real-world experiences and
knowledge of a group of professional documentary filmmakers would be extremely valuable and
useful because it is a compilation of experience, wisdom, and insight. This expert guidance about
this important step in the documentary film production process would benefit beginner and
student filmmakers by providing a head start in the long and complex filmmaking process. It
would also be advantageous for a global society as audiences would gain broadened learning
opportunities with an increased availability to timely documentaries from filmmakers.
The exploration and discovery of professional filmmakers’ experiences in documentary
film subject research and data collection, and the analysis and interpretation of that data would
create a significant output: a highly relevant and useful educational resource for beginner and
student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film production. Thus, this study
answers the following research questions:
RQ 1: What are documentary filmmakers’ experiences with documentary film subject
research and data collection?
RQ 2: How can these experiences be analyzed, interpreted and categorized?
Methodology
A qualitative interpretive inductive research approach (Creswell, 2007, 2009, 2018;
Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016) was used in this study to answer the first research
question to seek greater understanding and perspectives of the participants. The researcher will
also use the ARCS motivational model concepts (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) as the framework to
develop and design the data collection instrument for RQ 1 as well as for the analysis,
interpretation and categorization of the data to answer RQ 2. In addition to the qualitative
instrument, journaling, field notes and observations were recorded during all phases of this study
and will be used to apply triangulation to strengthen and increase credibility and validity (Glesne
& Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016).
Participants
A purposive sampling (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016) of 11 professional documentary
filmmakers out of a pool of 14 in the Asia-Pacific region participated in this study. Two
experienced, respected professionals in the field of documentary film, with many accomplished
92
products, provided suggestions on filmmakers, and reviewed and approved the completed list.
An exempt status IRB approval was secured for the study and consent protocol was followed for
the voluntary interviews. To improve the instrument and determine if the questions would
appropriately collect the information needed to answer RQ 1, a pilot face-to-face, semi-
structured interview was conducted with a professional filmmaker actively producing
documentary films in the Asia-Pacific region for many years. She is also the executive director
of a nonprofit organization committed to achieving intersectional gender equity in filmmaking
and is a filmmaking instructor. The pilot data was used to make minor adjustments to refine the
interview questions. The researcher then proceeded with semi-structured interviews with 11
professional filmmakers with the requirements:
● Minimum of three years actively working in the field of documentary film production.
● Completed a minimum of one to two films (minimum of 30 minutes) with public
distribution.
● Primary purpose of the completed documentary films and falls under the definition and
interpretation of the genre.
● Asia-Pacific connection - completed a minimum of one documentary film with a topic
that is relevant or related to the Asia-Pacific region.
Along with the requirements, a list of assumptions were identified to establish guidelines
regarding the documentary filmmakers’ experiences with documentary film subject research and
data collection:
● Subject/topic of documentary film established.
● Educational purpose established.
● Themes relating to subject established.
● Budget limits and considerations established.
● Project time boundaries established.
Research Design
ARCS Model of Motivational Design. This study sought to address the problem of a
lack of information and inadequate educational resources about how to conduct subject research
and data collection for documentary film. To increase the likelihood that the final summary of
data, the educational resource, will resonate with the target audience, beginner and student
93
filmmakers, Keller’s well-established ARCS motivational model for instructional design (Keller,
1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas, 2015) served as the framework to inform and guide the study. The
ARCS motivational factors of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction (Gagne, Wager,
Golas, & Keller, 2005) are strongly applicable to the field of documentary film with similar
motivational goals for documentary filmmakers, whether they are veterans or students
(educators/instructional designers), and their audience (learners/students) (Astleitner & Hufnagl,
2003; Bugis, 2018; Hodges & Kim, 2013; Keller & Suzuki, 2004; West et al., 2017). While the
goals for documentary filmmakers, both experienced veterans and beginners, may not be referred
to as “instructional design,” their educational goals are very similar, and they are using relevant,
motivational methods of film and video production (Frank, 2013; Nash et al., 2014; Winston et
al., 2017).
The researcher was able to leverage the ARCS model in the design and development of
the instrument, the professional filmmakers’ interview questions, as well as with the analysis and
interpretation of the collected data. With the end goal of creating an educational resource for
beginners and students exploring documentary film, the ARCS model helped the researcher align
the interview questions with the ARCS motivational factors (Gagne, et al., 2005; Keller &
Suzuki, 2014; Kim & Keller, 2008) as the educational categories.
Instruments
Instruments for the study’s data collection were derived from relevant literature and
designed and developed by the researcher. Triangulation, application of different valid data
collection methods, was applied to strengthen the study and increase credibility and validity
(Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016):
1) Semi-structured interview questions, 20 in total.
2) Journaling, field notes and observations.
3) Audio-recorded semi-structured interviews with the professional filmmakers,
followed by transcripts of participants.
The ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas, 2015) guided the design and
development of the interview questions to ensure they addressed the topic of subject research and
data collection from the four ARCS perspectives: attention, relevance, confidence and
satisfaction (Gagne, et al., 2005). To ensure the interview questions obtained useful data
94
necessary to answer the research question, including drawing out the rich and thick descriptions
of qualitative data, three researchers familiar with the topic reviewed the questions and they were
revised before implementation. This provided an inter-rater reliability check, contributing to pilot
data. A pilot test of the interview questions was also conducted with one filmmaker in a face-to-
face interview to evaluate the usability of the questions. The pilot data was used to make minor
adjustments to refine the interview questions. Examples of the interview questions and their
relationship to the ARCS concepts are shown in Table 3.1 in the Results section on page 98.
There were a total of 20 questions.
Qualitative research often includes journaling, field notes and observation – part of the
triangulation method of data collection (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016). The journaling, field notes
and observations for this study were conducted and documented by the researcher during all
phases of the study. As the data collection researcher of the study, the researcher also assumed
the role of “participant observer” when conducting observations and taking field notes during
field work (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016).
Procedure
In addition to the pilot test interview, 14 professional filmmakers were selected through
purposive sampling (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016) and were invited to voluntarily participate in the
research via a recruitment email that explained the purpose of the study. Eleven participants
responded with interest and availability. They were emailed a consent form following the UH
Mānoa Institutional Review Board (IRB) research protocol that provided a basic outline of the
study, its objectives, and included an agreement to an audio recording of the interview. It also
covered participants’ rights, risks, benefits, confidentiality and privacy concerns. Participants
were asked to read, sign and return the form by email. Interviews (phone, online and face-to-
face) were scheduled and the researcher was able to complete 11 in-depth, semi-structured
interviews. The study was designed to have minimal impact on the participants.
Rigor
The data, observations, interpretations and findings of this study were trustworthy,
reliable, authentic and, as much as possible, documented and validated (Maykut & Morehouse,
1994; Yin, 2016). The following four research assessments were applied to the study: 1)
95
triangulation of data: audio-recorded interviews, transcripts, observations, journaling and field
notes, 2) inter-rater reliability, 3) respondent validation and member check, and 4)
trustworthiness and authenticity of data sources.
Two experienced, respected professionals in the field of documentary film provided
suggestions on filmmakers to minimize bias. They also reviewed and verified the completed list
of filmmakers (Ifenthaler & Schumacher, 2016), providing inter-rater reliability checks (Bryman,
2012).
To ensure the interview questions obtained useful data necessary to answer the research
question, three researchers familiar with the topic reviewed the questions and provided
constructive feedback. The questions were revised before implementation. This provided another
inter-rater reliability check that contributed to the pilot data. A pilot test of the interview
questions was also conducted with one filmmaker in a face-to-face semi-structured interview to
evaluate feasibility of the questions. The pilot data was used to make minor adjustments to refine
the interview questions.
Completed transcripts were emailed to the participants, who approved and validated their
accuracy and intent of answers, providing respondent validation, or member checks, adding to
the credibility of the study.
Results
This study focused on collecting the knowledge, experiences and insight on research and
data collection for documentary film, and related information, from professional filmmakers
through in-depth interviews. The researcher conducted 45 to 60-minute semi-structured
interviews with each of the participants. This enabled the researcher and participants the freedom
to pursue other related ideas and points that were relevant to the interview and the data collection
process. (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016). The researcher audio-recorded the interviews
with a digital recorder and also used an iPhone as a backup. Many of the interview questions
were purposely designed to be open-ended to allow for expansion, emergent or additional
information from participants and to collect information the researcher might not have
anticipated.
The researcher conducted the interviews to encourage thick and rich narrative responses,
along with the specific questions necessary for the study, while using probes and follow-up
96
questions. During the interview, the researcher was cognizant of any signs from the participants
of stress or uncomfortableness, and was prepared to stop. (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin,
2016). The researcher observed that all the filmmakers were comfortable with the interview,
openly and freely sharing and discussing their work and knowledge. It is clear that they are
familiar and accustomed to this type of dialogue, likely participating at screenings, discussion
panels and presentations.
Interviews with Participants

The researcher transcribed the interviews and then analyzed and interpreted the data,
including the journaling, field notes and observations, by applying the Five Phases of Analysis
and their Interactions framework (Yin, 2016). An inductive approach was implemented and
emergent categories and themes were grouped according to their relationship with the concepts
of the ARCS model: attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017;
Pappas, 2015). This data answered the first research question: What are documentary
filmmakers’ experiences with documentary film subject research and data collection? Table 3.1
on the next page features examples of the interview questions and participant answers and their
alignment with the ARCS “Attention and Relevance” concepts.
97
Table 3.1. Alignment of Qualitative Interview Questions and Answers with ARCS Concepts
Examples
ARCS Concepts and Interview Questions Participant Answers
Definitions
Attention How do you approach “I try to find stories and data
● Capturing interest research and data collection to that may be eye-opening to
and curiosity try and capture the attention or audiences and will capture their
● Perception and by curiosity of your audience and attention through emotion and
inquiry maintain interest? human interest.” – Participant
● Connection and #8
participation
● Specific, relatable “Casting is critical. I consider
examples; conflict casting as research and
and variety development. We try to find a
charismatic key character. It’s
more about how our key
characters will resonate with the
audience through their stories.”
– Participant #9
Relevance How do you incorporate “The key characters are

● Immediate research and data collection so passionate about the issue and
application that the film will be a valuable we knew they would resonate
● Set example learning experience, or with our audience. But they
through experience provide a benefit, for the don’t have PhDs or other
● Set example audience? credentials that some audiences
through role might judge them on, so we did
models research to find the top
● Future usefulness scientists and medical doctors in
the field and we interviewed
them to bolster the credibility of
our activist key characters. We
incorporated many peer
reviewed academic articles into
the film to bolster credibility
even more. Then we had
everything fact checked by our
researchers and vetted by our
attorneys. When the audiences
see that our key characters are
credible, it has a greater impact
and the audience benefits from
the story.” – Participant #4
Confidence How do you approach “I try whenever possible to

● Enable self- research and data collection to include modern-day tie-ins to
98
confidence encourage useful connections, the major issues presented in the
● Facilitate self- self-growth or participatory film so there is a real-world
growth goals for the viewer? context and perhaps an
● Give learners opportunity for audience
control members to self-reflect on their
Ability to provide own lives. A good follow-up
feedback Q&A or filmmakers’ statement
or panel discussion at the
screening can also help to
facilitate this.” – Participant #11
“Through our website, our film

screenings at festivals,
community and educational
screenings, and then through
distribution. My latest film is
streaming on many different
platforms. Believe it or not,
people who watch the film on
Amazon Prime, for example, will
get back to us and ask how they
can get involved in the issue.” –
Participant #4
Satisfaction How do you feel your “The modern-day tie-ins and

• Immediate documentary film(s) helps the examples at the end of the films
application of audience address a real-world I’ve done are a direct appeal to
information problem or situation? the audience to think about real
• Useful application world problems or perhaps to
in the future take action.” – Participant #6
• Acquire real world
knowledge and “Each of my films addresses a
skills real-world problem such as
• Enable positive climate change, rising sea
outcomes. levels, declining fisheries,
pesticide poisoning of our air,
soil, water and oceans. We also
incorporate solutions in each of
our films.” – Participant #10
Using Table 3.1 as an example, the ARCS model of motivation concepts were used to
code the filmmakers’ data on how they approached research and data collection for documentary
film. Analysis and interpretation were completed in phases using Yin’s Five Phases of Analysis
99
and their Interactions Framework (2016) and the developing results were categorized into
dominant themes. Subsequently, five major themes emerged from the analysis (See Table 3.2).
This iterative approach and process consequently answered the second research question: How
can these experiences be analyzed, interpreted and categorized?
Since the overall goal of this study was to generate an original educational resource that
would help beginner and student filmmakers with subject research and data collection for
documentary film, the information was then organized and arranged into five sections of
beneficial suggestions intended to guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers.
Review
In order to assure the information was presented using instructional best practices, the
researcher conducted a review of the text with four experienced, qualified researcher/educators
familiar with the topic and a student filmmaker. Overall, the feedback from the reviewers were
positive and they felt the content was very informative and useful for student filmmakers;
however, they also provided helpful, constructive feedback on the text. For example, they felt the
main ideas for each of the five suggestions were overwhelming because they were too dense and
text heavy and needed to be edited and revised for clarity and conciseness, adding that bullet
points could be added to break up the text and highlight information. They noted parallel
phrasing should be applied, and that each of the five suggestions should begin with a verb. The
constructive feedback and comments from the reviewers were applied and resulted in the content
and information featured in Table 3.2 on the next page presents the five major themes in short,
concise, bullet point information that would be relevant and useful to beginner and student
filmmakers.
100
Table 3.2. Five Major Recommendations/Categories Emerged from the Data Collected from
the Professional Filmmakers and their Relationship to the ARCS Model Concepts




they’re seeing.
101
Discussion
While subject research and data collection is an essential part of the production of
documentary films, a literature review revealed that information and educational resources about
how to conduct this important step in the documentary film process were lacking. The overall
goal of this study was to address this problem by collecting, analyzing, interpreting and
presenting relevant information about the methods and procedures of subject research and data
collection for documentary film. This information is intended to assist and guide beginner and
student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film production.
This study accomplished this objective by using a qualitative interpretive approach to
gather information, knowledge and experiences from professional documentary filmmakers on
how they go about conducting research and gathering information once they have established the
subject or topic of a documentary film. Keller’s ARCS motivational model (1983, 2010, 2017;
Pappas, 2015) was used to inform and guide the development of the data collection instrument
and interviews were successfully completed with 11 professional filmmakers. Thus, RQ 1 was
successfully answered in this study: What are documentary filmmakers’ experiences with
documentary film subject research and data collection?
The researcher found the interviews with the professional filmmakers to be extremely
insightful and valuable because it documented their expertise and wisdom about subject research
and data collection for their documentary film projects. The interviews also helped explain why
information on this step of the documentary film process is lacking in existing literature. Since
producing documentary films can be such a subjective, creative and intuitive process, it can be
difficult to document a methodical, direct process; and each filmmaker seems to develop their
own method and procedure that works well for them. Often, it is a more iterative and fluid
practice that is quite challenging to specify and label. The findings from the study generally
agreed with the ambiguous and indefinite nature of the existing literature.
However, after interviews with the professional filmmakers were completed, the
researcher analyzed and interpreted the data through an inductive process, using Keller’s ARCS
(1983, 2010, 2017) concepts as a framework and was able to successfully extract themes and
categories. Thus, the academic research, approach, and findings in this original study in the field
of documentary film research and collection were significant. The researcher was able to
effectively answer RQ 2: How can these experiences be analyzed, interpreted and categorized?
102
Five dominant themes emerged from the professional filmmakers’ data on how they
approached research and data collection for documentary film after analysis and interpretation
were completed in phases: 1) do the research, 2) tell the story visually, 3) find strong characters,
4) support universal themes, and 5) relate to your audience. This research uniquely summarized
the knowledge and experiences of professional filmmakers with research and data collection for
documentary film by featuring their wisdom, experience, and insights acquired from the actual
filmmaking process.
Since the overall goal of this study was to provide an educational resource that would
help guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary
film production, the results were presented in the form of beneficial recommendations and
suggestions. The findings of this study adds valuable information and an important educational
resource to the limited body of knowledge on the subject which was the overall goal of this
research study.
This beneficial information is intended to help beginner and student filmmakers share
documentary film (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018). This study makes a major contribution to the
field and literature of documentary film research, data collection and studies, as well as film
studies and education.
Conclusion and Future Research

This study used a qualitative interpretive approach to address the problem issue: a lack of
information and educational resources on subject research and data collection, an important step
in the documentary film process. The research explored and collected data about professional
documentary filmmakers’ experiences with subject research and data collection through in-depth
interviews. Keller’s ARCS motivational model served as the framework to develop and design
the instrument, the interview questions to the filmmakers (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas,
2015). Eleven professional documentary filmmakers in the Asia-Pacific region were interviewed,
including a pilot test interview, and data was analyzed. Journaling, field notes, and observations
were used in addition to the interviews for triangulation of data (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016).
103
After analysis of the data was completed, the researcher agreed with the existing
literature that since producing documentary films can be a subjective, creative and intuitive
process, it can be challenging to document a methodical, specific process. However, the
researcher analyzed and interpreted the data through an inductive process, using Keller’s ARCS
concepts as a guide and framework, and was successfully able to extract themes and categories
and organize them in the form of constructive suggestions and recommendations.
The results summarized professional filmmakers’ valuable experiences, knowledge and
insight acquired from the actual process of filmmaking and was presented in a helpful, practical,
usable, easy-to-understand format. The information from this original study provides important
and useful information about how to conduct subject research and data collection for
documentary film, an essential step to any documentary film because it determines the content of
the film. These results are noteworthy as they provide relevant information that may guide and
assist beginner and student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film
production. The findings of this study are significant as it adds valuable information and an
important, original and new educational resource to the limited knowledge on the subject. This
study makes a major contribution to the practice and literature of documentary film research and
studies, data collection and education.
The overall goal of this study was to address the lack of information and inadequate
educational resources about the methods and procedures of documentary film research and data
collection by contributing information and an educational resource that would help beginner and
student filmmakers. Thus, it would be a natural next step to investigate how this beneficial
information could be presented to that target audience. Future research could develop these
findings into an informative, easy-to-use, helpful educational resource that could be utilized by
beginner and student filmmakers.
This future research might lead to the design and development of an educational resource
or module for documentary film subject research and data collection. After this module is
completed, further studies could investigate the impact of this educational module upon the
target audience. Looking forward, future research could prove quite beneficial to the
informational and educational resources in the field of documentary film research and data
collection, film studies and education.
104
Chapter 3 References
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Center how to. Retrieved from https://www.adorama.com/alc/how-to-make-a-
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Astleitner, H. & Hufnagl, M. (2003). The effects of situation-outcome-expectancies and of
ARCS-strategies on self-regulated learning with web-lectures. Journal of educational
multimedia and hypermedia, 12(4), 361-376.
Aufderheide, P. (2007). Documentary film: A very short introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford
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Bell, D. (2011). Documentary film and the poetics of history. Journal of Media Practice, 12(1),
3-25. doi: 10.1386/mpr.12.1.3_1
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analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation model to promote lesson
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approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
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documentary. Retrieved from https://www.desktop-documentaries.com/making-
documentaries.html
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Fonda, S. D. (2017). Filmmaking as artistic inquiry: An examination of ceramic art therapy in a
maximum-security forensic psychiatric facility [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Lesley
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Frank, J. (2013). The claims of documentary: Expanding the educational significance of
documentary film. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 45(10), 1018-1027.
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arts education for social justice: A way out of no way. New York, NY: Routledge.
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Education: A-E, 241-244.
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making-documentary-films-22384/
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design theories and models. (383-434). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Chapter 4
Abstract
This article focuses on the design and development of an educational resource to guide
and assist beginner and student filmmakers with documentary film subject research and data
collection. It also explores the instructional design process that was used to iteratively bring the
educational resource to its final, completed form. This research used data collected from a
previous study (Iwasaki, 2021) that captured and summarized the knowledge and expertise of 11
professional filmmakers with subject research and data collection for documentary film acquired
from the actual filmmaking process. After analysis and interpretation, five major themes
emerged which were organized as beneficial suggestions intended to guide and assist student
filmmakers. In this article, Keller’s ARCS motivational model and Mayer’s 12 principles of
multimedia learning served as the frameworks to inform and design the educational resource.
While applying educational best practices, the ADDIE model of instructional design
systematically guided and organized the study’s learning design process. During the
development phase, multiple formative assessments were conducted with experienced reviewers
which informed the strategic design decisions with each iteration. What started out as a basic,
simple educational resource evolved to become an engaging, content rich, technology-enhanced,
interactive instructional “module” on a website that featured the five major themes which were
renamed as five tips for filmmaking. This instructional module has the potential of being a
relevant, useful and important educational resource for beginner and student filmmakers
exploring documentary film production. The overall purpose of this study was to add an original,
quality educational resource to help beginner and student documentary filmmakers share their
important stories with the world using the increasingly accessible and effective medium of film.
The instructional module will be helpful as an educational resource and will contribute to the
literature of documentary film research and studies, and the fields of instructional design,
education, and the humanities.
Keywords: instructional design, instructional content development, ADDIE design model, ARCS
motivational design, film studies, documentary film research and data collection, documentary
film instructional module, five tips from filmmakers.
109
Introduction
Documentary film is a powerful and influential information and communication medium
that is widely recognized and utilized successfully in many contexts, including education
(Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston, Vanstone & Chi, 2017). Its increasing use
in education timely coincides with technological advances in film and video production today.
What has historically been a very expensive and prohibitive undertaking is now a progressively
egalitarian vocation; documentary filmmaking can now be accomplished with inexpensive
equipment, software applications and smartphones (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston et al.,
2017). Creating a documentary film requires many steps, and there are suggestions, for example,
the first step: find a topic or subject that is important to the filmmaker and others. The second
step is research and collection, which is crucial to the documentary film process because it
determines the content of the film (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries,
2018; IndieWire, 2014).
However, the information on this step is limited; there is a notable lack of information
and educational resources on research and data collection for documentary film. In this study,
educational resources refers to the information, instruction, resources, modules or processes on
how to conduct research and data collection for documentary film (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell,
2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). The design and development of an educational resource
for documentary film subject research and data collection is one way to address this lack of
resources. Although technology has evolved and nearly everyone in the industry uses digital
video recording methods rather than photographic film stock, the terms “film,” “filmmaker” and
“filmmaking” are still used today and will be used in this study to define traditional film stock or
digital video and the person who controls and communicates perceptions, ideas, stories, and
feelings using moving images and sound (AMC Filmsite, 2020; Studio Binder, 2020).
The researcher determined that the overarching goal and output of the study would be an
educational resource about research and data collection for documentary film, with stand-alone
attributes; however, she didn’t know what final form the resource would take. Therefore, this
study applied the iterative instructional design process (Allen, 2006; Dick, Carey, & Carey,
2001; McGriff, 2000; Molenda, Pershing, & Reigeluth, 1996; Serhat, 2017) to the development
of an educational resource on how to conduct subject research and data collection for
documentary film. The process included applying best educational practices and multiple
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formative assessments conducted by qualified, experienced reviewers. The constructive feedback
informed and guided the strategic design modifications for the next iteration. Navigating through
the instructional design process significantly helped the educational resource evolve to take its
final form and shape. What started out as a basic, single page infographic eventually became an
engaging, content rich, easy-to-navigate, technology-enhanced, multimedia instructional
“module” with multiple pages on a website.
An informational and educational resource on how to conduct subject research and data
collection for documentary film, generated from the knowledge and experiences of professional
filmmakers, would be extremely helpful for beginner and student filmmakers. Instead of learning
by intuitively doing the work, with its share of obstacles and missteps, beginner filmmakers
would have the advantage of the real-world wisdom and recommendations from veteran
filmmakers.
In summary, this study focused on two points: 1) the design and development of an
educational resource to guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary
film production with documentary film subject research and data collection, and 2) the
systematic instructional design process that was used to iteratively bring the educational resource
to its final, completed presentation form as an instructional module. This instructional module
will add a much-needed, relevant educational resource to the limited body of knowledge about
the topic. Such a resource would help beginner and student filmmakers share their valuable
stories with the world using the expanding and effective medium of documentary film
(Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018). This original instructional module is intended to contribute to the
educational resources and literature about documentary film research and data collection, film
studies and education, and multimedia instructional design and online learning. This study
successfully and innovatively merged social sciences theory and instructional design with
humanities and arts research. As far as the researcher’s knowledge, no previous research has
Literature Review
Documentary Film Production Process
Traditional documentary film often takes a highly subjective approach with the
filmmaker directing the entire process, from subject selection, research, and data collection, to
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creative approaches (Bell, 2011; Friend & Caruthers, 2016). Although creating a documentary
can be an amazing experience, extremely satisfying and fruitful, filmmakers also acknowledge
that it can also be very demanding and exhausting (Adorama Learning Center, 2018). It is often a
complex and involved process with a number of steps and actions including budgeting, planning,
script writing, production, editing and distribution, and since information or instructions on the
process are limited, many filmmakers learn by intuitively doing the necessary work (Adorama
Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014).
Normally, the first step toward creating a documentary film is to find a subject or topic
that is important to the filmmaker and that has an interested audience. Since the road to creating
a documentary is often formidable and long, the topic needs to engage and sustain the filmmaker
for an extended period of time and the filmmaker needs to feel compelled to share the story with
others through the medium of film (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries,
2018).
The second step is “research and data collection,” an essential task to find material,
gather facts, follow leads and recommendations on sources, and conduct interviews (Studio
Binder, 2018). This subject research and data collection step is crucial to any documentary film
because the content of the film is dependent upon this material (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011;
Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). Research and data collection include background, history and
context of the subject, as well as the interesting, credible, emotional and inspiring material
featuring the critical points that will connect and resonate with the audience (Adorama Learning
Center, 2018).
Here are some suggestions from several sources on the steps involved in creating a
documentary film. Please note that this is not a comprehensive list and does not include all of the
elements of the filmmaking process, including funding and budgets (Adorama Learning Center,
2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014; Studio Binder, 2018):
● Step 1: Identify a “worthy” story
Documentaries need to be about a subject that excites the filmmaker, a “worthy” subject
of deep interest to the filmmaker and, of course, to others. The documentary filmmaking
process is formidable, so one needs a fire burning inside that is both energizing and
sustaining on the long journey.
● Step 2: Conduct research and data collection
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Learn everything about the documentary subject by putting on the
researcher/investigator/reporter hat and find out as much as possible using digital,
physical and human sources. Search out material, background, history and context, gather
facts, follow leads and recommendations on interesting resources, take a lot of notes, and
conduct initial interviews. Find the interesting, credible, emotional and inspiring material
featuring the key points that will resonate with the audience.
• Step 3: Create a story outline
Design an outline and think about how the story will be told; its structure and style.
Search for existing footage or photos that help tell the story. Questions to ask: Who is the
primary character? What are the core story points? What are the elements of the story that
are compelling and/or make one “tingle” with intrigue and excitement?
• Step 4: Design a production plan
Create a detailed plan to shoot and film the documentary film: 1) interviews, 2) B-roll,
supplemental footage that helps to tell the story, and 3) reenactments or recreations if
applicable.
● Step 5: Write a script
Once all of the footage has been filmed, production elements covered, including the
necessary audio, video and other material, and the interviews transcribed, the script needs
to be developed and written. “Pinpoint the most compelling elements of your story and
start crafting chapters and mini-scenes around those events.”
• Step 6: Edit the footage
Using computers and video editing software, it is time to cut, edit and paste the footage
into sequences of the documentary film according to the script. Sources say that the art to
editing is to keep the audience on its toes by creating a roller coaster ride of emotion,
with some parts fast and quick, and other parts slow, meaningful and deep, in order to
create a dynamic viewing experience.
• Step 7: Distribute the film
From theaters to television, DVD to digital, and today’s direct streaming media
platforms, there are greater opportunities and challenges in film and video distribution.
The distribution process is its own myriad web including hiring a distributor or self-
marketing and other decisions.
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Documentary Film and Technology
Documentary filmmaking was historically a very expensive undertaking that required a
considerable amount of equipment. When Robert J. Flaherty, and his wife, co-director Frances
H. Flaherty, filmed the residents on the island of Savai‘i in Samoa for more than a year in 1923
for the documentary film Moana, they had 16 tons of film equipment (Robert J. Flaherty’s
Moana, 2017). Although some consider this film as being “docu-fiction,” because the Flahertys
reenacted obsolete earlier practices in Samoa, many have praised this film and he is regarded by
many to be the “Father” of the documentary film genre (Aufderheide, 2007; Grimshaw, 2014;
AMC Filmsite, 2018). Flaherty had already completed his first documentary film Nanook of the
North (1922) and despite his manipulation and staging of some of the scenes of Nanook to
recreate traditions no longer used, it was considered a groundbreaking ethnographic look at the
harsh life of Canadian Inuit Eskimos living in the Arctic.
Although it can still be costly depending on the end goals, documentary filmmaking no
longer requires tons of equipment, but can now be accomplished with inexpensive equipment,
software applications and smartphones that can fit in one’s hand (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018;
Winston et al., 2017). Increased accessibility to the necessary technology and lower costs for
equipment helps filmmakers, and their subject stories and experiences, to be progressively shared
globally through documentary film. Voices and stories who were in the past ignored, excluded
and dismissed have a greater chance of being heard. The people making documentary films vary
widely, from high-profile celebrities to relatively unfamiliar, perhaps beginner and student
filmmakers. While one end of the documentary film spectrum lists well-known successful
documentary filmmakers such as Michael Moore, whose Fahrenheit 9/11 earned over $221
million in U.S. and international box office revenues in 2015 (IndieWire, 2014), and 33 million
Americans watched Ken Burns’ The Roosevelts: An Intimate History (Burns, 2014), the other
end is just as important with meaningful stories that can make universal connections.
Documentary Film and Education

information or entertainment; another is social commentary. Yet another is educational
instruction or research. With Internet accessibility, digital technologies, and lower production
costs, documentaries have escalated and their use in instruction and research practice across the
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disciplines has increased (Leavy, 2015; Winston, et al., 2017). Social science research (Frank,
2013; Goldman, Pea, Barron, & Derry, 2007) including anthropology, often utilizes documentary
film using terms such as ethnographic film and ethnocinema (Leavy, 2015). Video Research in
the Learning Sciences provides a comprehensive exploration of key theoretical and
methodological use of documentary film in studies (Goldman et al., 2007). New Documentary
Ecologies: emerging platforms, practices and discourses reports on the research applications of
the powerful and relevant medium and its recent surge in digital platforms (Nash, Hight, &
Summerhayes, 2014).
In regards to instructional opportunities, the documentary film is a powerful and effective
information and communication medium that is widely recognized and utilized successfully in
educational best practices today to multiple audiences, from elementary to post-secondary, and
beyond (Friend & Caruthers, 2016; Hanley, Noblit, Sheppard, & Barone, 2013). Frank (2013)
sought to expand the educational significance, practice and application of the documentary film
and Bell (2011) emphasized the importance of the genre in historiographical research and
scholarship. Whiteman (2004) discussed documentary films’ political impact upon learners and
audiences, and Fonda (2014) combined art therapy and filmmaking. Documentary film is now
used in different research and teaching contexts and presentations using a wide range of styles
and approaches. They can range from loosely planned projects to fully storyboarded, scripted
and rehearsed professional productions that require hiring a cinematographer, crew and staff, as
well as a cast and actors for reenactments. Some may also feature the researcher(s), participants,
and other sources (Leavy, 2015; Leavy & Chilton, 2014).
Documentary film has proven to be a popular resource for researchers and educators
hoping to inspire, educate and promote knowledge and awareness of diverse, global issues such
as social justice and climate change (Aufderheide, 2007; Frank, 2013; Rashid, 2014); migration
and immigration from Central and South America (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018); to the
environmental and health concerns of agricultural chemicals (The Monsanto Papers, 2018).
The Current Study

The purpose of this study was to address the lack of information and educational
resources about subject research and data collection for documentary film, an essential step in
the process of documentary filmmaking. An academic search resulted in a list of important
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scholarship about the extensive field of documentary research and analysis studies, and popular
sources may address it briefly; however, there is a deficit about how to conduct the basics of
subject research and data collection for a documentary film (Adorama Learning Center, 2018;
Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014). This study sought to resolve this gap in
available information, resources and literature, by designing and developing an educational
resource on how to begin this process.
The researcher believed the best way to accomplish this was to capture the wisdom and
experience of professional filmmakers with subject research and data collection (Iwasaki, 2021)
and then develop that information into a relevant, helpful, easy-to-use educational resource for
beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary film production. A systematic
instructional design approach was used to design and develop this resource. The findings resulted
in five major themes about documentary film subject research and data collection that were
organized as beneficial suggestions (Iwasaki, 2021) and the researcher used them to explore and
answer the following research question:
1. How can filmmakers’ experiences be developed into an educational resource for
documentary film subject research and data collection for student filmmakers learning
about and exploring documentary film production?
To answer this research question, along with educational best practices, the researcher
used a systematic instructional design approach, the ADDIE model, to guide the study’s overall
design process. Keller’s ARCS motivational model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) and Mayer’s 12
principles of multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) served as the
frameworks to inform and design the educational resource.
Methodology
The researcher applied the instructional design process in the ADDIE model (Allen,
2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Molenda, 2015; Molenda et al., 2017) to the research
design of this study: analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation:
A - Analyze
To analyze the instruction needed for this situation, this phase of ADDIE often consists
of the following actions: identifying the problem, conducting a needs assessment and analyzing
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the tasks that need to be accomplished (McGriff, 2000). The following discussion outlines these
steps for the study:
Problem Identification. The problem this study sought to address was a lack of
information and educational resources on the topic of subject research and data collection for
documentary film in either scholarly or popular sources (Adorama Learning Center, 2018;
Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014). In this study, educational resources refers to
the information, instruction, resources, or processes on conducting research and data collection
for documentary film (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). An
academic search resulted in a list of significant scholarship about the extensive field of
documentary research and analysis studies; however, there is a lack of the “how to basics” of
research and data collection for a documentary film.
This is a problem as many beginners and students exploring documentary film production
might need assistance on how to begin subject research and data collection in the documentary
film creation process. As documentary filmmaking becomes an increasingly accessible endeavor
because of technology (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston et al, 2017), and its use in
dissemination of information and education is increasing (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank,
2013), there is a corresponding need for information and educational resources about this
essential step in the documentary filmmaking process.
In order to address this gap in information and educational resources, the design and
development of an educational resource for documentary film subject research and data
collection, that may guide and assist student filmmakers learning about and exploring
documentary film production, was proposed in this study. The information that was used in the
resource was derived from the results of a previous study (Iwasaki, 2021) that summarized the
knowledge and authentic experiences of 11 professional documentary filmmakers with research
and data collection for documentary film.
Needs Assessment. Since the target audience of the educational resource is beginner and
student filmmakers in higher education, addressing their academic, cognitive, and physical needs
were essential to the design of the resource. Here are some generalizations of the college student
profile of the United States applicable to this study from sources (Beyond Campus Innovations,
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2019; Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2020; Education Dive, 2017; McGraw Hill, 2016;
National Center for Education Statistics, 2020):
Academic/Educational
● 12.1 million full-time and 7.8 million part-time students.
● Prefer tech-savvy schools and classes.
● Able to study at own pace, own schedule.
● Feel digital technology helps improve focus, grades, efficiency and effectiveness.
● Feel digital technology has helped improve career readiness.
● Increased demand for online learning’s flexibility and convenience.
Cognitive
● Knowledge
● Understanding
● Curiosity
● Exploration
● Predictability
● Creativity
● Discovery
● Meaning
Physical attributes
● 12.3 million under 25 years
● 7.6 million 25 years and older
● 11.2 million females compared to 8.7 males
● Diverse - 42% non-white
● Work - 62% work part- or full-time
This study was also informed by the participants in another study (Iwasaki, in progress) at a
four-year comprehensive university in the western United States. The learner profile of this
institution is similar to that of the national student profile and includes diverse, mostly full-time
undergraduates and graduates from around the United States and the world (University of
Hawai‘i, 2019).
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Task Analysis. The output of this study is an educational resource for documentary film
subject research and data collection to guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers
exploring documentary film production. The information in this resource is derived from the data
collected in another study (Iwasaki, 2021) that summarized the knowledge and experiences of 11
professional filmmakers with subject research and data collection for documentary film. The
educational resource determined to be needed for this study will be designed and developed by
the researcher.
D - Design
ARCS Model of Motivational Design. To increase the likelihood that the educational
resource will resonate with the target audience, beginner and student filmmakers, a well-
established model in motivation and instructional design, Keller’s ARCS model (1983, 2010,
2017), served as the framework that informed and guided the design and development of the
educational resource. The ARCS motivational factors of attention, relevance, confidence and
satisfaction (Gagne, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2005; Pappas, 2015) are strongly applicable to the
field of documentary film with similar motivational goals for documentary filmmakers, whether
they are veterans or students (educators/instructional designers), and their audience
(learners/students) (Astleitner & Hufnagl, 2003; Bugis, 2018; Hodges & Kim, 2013; Keller &
Suzuki, 2004; West et al., 2017). While the goals for documentary filmmakers, veterans and
students, may not be referred to as “instructional design,” their educational goals are very
similar; they use relevant, motivational methods of film and video production (Frank, 2013;
Nash, Hight, & Summerhayes, 2014; Winston et al., 2017). As a problem-solving instructional
design framework (Gagne, et al., 2005; Keller & Suzuki, 2014; Kim & Keller, 2008; Peterson,
2003), the ARCS model provided a blueprint for the researcher through the process of design and
development of the educational resource needed for this study. Keller (1983, 2010, 2017) offered
a number of learning strategies for each of the four major categories in ARCS:
Attention
● Use innovative methods to encourage learners to relate to the content with interest
and curiosity.
● Connect to and encourage participation from learners and audiences.
● Use concrete visuals and examples, including relatable real-life examples and stories.
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● Add variety and points of conflict if appropriate.
Relevance
● Convey that the learning material is directly connected to or can help resolve a
relevant situation or problem in real life.
● Feature stories, anecdotes, analogies and real-life examples through experiences that
learners and audiences can relate to.
● Set examples by presenting role models of success.
● Present future usefulness and worth of the material.
Confidence
● Enable self-confidence by helping learners and audiences to expect success by
encouraging realistic goals and attributing success to effort.
● Facilitate self-growth and confidence by encouraging small steps and emphasizing
progress.
● Encourage independent, self-paced learning, control and responsibility.
● Enable constructive feedback to increase effective learning. Assessments should be
directly linked to the learning objectives.
Satisfaction
● Apply the learning material immediately by engaging learners and audiences with the
presentation.
● Present future useful application of the material.
● Convey that the learning material will help acquire knowledge and skills in the real
world.
● Encourage positive outcomes as a natural consequence of completing the learning
material.
Table 4.1 on the next page presents the information that was used for the educational
resource in this study which was derived from the results of a previous study (Iwasaki, 2021).
After analysis and interpretation, five major themes emerged which were aligned with the ARCS
model (Astleitner & Lintner, 2004; Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) and organized as beneficial
suggestions intended to guide and assist student filmmakers. The information summarized the
real-world wisdom and authentic experiences of 11 professional filmmakers with research and
data collection for documentary film.
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Table 4.1. Five Major Recommendations/Categories for Documentary Film Subject Research
and Data Collection and their Relationship to the ARCS Model Concepts




they’re seeing.
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Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning. In order to apply best practices in the
design and development of the educational resource to meet the needs of the target audience, the
researcher used Richard Mayer’s (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) well-known
and widely used cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Mayer focused on 12 principles of
multimedia learning and hypothesized a fundamental educational premise that people can learn
more completely and deeply from words and pictures than from words alone. Mayer (2001,
2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) defined multimedia learning as learning from words
such as spoken or printed text, and pictures such as illustrations, photos, maps, graphs,
animation, or video. Thus, the researcher used the following multimedia learning principles as a
framework for the study’s educational resource. Students learn better when:
the page or screen.
formal style.
machine voice.
D - Development
In this study’s phase of ADDIE (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; Molenda et al., 1996), the
researcher used the ARCS concepts (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) and the 12 Principles of
Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) to develop and
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generate the educational resource and the necessary material that would be used for it. The
iterative design process of the educational resource included multiple formative assessment
reviews. Each review informed and guided the critical design decisions for the next iteration.
There were three prototypes and each one was reviewed by one or more of the following: a
professional graphic designer, experienced researcher/educators, and a student filmmaker. In the
first prototype, the educational resource began as a simple infographic. During the third
prototype iteration, the “educational resource” was appropriately renamed as an “instructional
module” because the resource had evolved to become a technology-enhanced, easy-to-navigate,
interactive, multimedia website. This article will use the terms as they apply chronologically in
the iterative design process that was applied.
First Prototype. The first prototype started out as a single page infographic that was
made using a graphic design platform with information from a previous related study (Iwasaki,
2021) that summarized the knowledge and experiences of 11 professional filmmakers with
subject research and data collection for documentary film acquired from the actual filmmaking
process. Table 4.1 on page 121 features the five major themes that emerged from analysis and
interpretation of that study and their alignment with the ARCS model (Astleitner & Lintner,
2004; Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017). The themes were organized as beneficial suggestions intended
to guide beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary film production.
Since this study’s goal was to create an educational resource to help student filmmakers,
and the information was being presented as constructive recommendations, the five themes were
renamed in this study as “tips” as in “five tips for filmmaking.” The text for this first prototype
taken from another study (Iwasaki, 2021) already included some of the elements of Mayer’s 12
principles of multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) such as
extraneous words are excluded, characteristics of the main concepts are featured, corresponding
words and pictures are presented simultaneously and near each other, and text is presented in a
conversational style.
in the western United States (Iwasaki, in progress). The researcher had planned to present and
explain the educational resource, an infographic, in person to the class as a lesson, asking
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students to also complete hard copy evaluations (pretest and posttest). The researcher planned to
move through the infographic and listen to the audio clips being played together as a class.
Printed copies of the infographic would also be passed out.
learning in March 2020 and face-to-face gatherings were cancelled out of caution and safety.
Thus, the researcher had to consider online possibilities of implementing the educational
resource with the target audience. While the inability to meet face-to-face was unexpected, the
obstacle was not impossible. Previous findings by Mayer and other researchers report that
multimedia online delivery can actually increase the learning potential and outcomes (Alessi &
Trollip, 2001; Chiu & Churchill, 2016; Clark & Mayer, 2011; Levonen & Rouet, 2001; Mayer,
2001, 2005, 2009, 2017).
The online delivery enabled greater multimedia possibilities. More of Mayer’s
multimedia principles were added to this prototype, most notably an audio component embedded
into the infographic; thus, following Mayer’s principle of combining graphics, narration and text.
Participants would be able to click on a link to listen to a short audio clip of a filmmaker
discussing that specific filmmaking tip, adding valuable insight, experience and context. These
audio clips were part of the 11 interviews conducted in the related study referred to in this study
(Iwasaki, 2021). There were five audio clips for each of the five filmmaking tips and due to IRB
and privacy concerns, the researcher did not include images of the filmmakers. This addressed
two of Mayer’s principles: narration in multimedia lessons is spoken in a friendly human voice
rather than a machine voice, and the speaker’s image is not necessary to add to the screen.
Instead of following the ARCS acronym as per Table 4.1 on page 121, the information was
rearranged in a manner that made organizational and logical sense to the target audience, the
beginner and student filmmakers.
educational resource at their own pace, taking as little or more time to review the educational
resource and listen to the audio clips, allowing increased learning. This was a helpful move for
the target audience because self-paced learning and online delivery were academic needs of the
target audience (Education Dive, 2017; McGraw Hill, 2020). Figure 4.1 on the next page is an
image of the first prototype of the educational resource.
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Figure 4.1. First prototype of the module.
First Formative Assessment. A professional graphic designer in the graphic arts

industry was asked by the researcher to review this first prototype. His overall comment was, “It
is really about the content. The visual treatment of the type, and color should be in service of the
points you want to get across and the readers’ ability to consume and understand your message,”
(Yugawa, personal communication, 2020). The following feedback on design and style was
provided to improve the first iteration:
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Typography
● Use a maximum of only two fonts.
● Use the different font weights (bold, regular, light, etc.) to add hierarchy to the
information.
● Change the size of the fonts when hierarchy needs to be established.
● Resist the urge to add extra text styling like italics or icons.
Images
● Focus on one style of imagery. Since this is a guide to documentary filmmaking,
it will be best to use real photography, preferably with the same style. This way it
won’t be as obvious that it was pulled from stock or from a Google search.
Color
● Pick one to three colors that complement the imagery of the graphics; this
includes the color black.
Title
● Use a large, bold font.
● Remove italics from the title.
● Make the header all about the message. The image of the film reel is taking up
too much space and it is a long title.
Sections
● Keep the dashed lines as they hint at the topic: film.
● Remove the hash mark.
● Remove the orange background for the tip headings.
Second Prototype. In this second prototype, the researcher used the professional graphic
designer’s constructive feedback to inform and guide the strategic design decisions of the second
iteration (see Figure 4.2 on the next page). Examples of the modifications included: the film reel
image was removed; the italics from the title was removed; the orange background for the tip
headings was removed; the color scheme was changed to compliment the images; and the stock
graphic images from the design platform were removed and replaced with real photography with
a similar style. In addition to the woman of color in “Tip 2. Tell the story visually,” the
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researcher wanted to include greater diversity and added another female for “Tip 1. Do the
Research.” In addition to diversity, with 11.2 million females attending college compared to 8.7
males, it seemed to be a reasonable choice (Beyond Campus Innovations, 2019).
Figure 4.2. Second prototype of the module.
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about researching and collecting data for documentary film. The student filmmaker thought the
information was especially valuable and advantageous for him; he also wished he had this
information earlier in his filmmaking journey as it would have helped him immensely.
Third Prototype. With technical assistance from one of the reviewers, the researcher
was able to use all of the text and graphics from the second prototype to create a multiple page
website using HTML style sheets via the researcher’s university personal homepages site.
Expanding beyond a single page infographic, the educational “resource” could indeed now be
called a multimedia instructional “module.” From this point, the educational resource will be
called an instructional module.
The website was a significant improvement from the second prototype because the
website enabled advancement of pages. Thus, the researcher was able to present each of the five
filmmaking tips on separate web pages, applying two other principles of Mayer’s multimedia
learning: 1) a multimedia lesson is presented in well-organized, user-paced segments rather than
as a continuous unit, and 2) characteristics of the main concepts, the five tips for filmmaking,
strengthened the presentation. All of Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia learning were
successfully applied to this iteration (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011).

prototype. They acknowledged and appreciated the streamlined, polished third prototype, noting
the ease of use of the module. Participants will be able to remain on the page, view the visuals,
and read the text while listening to the audio clips. There were two parts to their constructive
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feedback. The first part focused on mechanical and other usability concerns such as including a
begin button, back and next buttons on each page; enlarging the photos; increasing the font size
of the text; and centering the material.
The second part of their feedback focused on important design strategies that would
guide the next iteration:
Fourth prototype. With technical assistance once again from one of the reviewers, the
researcher was able to apply the design modifications and strategies recommended on the third
prototype to the fourth prototype. This included applying Mayer’s principle of “Words from a
multimedia lesson are presented in a conversational style rather than formal style” to the
module’s instructions by using language contractions. For example, instead of writing “Here is
an overview of what you need to do as a project participant,” the researcher used the contraction
“Here’s.”
This fourth prototype became the final iteration of the instructional module on subject
research and data collection for documentary film. What began as a basic, single page
infographic became an engaging, content rich, easy-to-navigate, technology-enhanced,
interactive, multimedia instructional module presented as a website. With multiple reviews and
assessments, the design process successfully produced a quality instructional module for the
target audience, beginner and student filmmakers. The module addressed the academic, cognitive
and physical needs of the target audience including the increased demand for digital technology.
Students feel that digital technology helps improve focus, grades, efficiency, effectiveness, and
career readiness (Education Dive, 2017; McGraw Hill, 2020).
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Here is the link to the website titled Five Tips from Filmmakers for Documentary Film
Research and Data Collection. (Please note that the completed website includes the embedded
evaluation surveys for the instructional module that were designed and developed in another
study (Iwasaki, in progress). Figure 4.3 and 4.4 are sample screenshots of the pages featuring
“Tip 1. Do the Research” and “Tip 2. Tell the story Visually” from the instructional module
website.
Figure 4.3. Screenshot of “Tip 1. Do the Research” webpage from the module website.
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Figure 4.4. Screenshot of “Tip 2. Tell the Story Visually” webpage from the module website.
I - Implementation and E - Evaluation

The ADDIE model’s implementation and evaluation phases with the target audience, the
student filmmakers, were conducted in another study (Iwasaki, in progress).
Discussion and Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to address the problem of inadequate information and
educational resources for step two in the documentary filmmaking process: subject research and
data collection. One way to address this gap was to design and develop an instructional module
about documentary film research and data collection for students learning about and exploring
documentary film production. This study also explored and documented the iterative
instructional design process of producing the instructional module. Therefore, this study focused
on these two points: 1) the design and development of an instructional module to guide and assist
beginner and student filmmakers with documentary film research and data collection, and 2) the
instructional design process that was used to iteratively bring the instructional module to its final,
completed form. During the third prototype iteration, the “instructional resource” was renamed
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as an “instructional module” because the resource had evolved to become a technology-
enhanced, multiple page website.
The final product resulted in an engaging, content rich, easy-to-navigate, interactive
multimedia instructional module. Applying best practices in instructional design, this module,
generated from the knowledge and experiences of professional filmmakers, would be extremely
helpful for beginner and student filmmakers. They would have the advantage of the wisdom and
guidance from veteran filmmakers that would give them a head start in the filmmaking process
and useful, practical information. Such a module may help them share their important stories
with the world using the increasing and effective medium of documentary film (Loustaunau &
Shaw, 2018). Society and audiences would also benefit from expanded learning opportunities
with an increased availability of timely documentaries from filmmakers (Leavy, 2015;
Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018). The instructional module is valuable and important because it adds a
much-needed, relevant, useful, and original educational resource to the limited body of
knowledge on the topic.
This research also provided a valuable learning experience on the iterative instructional
design process of producing an instructional module on how to conduct documentary film
research and data collection. The creation of the instructional module was the output goal for the
study; however, the successful design process was equally important. The researcher was able to
successfully apply framework and theory to the design and development of an instructional
module to address the academic, cognitive and physical needs of the target audience that was
analyzed in the design process. The researcher utilized Keller’s ARCS motivational model
(1983, 2010, 2017) and Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017;
Clark & Mayer, 2011) to inform and design the instructional module, and the ADDIE
instructional design model (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Molenda et al., 1996;
Serhat, 2017) guided the study’s overarching design process.
The researcher had originally planned to present and explain the instructional module in
person to students taking a class on film and video production at a university located in the
western United States. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the university moved entirely
to online learning in March 2020 and face-to-face gatherings were prohibited out of caution and
safety. Thus, the researcher turned to online platforms of administering the instructional module.
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The instructional design process included multiple prototypes, formative assessments and
reviews, and each assessment informed and guided the design decisions for the next iteration.
The reviews that were conducted by qualified and experienced researcher/educators, a
professional graphic designer and a student filmmaker, were instrumental to designing a quality
instructional module. Navigating through the evolving design process significantly helped the
researcher improve the module into a quality product in its final form and shape. What started
out as a single page infographic eventually became an interactive, multimedia, technology-
enhanced instructional module that meets the academic, cognitive and physical needs of the
target audience, the student filmmakers.
The implementation and evaluation of the instructional module, the “I” and “E” of the
ADDIE model, was conducted in another study (Iwasaki, in progress) that examined the actual
impact of the instructional module with the target audience, beginner and student filmmakers.
This study achieved its goal with a substantial output, an online instructional module for
documentary film subject research and data collection that will guide and assist beginner and
student filmmakers exploring documentary film production. This result makes a major
contribution to the informational and educational resources about this important step in the
documentary filmmaking process. This module helps answer and address the lack of material in
this area. Looking forward, further studies could investigate the impact and educational value of
the instructional module upon the target audience.
This study successfully applied and innovatively integrated social sciences theory,
methodology, and instructional design to humanities and arts research. This effective and
dynamic approach to designing and developing educational content and resources is an important
and significant contribution to the fields of instructional design, the learning sciences, and the
humanities. This study has significant potential to influence and impact the broad possibilities of
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Hess, A. K. N., & Greer, K. (2016). Designing for engagement: Using the ADDIE model to
integrate high-impact practices into an online information literacy course.
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Mayer, R. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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of Cambridge.
Mayer, R. (2009). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Chapter 5
Abstract
Information related to the overall documentary filmmaking process is available; however,
there is a lack of literature and educational resources about an important step in the documentary
film production process: how to conduct subject research and data collection. As documentary
filmmaking becomes an increasingly accessible endeavor due to technological advancements,
and its use in information distribution and education is increasing, there is a greater need for
educational resources to support this essential part of the film process. In this study, a content
rich, interactive instructional module that was designed and developed in a previous study to
guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers with documentary film subject research and
data collection, was implemented and evaluated by the target audience. This module featured
five filmmaking tips that captured and summarized the real-world wisdom and expertise of
professional documentary filmmakers with subject research and data collection. A motivational
and instructional model served as the frameworks to inform and guide the study’s learning
design process. Participants successfully reviewed the module and completed evaluation surveys
that were designed to examine the educational value of the module. The quantitative and
qualitative findings, along with field notes and observations, provided triangulation of data. After
analysis and interpretation were completed, the results significantly confirmed that the
instructional module did indeed have a positive, educational impact on the target audience and
accomplished its purpose. There is immense potential for the use of this important and relevant
instructional module that will contribute to the educational resources and literature of
documentary film research and studies, and the fields of instructional design, education, and the
humanities.
Keywords: instructional design, instructional content development, ADDIE design model, ARCS
motivational design concepts, film studies, documentary filmmaking, documentary film
instructional module, documentary film research and data collection, five tips from filmmakers.
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Introduction
The documentary film genre is a dynamic and effective information and communication
medium in the motion picture, film and video media field that is widely recognized and utilized
successfully in many settings, including education. It is a nonfictional documentation of fact-
based reality, and its purpose can be to share knowledge, increase understanding, or preserve
historical records. Aufderheide (2007) defines a documentary as a film or video that “tells a story
about real life, with claims to truthfulness” (p. 2). Documentary film’s acceptance and adoption
in educational practice, as well as its use in distributing information to extensive audiences, is
well-timed with the field’s advances in accessible, low-cost, high quality equipment and
technology. What was once an expensive venture that only well-funded projects could execute,
documentary films can now be created with inexpensive equipment and smartphones along with
modest or free software applications (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston, Vanstone & Chi,
2017). Democratizing the industry from restrictive costs allows more people, young and old,
from diverse populations, to actively participate in telling meaningful stories via the
documentary film genre.
Although information about the overall filmmaking process is available, literature on the
research and data collection aspect of documentary filmmaking, which is essential to the
production process, is limited. There is a lack of information and educational resources about the
“how to” conduct subject research and collect data for documentary film in either scholarly or
popular sources (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire,
2014). In this study, educational resources refers to the information, instruction, resources,
modules or processes on how to conduct research and data collection for documentary film
(Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston et al., 2017). This is a disadvantage for
many beginners and students exploring documentary film production who might need help to
know how to begin subject research and data collection for documentary film and there are no
easy-to-use resources. Thus, there is a clear need for informative, beneficial, user-friendly
educational resources to fill this gap.
An educational resource about subject research and data collection, generated from the
knowledge and experiences of professional filmmakers, would be extremely helpful for beginner
and student filmmakers. Instead of learning the craft of documentary filmmaking by instinct and
intuition, as is often the case which results in many questions and challenges, beginner
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filmmakers would have the advantage of the real-world wisdom and recommendations from
veteran filmmakers. This could be considered gaining a head start in the formidable and complex
filmmaking process, allowing beginner and student filmmakers to share their important stories
with the world more quickly and efficiently. This expert guidance in the film process would not
opportunities with an increased availability of timely documentaries from filmmakers.
Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the educational value of an existing
resource about subject research and data collection for documentary film, one that was designed
and developed in another study (Iwasaki, 2021; Iwasaki, in progress). This content rich,
technology-enhanced, interactive instructional module, titled Five Tips from Filmmakers for
Documentary Film Research and Data Collection is presented on a multipage website. The five
tips shared in the instructional module were organized as beneficial suggestions summarizing the
wisdom and knowledge of professional filmmakers from actual filmmaking experiences. The
exploration and examination of the educational impact and value of this instructional module
upon beginner and student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film
production, will be helpful to determine its benefit and usage in addressing the limited resources
in this area. The outcome of this study with the target audience would contribute to the field of
documentary film research and data collection, documentary film studies, instructional design,
constructivism, arts and humanities research and education. As far as the researcher’s
knowledge, no previous research has explored and examined this topic in this manner before.
Literature Review
Steps to a Documentary
Generally, traditional documentary film usually takes a highly subjective approach with
the filmmaker directing the entire process, from subject selection, research, and data collection,
to creative approaches (Bell, 2011; Friend & Caruthers, 2016). Filmmakers claim that making a
documentary can be an extremely fulfilling and rewarding experience, but it can also be one of
the most challenging and demanding creative endeavors (Adorama Learning Center, 2018). It is
often a long and arduous process with a number of steps and actions including budgeting,
planning, script writing, production, editing and distribution. Since actual information or
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instructions on the process are limited, and directing and producing documentary films can be
such a creative, artistic process, many filmmakers learn by fluidly and intuitively doing what is
necessary to move the project to completion (Adorama Learning Center, 2018; Desktop
Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014).
As a general rule, the first step toward creating a documentary film is to find a subject or
topic that is important to the filmmaker and is of interest to others. Since the documentary film
journey is often daunting and complicated, the subject needs to both energize and sustain the
filmmaker for the lengthy work towards completion, and the filmmaker needs to feel compelled
to share the story with others through the medium of film (Adorama Learning Center, 2018;
Desktop Documentaries, 2018).
The second step is “research and data collection,” an essential task to search out material,
gather facts, follow leads and recommendations on sources, and conduct interviews (Studio
Binder, 2018). This subject research and data collection step is crucial to any documentary film
because it drives the content of the film (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank 2013; Winston et
al., 2017). Subject research and data collection include background, history and context of the
subject, as well as the interesting, credible, emotional and inspiring material featuring the pivotal
points that will resonate with the audience (Adorama Learning Center, 2018).
Table 5.1 features steps 1 and 2 and the next five suggested steps in creating a
documentary film from several sources. Please note that this is not a comprehensive list and does
not include all the elements of the filmmaking process, including funding and budgets (Adorama
Learning Center, 2018; Desktop Documentaries, 2018; IndieWire, 2014).
Table 5.1. Steps to a Documentary

Step 1: Identify a “worthy” story.
Step 2: Conduct research and data collection.
Step 3: Create an outline of how the story will be told; its core points and characters.
Step 4: Design a detailed production plan to record interviews, supplemental footage, and
reenactments if applicable.
Step 5: Write a script based on the most compelling elements of the story.
Step 6: Edit the footage according to the script to create a meaningful and dynamic journey.
Step 7: Distribute the film using applicable approaches.
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Documentary Film and Technology
Not too long ago, it took 16 tons of filmmaking equipment to create a single documentary
such as Flaherty’s Moana in 1926 (Hood, 2017). Today; however, documentary films can be
successfully produced with reasonably priced, and much lighter, hardware and software.
(Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018 Winston et al., 2017). Increased accessibility to the necessary
technology and equipment help filmmakers share their stories and experiences globally. People
and voices who were in the past ignored, excluded and dismissed can now be heard, with
reference to the smartphone’s filming capabilities, advances in digital film and editing, along
with free and low-cost software applications. A compact smartphone smaller than a hand can
now carry out the process (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018 Winston et al., 2017). The people making
documentary films vary widely, from high-profile celebrities to relatively unfamiliar, perhaps
beginner and student filmmakers. While one end of the documentary film spectrum lists
significant, successful filmmakers such as Michael Moore, whose Fahrenheit 9/11 earned over
$221 million in U.S. and international box office revenues in 2015 (IndieWire, 2014), and 33
million Americans watched Ken Burns’ The Roosevelts: An Intimate History (Burns, 2014), the
other end of the broad range of filmmakers is no less important.
Documentary Film and Education
How Documentary Films are used in Education. Along with technological advances,
digital platforms and lower costs in film and video production, documentary film’s use in
information distribution, entertainment and social commentary opened the doors for its
emergence and increasing use in education (Leavy, 2015; Nash, Hight, & Summerhayes, 2014;)
and social science research theory and methodology (Frank, 2013; Goldman, Pea, Barron, &
Derry, 2007). Today, the documentary film genre is a dynamic and effective information and
communication medium that is widely recognized and applied successfully using educational
best practices (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011; Frank, 2013; Winston et al., 2017).
The anthropology field often utilizes documentary film using terms such as ethnographic
film and ethnocinema (Leavy, 2015). Frank (2013) sought to expand the educational
significance, practice and application of the documentary film and Bell (2011) emphasized the
importance of the genre in historiographical research and scholarship. Whiteman (2004)
discussed documentary films’ political impact upon learners and audiences, and Fonda (2014)
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combined art therapy and filmmaking. Documentary film is now used in unlimited and varied
research, teaching contexts, and presentations using a wide range of styles and approaches to
various audiences in education, from elementary to post-secondary, and beyond (Friend &
Caruthers, 2016; Hanley, Noblit, Sheppard, & Barone, 2013). They can range from loosely
planned projects to fully storyboarded, scripted and rehearsed professional productions that
require hiring a cinematographer, crew and staff, as well as a cast and actors for reenactments.
Some may also feature the researcher(s), participants, and other sources (Leavy, 2015; Leavy &
Chilton, 2014).
Documentary film has proven to be a popular medium for researchers and instructors
hoping to inspire, educate and promote knowledge and awareness of diverse, global issues such
as climate change and social justice (Aufderheide, 2007; Frank, 2013); migration and
immigration from Central and South America (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018); to the environmental
and worldwide health concerns of agricultural chemicals (The Monsanto Papers, 2018).
How Students Learn about Documentary Filmmaking. Just as there are steps in the
documentary filmmaking process, the path to learning about and becoming a documentary
filmmaker requires specific actions. Often the journey can include attending film school or
obtaining a degree in film or cinema studies. Some believe a successful career as a filmmaker
requires enrolling at an elite film program such as those offered at the American Film Institute,
University of Southern California, and New York University, while others believe that
experiential learning opportunities are more important elements. Tuition at these top schools are
quite costly, running at approximately $60,000 per year for undergraduates and $65,000 for
graduate students (Learn How to Become, 2020; Galuppo & Chuba, 2020).
Although the access to expensive equipment, software, and the networking opportunities
that may come with attending these schools are helpful, as with the documentary filmmaking
process, there are no requisite rules, and film degrees may not be necessary. While award-
winning documentary filmmaker Ken Burns, who is well-known for using archival footage,
photographs and his distinct panning and zooming effect with still imagery, received a bachelor’s
degree in film studies from Hampshire College in Amherst, Massachusetts (Ken Burns, 2020),
American documentary filmmaker and activist Michael Moore dropped out of the University of
Michigan, Flint, while he was a college sophomore (Jacob, 2007). Many leading filmmakers say
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their passion for filmmaking began while they were still quite young making short videos with
friends and family, and that experience, including fieldwork and internships, matter the most.
“Even films created on a smartphone and edited on a laptop can convey your raw talent and eye
for cinematography.” (Learn How to Become, 2020, para. 4).
Students learning about and exploring documentary film production shouldn’t be required
to attend an elite film school, but should be able to gain information, instruction, and experience
via accessible educational resources, especially as documentary filmmaking becomes an
increasingly equitable activity due to less costly equipment and technology (Loustaunau &
Shaw, 2018; Winston et al., 2017). Accessible, free educational resources about documentary
filmmaking would further democratize the industry for beginner and student documentary
filmmakers. To accomplish this, this study examined and evaluated an existing educational
resource (Iwasaki, in progress) about subject research and data collection for documentary film.
The overall goal was to add an original, informative, useful, easy-to-use educational resource to
help beginner and student documentary filmmakers make their film goals a reality and share
them with the world.
The Current Study

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the educational value of an existing resource
about subject research and data collection for documentary film, one that was designed and
developed in another study (Iwasaki, in progress). As described in the literature review, this
second step in the documentary film process is essential because it determines the content of the
film. This content rich, technology-enhanced, interactive instructional module, is presented on a
website that applies Richard Mayer’s (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) cognitive
theory of multimedia learning recommendations.
The instructional module was designed and developed using an instructional design
process (Allen, 2006; Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2001; Iwasaki, in progress; McGriff, 2000;
Molenda, 2015; Molenda, Pershing, & Reigeluth, 1996). Formative assessments by experienced
reviewers provided constructive feedback that informed and guided the strategic design
modifications for each iteration. The final format of the instructional module is important to this
study. What started out as a basic, single page infographic evolved during multiple iterations to
become an engaging, easy-to-use, multimedia module on a website. The module’s evaluation
145
instruments, a pre-module survey, five in-module surveys on each of the five filmmaking tips,
and a post-module survey, were also embedded into the module (see Appendix B) (Iwasaki, in
progress).
The content of the instructional module consists of beneficial recommendations
summarizing the wisdom and knowledge of professional filmmakers from their actual
filmmaking experiences (Iwasaki, 2021). Those recommendations were condensed into five
major themes and presented as five tips with explanatory information: 1) do the research, 2) tell
the story visually, 3) find strong characters, 4) support universal themes, and 5) relate to your
audience. Relevant, appropriate photos are featured with each tip, and short audio clips of
professional filmmakers highlighting key elements and details are embedded into each tip.
The exploration and examination of the educational value of this instructional module
upon beginner and student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film
production, will be helpful to determine its implications in addressing the gap in the limited
information and educational resources in this area. This study implemented the instructional
module to evaluate and answer the following research question:
1. What is the impact of an instructional module for documentary film subject research and
data collection upon student filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary film
production?
To answer this question, the researcher began with the instructional module’s impact
upon the four ARCS motivational model concepts (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017): attention,
relevance, confidence and satisfaction. These four concepts were used to inform and guide the
design and development of the instructional module and data collection instruments (Iwasaki, in
progress), as well as the analysis and interpretation of the data collected in this study. After the
researcher analyzed and interpreted the data using an inductive process, the emergent themes
were organized using the ARCS concepts.
Methodology
Research Design
A convergent mixed methods design approach was used to address the research question
in this study (Creswell, 2007, 2009, 2015, 2018). This particular research approach was used in
order to gather both quantitative and qualitative data from the target audience during the same
146
time frame, rigorously strengthening the data collection, analysis and interpretation of the study
in order to provide a better understanding and examination of the research topic. Along with the
quantitative and qualitative instruments, field notes and observations were recorded during the
study’s phases and used in analysis and interpretation (see Appendix C). Thus, triangulation,
application of different valid collection methods, was applied to strengthen the study and
increase credibility and validity (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016). A pilot test (Bryman,
2012) of the instructional module and evaluation instruments, the surveys, was conducted with a
student and confirmed that the research instruments worked well to collect the necessary data.
Integration of the study’s mixed methods approach ensured feasibility (Curry & Nunez-Smith,
2015) and the data that was collected was recorded, documented, and validated as much as
possible (Bryman, 2012; LaBoskey, 2006; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Sandretto, 2009;
Tidwell et al., 2009; Yin, 2016).
ADDIE Model of Instructional Design. The ADDIE model of instructional design,

which includes the iterative, formative phases of Analysis, Design, Development,
Implementation and Evaluation, methodically informed and organized this study’s learning
design process (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Molenda, 2015; Molenda et al.,
1996; Serhat, 2017). Application of the ADDIE process ensured that the study focused on the
best educational practices for the target audience, beginner and student filmmakers. Figure 5.1 on
the next page shows a graphic representation of the ADDIE process for this study. Please note
that the design and development of the instructional module and evaluation instruments for this
study were completed in another study (Iwasaki, 2021; Iwasaki, in progress).
147
ADDIE
Model of
PHASE V: EVALUATION PHASE I: ANALYSIS

implementation of the needed:
instructional module and
evaluation instruments with • Problem identification
the target audience. • Needs assessment
PHASE IV: PHASE II: DESIGN

IMPLEMENTATION Instructional module and
Implement the evaluation instruments were
instructional module and designed and developed in
evaluation instruments. another study.
PHASE III:
DEVELOPMENT
Instructional module and
evaluation instruments were
developed in another study.
Figure 5.1. Representation of the study using the ADDIE model of instructional design.
Analysis. Analysis is the “A” of the first formative phase in the ADDIE model of
instructional design. It consists of identifying the problem and assessing the needs of the
educational issue being investigated.
Problem Identification. The problem this study sought to address was a lack of
information and educational resources on the topic of subject research and data collection for
documentary film in either scholarly or popular sources (Adorama Learning Center, 2018;
Desktop Documentaries, 2018). This is a problem as many beginners and students exploring
documentary film production might need assistance on how to begin subject research and data
collection in the documentary film production process. As documentary filmmaking becomes an
increasingly accessible endeavor because it is no longer under restrictive funding costs, greater
technological advancements (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston et al, 2017), and its use in
148
information distribution and educational practice is increasing (Aufderheide, 2007; Bell, 2011;
Frank, 2013; Winston et al., 2017), there is correspondingly a greater need for educational
resources to support this important step of the documentary filmmaking process. Accessible, free
educational resources would provide further equity for students exploring documentary film
production by providing another instructional option to enrollment in elite and expensive film
schools.
Needs Assessment. Since the target audience of the educational resource is beginner and
student filmmakers in higher education, addressing their academic, cognitive, and physical needs
were essential to the study’s design process. Examples of generalizations of the U.S. college
student profile include: diverse population at 42% non-white, 62% work part- or full-time,
demand for digital technology, self-paced learning, multimedia integration, online learning’s
flexibility and convenience, need for financial aid and affordable housing, and focus on the
cognitive needs of knowledge, exploration, discovery and meaning (Beyond Campus
Innovations, 2019; Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2020; Education Dive, 2017; McGraw
Hill, 2016; National Center for Education Statistics, 2020).
This study was also informed by the 17 participants at a four-year comprehensive,
regional university in the western United States. The learner profile of this institution includes a
diverse, mostly full-time undergraduate and graduate student population shown in Figure 5.2 on
the next page (University of Hawai‘i, 2019).
149
Figure 5.2. Facts about the student profile at the study’s participant sample institution.
Design and Development. Design and development are the “D” and “D” of the second
and third formative phases in the ADDIE model of instructional design. As discussed earlier,
please note that the design and development of the instructional module and evaluation
instruments for this study were completed in other studies (Iwasaki, 2021; Iwasaki, in progress).
Implementation. Implementation is the “I” of the fourth formative phase in the ADDIE
model of instructional design. Implementation of this study will be reported in the Procedure
segment of the Methodology section of this study.
Evaluation. Evaluation is the “E” of the fifth and last phase in the ADDIE model of
instructional design. Evaluation of this study will be reported in the Results section of this study.
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Participants
There were 17 participants in this study, out of a pool of 20; and there was one student
who completed a pilot test of the instructional module and evaluation instruments. This student
was able to smoothly and successfully navigate the module and complete the evaluation surveys
with no problems. The participants were students taking an 11-week non-credit class on film and
video production at a comprehensive, four-year university in the western United States, and other
students interested in documentary film production at the same institution. Sponsored by the
university’s Center for Community Engagement department, the free non-credit course was open
to students registered at the university. Taught by two instructors, professionals in the field of
film and video, including documentary film, the class schedule covered development, pre-
production, production and post-production instruction, including educational and documentary
filmmaking. Some of the students taking the course were also associated with the university’s
video production program which is an affiliate student organization under the Board of Media
funded by student fees. An exempt status IRB approval was secured for the study.
The majority of students, seven students (44%) were sophomores. Figure 5.3 on the next
page features the class standings of the 17 students who participated in the study. College majors
of the participants varied widely. Two participants declared Administration of Justice as their
major, two Business, two Education, two Kinesiology, and the rest were individually different:
Accounting, Biology, Communication, English, Environmental Science, Hawaiian Studies,
Nursing, Political Science, and Psychology.
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Figure 5.3. Class standings of the 17 students who participated in the study.
Instructional Module
Along with applying educational best practices, Keller’s ARCS motivational model
(1983, 2010, 2017) and Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017;
Clark & Mayer, 2011) served as the frameworks to inform and design the instructional module
(Iwasaki, in progress). The ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick et al.;
McGriff, 2000; Molenda, 2015; Molenda et al., 1996; West, Hoffman, & Costello, 2017)
systematically guided and organized the study’s learning design process that included multiple,
formative assessments of the content and format of the instructional module by experienced
reviewers. Constructive feedback from the reviewers informed and guided the design
modifications for the next iteration. A basic, single page infographic progressively evolved to
become an engaging, easy-to-navigate, multimedia module on a website in its final instructional
module form (Iwasaki, in progress).
Table 5.2 on the next page presents the informational content featured in the module: five
major themes aligned with the ARCS model concepts of attention, relevance, confidence and
satisfaction, and organized as beneficial “tips,” suggestions summarizing the wisdom and
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knowledge of professional filmmakers from their actual filmmaking experiences. This
information was derived and condensed from the results of a previous study (Iwasaki, 2021). The
content of the module also included appropriate photos relating to each tip, and short, audio clips
of professional filmmakers elaborating highlights and explanatory details for each tip (Iwasaki,
in progress).
Table 5.2. Five Major Tips from Filmmakers Featured in the Instructional Module and
Relationship with ARCS Model Concepts
Tip 1. Do the Research (Confidence)

Tip 2. Tell the Story Visually (Attention)

Tip 3. Find Strong “Characters” (Attention)

Tip 4. Support Universal Themes (Relevance)

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Tip 5. Relate to your audience (Relevance and Satisfaction)
they’re seeing.
The instructional module (Iwasaki, in progress) began with a welcome page thanking
participants for reviewing and evaluating the module about subject research and data collection
for documentary film. Next came an overview page with detailed instructions followed by the
pre-module survey. After completing the pre-module survey, participants could move through
the website to review and evaluate the five filmmaking tips. Each tip was on a separate page
followed by a two-question in-module evaluation survey about that tip. There were five in-
module surveys for the five filmmaking tips, and the last tip also asked which one of the five tips
was the most helpful overall. This was followed by a webpage featuring all of the five
filmmaking tips with images and audio clips as a reminder and review of all of the tips, and
overall purpose of the module. In retrospect, the researcher should have asked the question
“Which of the 5 tips was most helpful” after the webpage presenting all five tips as it would have
been the more logical instructional design layout.
Here is the title and link to the content rich, technology-enhanced, interactive
instructional module website: Five Tips from Filmmakers for Documentary Film Research and
Data Collection. Figure 5.4 on the next page is a screenshot of the webpage featuring the first of
five tips, “Tip 1. Do the Research,” from the instructional module website.
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Figure 5.4. Screenshot of “Tip 1. Do the Research” webpage from the website.
Instruments
The evaluation instruments were embedded into the instructional module: a pre-module
(pretest) and a post-module (posttest) survey, and five short in-module surveys assessing each of
the five filmmaking tips; there were seven surveys in total (see Appendix B). The evaluation
instruments were designed and developed in another study (Iwasaki, in progress). A student
filmmaker completed a pilot test of the instructional module and evaluation instruments to
determine if the surveys would appropriately collect the information needed to answer the
research questions. The student provided feedback and said that he was able to navigate through
the module and answer all seven surveys smoothly and “with no problems.” He said the
instructional module was engaging, interesting and very helpful, noting that the audio clips of
professional filmmakers discussing each of the tips was especially enlightening and useful. He
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wished he had known about these tips before his own exploration in video and film, yet
emphasized they were still extremely educational and “inspiring” to him now. He didn’t provide
any suggestions for improvement.
ARCS Model of Motivational Design. This study sought to evaluate the educational
value of an existing instructional module Iwasaki, in progress) about subject research and data
collection for documentary film. To increase the likelihood that the instructional module and
evaluation instruments will resonate with the target audience, beginner and student filmmakers, a
well-established model in motivation and instructional design, Keller’s ARCS model (Keller,
1983, 2010, 2017) (see Table 5.3 on the next page), served as the framework that informed and
guided the design and development of all three types of evaluation surveys, pre-module, post-
module and in-module (Iwasaki, in progress). The framework also guided the analysis and
interpretation of the data collected. Two other purposes in using ARCS was to 1) motivate
students to become interested in subject research and data collection for documentary film, and
2) inform, guide and instruct students about the process of subject research and data collection
for documentary film, thus increasing their understanding and knowledge.
The ARCS motivational factors of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction
(Gagne, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2005; Pappas, 2015; Peterson, 2003) are strongly applicable to
the field of documentary film with similar motivational goals for documentary filmmakers,
whether they are veterans or students (educators/instructional designers), and their audience
(learners/students) (Astleitner & Hufnagl, 2003; Bugis, 2018; Hodges & Kim, 2013; Keller &
Suzuki, 2004; West et al., 2017). While the goals for documentary filmmakers, veterans and
students, may not be referred to as “instructional design,” their educational goals are very
similar; they use; they are using relevant, motivational methods of film and video production
(Frank, 2013; Nash, Hight, & Summerhayes, 2014; Winston, et al., 2017).
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Attention
Relevance
Confidence
Satisfaction
Pre-Module Survey. The pre-module survey (pretest) was designed to determine

participants’ baseline interest in and familiarity with documentary film, and knowledge of the
process of subject research and data collection for documentary film. To hear the voices of the
participants in this pre-module survey, one qualitative question was asked: to explain why they
are interested in film and video production. To measure the degree of participants’ feelings about
specific questions, the six quantitative questions were designed using appropriate qualifiers that
could be answered using a 5-point Likert psychometric response scale (Bryman, 2012; Gorard,
2003). Table 5.4 on the next page gives a few examples of the questions from the pre-module
survey using a 5-point response scale to determine basic knowledge about the topic. (See
Appendix B for a list of all of the questions).
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Table 5.4. Examples of Pre-Module Survey Questions using a 5-point Response Scale
I am familiar with many documentary films.
I am familiar with the process of creating a documentary film.
I know how to conduct research and data collection for a documentary film after deciding
upon my subject.
In-Module Surveys on the Five Tips. Five separate short surveys evaluating each of the
five tips immediately followed each tip. Each in-module survey featured two qualitative
questions to capture the voices and experiences of participants, including drawing out the rich
and thick descriptions of qualitative data. Question 1 asked: “What stood out to you most?”; and
Question 2 asked: “What was the most helpful element? Why?” These short surveys were
implemented to follow the logical course of the instructional module and allow a deeper
exploration of each of the five tips immediately after reviewing each one. The survey for “Tip 5.
Relate to your Audience” also asked which one of the five tips participants felt was the most
helpful overall. This was intended to be a helpful reminder and review of all of the tips and
overall purpose of the instructional module.
Post-Module Survey. The post-module survey (posttest) was designed to determine the
amount of learning participants had acquired from reviewing the instructional module. Some of
the post-module survey questions were designed to parallel the pre-module survey questions
listed in Table 5.4, evaluating the information and impact participants had acquired from the
instructional module. To discover whether participants’ interest in and familiarity with
documentary film and knowledge of the process of subject research and data collection for
documentary film had changed. To capture the voices of the participants and include their
experiences, two qualitative questions were asked: to explain why participants feel the
instructional module is helpful for research and data collection for documentary film, and if they
had anything else to share about the instructional module.
To measure the degree of participants’ feelings about specific questions, the 14
quantitative questions were designed using appropriate qualifiers that could be answered using a
5-point Likert psychometric response scale (Bryman, 2012; Gorard, 2003). Table 5.5 on the next
page lists the alignment of the ARCS concept of “attention” (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) with
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examples of quantitative questions from the post-module survey, and the qualitative questions
for each of the five filmmaking tips. This example features “Tip 1. Do the Research.”
Table 5.5. Example of ARCS “Attention” Concept, Quantitative Questions from Post-Module
Survey, and Qualitative Questions for each of the Five Filmmaking Tips
ARCS “Attention” Post-Module Survey Two qualitative Questions for each
Concept and Definition of the Five Filmmaking Tips
Capturing interest and The instructional module Please focus on and review Tip 1:
curiosity captured my interest and Do the Research. What stood out to
attention. you most with Tip 1?
Perception and by
inquiry The layout and design of the What was the most helpful
instructional module are element? Why?
Connection and appealing.
participation
The colors of the instructional
Specific, relatable module are pleasing.
examples; conflict and
variety The sound clips of the
instructional module are
engaging and interesting.
Procedure
The researcher worked with the two instructors of the non-credit film and video
production class at the four-year university. She visited the class in January 2020 to introduce
herself and provide an overview of the research project with a recruitment presentation letter (see
Appendix F), emphasizing that participation was entirely voluntary and would not affect their
participation in the class at all. The researcher let the class know that she would be returning in
March, on the first scheduled class after Spring break, to present the hard copy educational
resource (it had not yet evolved to become a digital instructional module after multiple iterations
applying the instructional design process) (Iwasaki, in progress) for them to review and evaluate.
Hard copy recruitment letters and appropriate consent forms following research protocol would
also be passed out at that time.
learning and face-to-face classes were cancelled out of caution and safety. The researcher was
unable to return to the class in March 2020 to meet and present the instructional module in
person as planned at their first scheduled class after Spring break. Thus, the researcher was
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motivated to consider online possibilities of developing and implementing the instructional
module and the evaluation instruments (Iwasaki, in progress). Although unable to meet in person
with the class, the unexpected hurdle was not insurmountable. Previous findings by Richard
Mayer and other researchers report that multimedia online delivery can increase learning
potential and outcomes (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Chiu & Churchill, 2016; Clark & Mayer, 2011;
Levonen & Rouet, 2001; Mayer, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2017). Self-paced learning, multimedia
integration, and a demand for online learning’s flexibility and convenience were important
academic needs for the generalized target audience as discussed in the Analysis section of this
article; thus, the move to online implementation may have been a very helpful, constructive
development (Beyond Campus Innovations, 2019; Education Dive, 2017; McGraw Hill, 2020;
National Center for Education Statistics, 2020).
The researcher received participants’ university email addresses from the instructors and
was able to move forward with the online implementation and evaluation of the instructional
module. Participants were sent a recruitment email with a link to the instructional module (see
Appendix H), recruitment letter (see Appendix F) and a consent form (see Appendix G) via
email in late April 2020. Participants were asked to return signed Consent Forms or respond
affirmatively to the email, and were asked to review the module and complete the evaluation
surveys embedded in the module within two weeks.
Participants were expected to progress through the instructional module in the following
manner: welcome, overview page with detailed instructions, pre-module survey, review and
evaluation of the five filmmaking tips with a two-question in-module evaluation survey
following each tip, with the last tip also asking which one of the five tips was the most helpful
overall. A webpage featuring all of the five filmmaking tips with images and audio clips served
as a reminder and review of all of the tips, and overall purpose of the module. Participants were
then instructed to complete the post-module survey. All of the questions for the surveys are in
Appendix B. Lastly, a webpage thanked the participants for their time and effort in completing
the review and evaluations.
During the two-week period of data collection, the majority of students, 15 students
(88%) did not have any problems with viewing and completing the instructional module. After
completing the module, some of the students emailed the researcher with positive comments
such as: “This is great information!” “The next time I create an educational video or short
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documentary, I’ll remember those five tips.” “I was able to complete the module with ease.” “I
listened to all of the five tips and finished all of the surveys.” “I’m glad to have participated in
this process.”
However, the researcher also received emails from two students, who were having
difficulties such as: “I couldn’t sign in using my school email.” “I couldn’t do the surveys.”
“There was no audio for me.”
The researcher tried to resolve these problems with the two participants, which included
advising them to use another web browser, clearing out history on their browser, and sending the
links to the Google Forms surveys directly to them via email. The researcher also had a
discussion with a member of the ITS department of her university who said: “syncing” needs to
be turned off when using Google Chrome as a browser and the school email address. The online
security system is not compatible with it. After troubleshooting the issues, the two participants
were able to complete viewing the instructional module and the surveys.
This experience highlights the unforeseen technical complications with online delivery of
educational material. Although the researcher pilot tested the instructional module and surveys
with a student filmmaker, it didn’t occur to her to test out different web browsers or browser
syncing issues with the university online security system. This was an informative learning
opportunity for the researcher and perhaps others designing and implementing online educational
resources. In future design projects, an important element to add to the instructional design
process would be to consult a university ITS specialist if collecting data via university email
addresses. Fortunately, the two students were eventually able to view the instructional module
and complete the surveys. Documented field notes and observations like this strengthened the
study by utilizing triangulation, the application of different valid collection methods (see
Appendix C) (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016).
Results
Pre-Module Survey
Table 5.6 on the next page features the results of the 5-point Likert psychometric
response scale (Bryman, 2012; Gorard, 2003) items for the pre-module survey and their
alignment with the appropriate ARCS model concepts of attention, relevance and confidence.
When asked to rate their level of interest in film and video production, the 17 participants
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reported an average rating of 4.12 (SD = 0.78). Four participants (24%) selected 5.00 (Strongly
Agree). Their familiarity with the documentary film genre reported an average rating of 4.00 (SD
= 0.71); thus, the participants’ familiarity and interest in film and video production were quite
strong. However, their familiarity and knowledge about research and data collection for
documentary film were weaker. Participants reported an average rating of 2.88 (SD = 1.11) when
asked about their familiarity with the process of creating documentary film; 2.82 (SD = 1.01)
when asked about their familiarity with the tools of documentary film; and 2.76 (SD = 1.09)
when asked about their knowledge of research and data collection for documentary film. This
evidence aligns with the researcher’s theory that students need more information and resources
in this area.
Table 5.6. Average Interest and Familiarity Ratings from Pre-Module Survey (n=17)
ARCS
Categories Statements Mean SD Min Max
Attention Interest in film and video production 4.12 0.78 3.00 5.00
Relevance Familiarity with documentary film genre 4.00 0.71 2.00 5.00
Relevance Familiarity with many documentary films 3.65 0.61 2.00 4.00
Confidence Familiarity with process of creating 2.88 1.11 1.00 4.00

documentary film
Confidence Familiarity with tools of documentary film 2.82 1.01 1.00 4.00
Confidence Knowledge of research and data collection for

documentary film 2.76 1.09 1.00 4.00
Participants were asked one open-ended qualitative question to explain their interest in
film and video production. This question allowed for thick and rich, narrative type responses. An
inductive approach (Bryman, 2012; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016) was implemented
and responses were analyzed, interpreted, and grouped according to their relationship with the
ARCS model concepts of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction (Astleitner & Lintner,
2004; Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017). Examples of participants’ answers and their relationship with
ARCS are shown in Table 5.7.
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Table 5.7. Examples of Pre-Module Survey Qualitative Answers and Relationship with ARCS
Model Concepts
Attention
“Film is a creative artform, and it is an effective method of reaching out to a variety of
audiences. It is a very exciting and interesting medium to create and learn from.”
– Participant #17
“I am obsessed with technology, and advancements in the film industry in terms of special
effects, editing, and sound design truly amaze me.” – Participant #3
Relevance
“Communication and getting information across to people is more through video and film
today. I think we connect more with video and film than just reading text.” – Participant #13
“I think it increases learning. It’s an excellent educational resource.” – Participant #2
Confidence
“The COVID-19 pandemic highlights the importance of accessible, digital educational
resources that you can learn from at your own pace.” – Participant #1
“I would like to learn to make and produce quality films to share my ideas, my stories and my
message.” – Participant #15
Satisfaction
“I have always found expressing myself through multimedia and journalism as a very
transcending way to do so.” – Participant #6
“I have always loved creating videos for my family to see; furthermore, I feel like it is an
important useful skill I can utilize in my future career.” – Participant #4
In-Module Surveys on the Five Tips

The five in-module surveys about each tip were designed as open-ended, qualitative
questions to collect rich, expressive, thoughtful answers and an inductive approach (Bryman,
2012; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016) was implemented to analyze, interpret, and
organize the data. Table 5.8 on pages 166-168 presents examples of the responses from 17
participants for each of the five tips and their relationship to the ARCS concepts (Astleitner &
Lintner; Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017). Due to the similarity of the two questions: “What stood out to
you most?” and “What was the most helpful element? Why?” the researcher found that the
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responses often overlapped. The researcher learned that this is an important point to consider
when designing future evaluation instruments. Thus, only the responses to the first question
“What stood out to you most?” will be featured in the table along with the response to the last
question for the in-module surveys: “Which of the 5 tips did you find most helpful and will “take
away” from the instructional module?” The purpose of this question was to be a helpful reminder
and review of all of the five tips and the overall purpose of the instructional module.
One example of the depth and detail of the responses not listed on the table, but worth
mentioning, is a participant who associated Tip 3. Find Strong “Characters” to the Hawaiian art
of hula, saying “Similar to hula, filmmaking is the art of capturing the audience and making them
feel a part of the story. Just as hula needs the right wahine (female) or kane (male), the characters
for the film need to be a perfect match.” Another student said Tip 3 “made him think back to one
of my favorite Japanese artists and storytellers, Hirohiko Araki, where he says characters help
bring the world and themes together in a story.”
Participants often answered using the short, concise, bullet point information of each tip
that was featured, by either using the exact words, for example for Tip 2: Tell the story visually:
“‘Show’ the audience, not just tell the audience,” or they paraphrased the bullet points. This
demonstrates the learning effectiveness of the short, bullet point content on each of the five tips
pages. Each tip page also featured just one photo that was appropriate to the content on the page.
The instructional module was designed and developed using Mayer’s 12 principles of
multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) in another study (Iwasaki,
in progress) and one of the principles states: extraneous words, pictures and sounds are excluded
rather than included. The successful collection of data in this study supports this principle.
The short audio clips, ranging from 34 seconds to 2:05 minutes, featuring professional
filmmakers discussing and sharing their vast real-world wisdom and experience were the
highlights of the module. In each tip, the majority of responses for the two questions “what stood
out most and was most helpful” included the audio clips of the filmmakers discussing each tip.
Participants often quoted or paraphrased material from the clips such as the “cookie crumbs”
when the filmmaker describes the little details that can connect audiences to the subject in Tip 4:
Support Universal Themes. Another word that stood out to the participants was “positively
transcendent” when another filmmaker discussed the power of true stories in Tip 5: Relate to
your audience.
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Participants also expressed their appreciation of the integration of multimedia within the
instructional module. One participant said, “Having the audio file while reading through the tips
and seeing the photo on the page was helpful. It made me understand how important the visual
is.” Another said “The text helped me understand what the filmmaker was talking about.” This
supports Mayer’s multimedia design principles of combining graphics, narration and text and
that narration is spoken in a friendly human voice. The researcher believes the success of the
instructional module was due to the real-world wisdom and experience from professional
filmmakers about subject research and data collection for documentary film. The audio clips
supported the validity and truth of the information by featuring actual voices from real
filmmakers producing documentary films. One of the participants said, “Having the audio file to
explain did help. Giving context on who it is would help as well.” However, as part of the IRB
research protocol, the researcher was not able to identify the filmmakers.
In answering which tip was the most helpful overall, participants selected each of the five
tips almost equally except no one selected Tip 2. Tell the Story Visually. This may be because
participants were already convinced of the validity of using film to visually tell stories. Instead of
selecting one tip to highlight, one student said, “In order to develop an astonishing documentary,
all tips should be considered. Being able to generate ideas into film is not an easy task, so taking
these words of recommendation can really help with the process of creating a documentary.
Having the foundation of making a documentary can leave you with discussions about
noteworthy topics or undiscovered realms in the film world. The possibilities are endless!”
Another student also commented on all of the tips instead of focusing on one of the tips, saying
“These tips make sense and may help create an even better product at the end of the
documentary/video.”
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Table 5.8. Examples of Results of the Surveys on each of the Instructional Module’s Five Tips
and the most Helpful Tip of the Five Tips
Tip 1: Do the Research
(Confidence)
“Know what’s out there. We want to look into Having lots of important and relevant
things, and we get “ultra-passionate” about it, just information about your subject will give
to find out it has already been researched and you a strong foundation for your film.
done." – Participant #1 Overall, the research portion decides
whether you have a story worth telling
Watching all your competitors’ work and other or not.” – Participant #3
documentaries to learn what you can do differently
and make yours better, standout and more “Figuring out your topic and finding
informative. Not in the same fashion, but so the your interesting characters is probably
audience can learn or feel something new. – the most challenging portion and once
Participants #4, #10, #17 that is established, the other tips make
sure your story is right for your
audience.” Participant #14
Tip 2: Tell the Story Visually

(Attention)
“Have experts on screen”; that portion of the Not answered by participants

audio and tip makes a lot of sense as it provides a
very strong sense of ethos for a documentary.” –
Participant #5
It’s important to have captivating images/video.

But first need to determine whether this story needs
to be presented visually. Documentary films are
hard and expensive so if the story can be told on
paper, best not to make a documentary. –
Participants #3, #4, #10, #12
Tip 3: Find Strong “Characters”

(Attention)
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Generate affinity and empathy with the audience. “Make sure the audience is
The relationship built between the film and its “compelled” to watch and feel how the
audience comes from the characters that will not characters feel.” – Participant #8
only move the audience, but will also resonate with
them. – Participants #2, #5 “Good documentaries are ones where
we want to know what happens to the
Compel the audience to watch. We want to watch a characters we care about (or even about
movie that keeps the audience engaged on an the animal, star, volcano, etc.). If it is
exciting subject matter or personality. Participants treated as a character, it is more
#8, #13 interesting.” – Participant #9
“You want to make sure the characters

and narrator are entertaining, reliable,
clear, and trustworthy.” Participant #15
Tip 4: Support Universal Themes

(Relevance)
Filmmaker discussing the “bottom up” approach. “Supporting universal themes is

Pay attention to the little details. Don’t leave imperative because if a film is going to
behind the rich, dense details. It’s the little details be a success, every little detail needs to
that no one pays attention to that should be brought be good to make the big picture work.”
into focus. Look from the smallest point and – Participant #16
expand from there. – Participants #2, 4, 13
“I think a lot of documentaries only
“Topic selection - appealing to the audiences’ share information without any emotional
emotion is really important and choosing an attachment, which makes the entire film
entertaining or moving topic is crucial to making very surface-level. Pinpointing specific
the audience invest themselves in the film.” – experiences and sharing unfiltered,
Participant #11 ‘real’ information is what gains the
attention and investment of the
audience.” – Participant #17
Tip 5: Relate to Your Audience

(Relevance and Satisfaction)
“The importance of the audience. The tone, “Help the audience see themselves in
emotion and delivery of your story, if done right, the film. Maybe not the actual problem
can be transcending and empowering for not only or issue, but they can relate somehow to
the filmmaker and his/her personal experience, but the struggle. Then you can apply that
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more importantly for the audience.” – Participant feeling to your own life and maybe make
#4 a difference.” – Participant #10
In my experience, a “good film” always made me Connection can motivate action. Finding
think which is why the importance of helping the the connection to your audience will
audience apply the story outside of the film stuck take your story out into the world and
out to me. Documentaries can help people see live through your audience.” Participants
parallels between the film and current events. – #5, #13
Participants #6, #9
“When you can create an emotional
bond, you can share the documentary’s
message more effectively.” – Participant
#12
Post-Module Survey
In the post-module survey, 16 participants answered 16 Likert response scale items and
one qualitative question. Table 5.9 features the results of the 5-point Likert psychometric
response scale (Bryman, 2012; Gorard, 2003) and their alignment with the ARCS model
concepts.
Categories
Confidence module
Relevance

Satisfaction
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Satisfaction

Satisfaction

film
Participants found the instructional module captured their interest and attention; layout
and design, and colors were appealing; graphics interesting and appropriate and the sound clips
engaging and interesting. When asked to rate their ability to read and understand information on
the module, the 16 participants reported an average rating of 4.81 (SD = 0.40); 13 participants
selected 5.00 (Strongly Agree). Another high average rating of 4.69 (SD = .79) was reported in
the participants’ ability to navigate the module, which also received 13 “strongly agree”
responses. These two items received the most 5.00 (Strongly Agree) selections. These findings
validate the successful application of Keller’s ARCS motivational model (1983, 2010, 2017) and
Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011)
as frameworks and theories in the design and development of the instructional module (Iwasaki,
in progress) and the application of best practices in instructional design and development. The
lowest average rating of 4.13 (SD = 1.36) was reported when participants were asked about their
169
ability to listen to the sound clips. This could be accounted for by two students who had
difficulty accessing the module, evaluation surveys, and listening to the audio clips as discussed
at the beginning of the Results section.
As a posttest, the post-module survey provided positive results of the effectiveness of the
instructional module. Participants were able to add substantial and important new information to
their knowledge base, applying constructivist theory. After reviewing the module, when
participants were asked to rate their level of familiarity with documentary filmmaking, the
participants reported an average rating of 4.56 (SD = 0.51), an increase of 0.56 from the 4.00
average in the pre-module survey. Marked rating increases were seen especially with familiarity
about the process of creating a documentary film, and familiarity and knowledge of research and
data collection for documentary film.
When asked to rate their familiarity with the process of creating a documentary film, the
participants reported an average rating of 4.56 (SD = .0.51), a significant increase of 1.68 from
the 2.88 average in the pre-module survey. When asked to rate their familiarity with research and
data collection for documentary film, participants reported an average rating of 4.56 (SD = 0.51);
and when asked about knowledge of research and data collection for documentary film,
participants reported an average rating of 4.50 (SD = 0.73), a substantial increase of 1.74 from
the 2.76 average in the pre-module survey. In the post-module survey, 10 participants selected
5.00 (Strongly Agree), four selected 4.00 (Agree), and two selected 3.00 (Neutral). There were
no “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree” responses. Since the original number is zero, this
represents a 100% increase in the “strongly agree” category. In the pre-module survey, 0
participants selected 5.00 (Strongly Agree), five selected 4.00 (Agree), six selected 3.00
(Neutral), three selected 2.00 (Disagree), and three selected 1.00 (Strongly Disagree). Clearly,
participants were not very familiar with subject research and data collection for documentary
film before reviewing the instructional module, and the module was a positive and successful
learning experience for the participants about the topic.
The instructional module substantially increased participants’ familiarity with
documentary film, knowledge of the process of creating a documentary film, and interest in and
knowledge on how to conduct research and data collection for a documentary film after deciding
upon a subject. The results also reveal that applying the ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017)
as a design and development (Iwasaki, in progress) framework helped motivate students to
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become interested in subject research and data collection for documentary film. It also helped
successfully inform, guide and instruct students about the process of subject research and data
collection for documentary film, and increased their understanding and knowledge. These were
important additional purposes in utilizing ARCS and the data and significant results confirm that
the instructional module accomplished this.
The final response item was “This module is helpful for research and data collection for
documentary film,” and participants reported an average rating of 4.44 (SD = 0.63). Eight
participants selected 5.00 (Strongly Agree), seven selected 4.00 (Agree), and one selected 3.00
(Neutral). There were no “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree” responses. This demonstrates that
the instructional module is a valuable and useful resource to guide and assist beginner and
student filmmakers with documentary film subject research and data collection.
an inductive approach (Bryman, 2012; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016) was
implemented and responses were analyzed, interpreted, and aligned with the coding concepts of
the ARCS model: attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017;
Pappas, 2015). Participants affirmed that the instructional module was helpful and useful to
guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers. “The module gave a lot of useful information
for people who are beginning their filmmaking career,” said one participant; and another said,
“It's a very useful and helpful module for filmmakers beginning their projects.” These results
confirm the quality and importance of the instructional module. Table 5.10 on the next page lists
the alignment of the ARCS concepts and definitions with a sampling of participant answers.
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Model Concepts
Please explain why.
Attention
“It is appealing and credible product.” – Participant #1
Relevance
Confidence
Satisfaction
Participant #5
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These significant quantitative and qualitative findings, as well as field notes and
observations that utilized triangulation, (Bryman, 2012; Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016)
confirm that the instructional module did indeed have a positive educational impact on the
participants. The overall positive results of the instructional module as evidenced by the data
collected from the evaluation surveys substantiates the educational quality, value and
significance of the instructional module and this study.
The instructional module Five Tips from Filmmakers for Documentary Film Research
and Data Collection is a successful, engaging, content-rich, technology-enhanced, interactive,
easy-to-use instructional module for documentary film subject research and data collection.
There is much potential for its use as an effective and helpful educational resource that will
contribute to the resources and practice of documentary film research and data collection, film
research and studies, and the fields of instructional design, education, and the humanities.
Discussion and Conclusion

This study achieved its goal of evaluating the educational value of an existing resource
about subject research and data collection for documentary film. The results from the
instruments, seven quantitative surveys (see Appendix B) featuring response scale items,
qualitative open-ended questions, along with documented field notes and observations, validate
the educational value of the instructional module. The findings reveal that the instructional
module was successful because of its content and format. Participants applied constructivism, the
building and constructing of new knowledge upon their pre-existing knowledge base. It is indeed
a quality online educational resource for documentary film subject research and data collection
that will guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary film
production.
The content consisted of beneficial tips summarizing the wisdom and expertise of
professional filmmakers from their actual filmmaking experiences in short, easy-to-digest, bullet
point text, along with appropriate photos relating to the points. The data made it clear that the
short audio clips featuring professional filmmakers discussing and explaining key points about
the tip were the highlights of the module and positively resonated with the participants. The
majority of in-module survey responses from participants about what stood out most and was
most helpful about the module tips included the audio clips of the filmmakers discussing each
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tip. The audio clips supported the validity and truth of the information by featuring actual voices
from real filmmakers discussing and sharing their vast wisdom and real-world experience. The
filmmakers’ voices added honesty and legitimacy to the material. Participants often quoted or
paraphrased material from the clips, evidence they made an impression.
The format of the instructional module also contributed to its success with participants.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the researcher was unable to present the module in person as
planned; however, this actually resulted in a helpful development for the study and participants.
The need for implementation and evaluation of the module online motivated the researcher to
design and develop an online instructional module. Utilizing the ADDIE model of instructional
design that included multiple formative assessments by experienced reviewers and modified
iterations (Iwasaki, in progress), what began as a basic, single page infographic turned into a
content-rich, engaging, easy-to-use, multimedia module on a website. This development was
extremely constructive because self-paced learning, multimedia integration, and a demand for
online learning’s flexibility and convenience were important academic needs for the target
audience as discussed in the Analysis section of this study (Education Dive, 2017; McGraw Hill,
2020).
Participants expressed their appreciation of the integration of multimedia within the
instructional module, in particular providing positive comments on the combination of the
filmmaking tips text, photo and audio clip for each tip on the webpage. The data collected in this
study confirms that multimedia online delivery can indeed increase learning potential and
outcomes (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Chiu & Churchill, 2016; Clark & Mayer, 2011; Levonen &
Rouet, 2001; Mayer, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2017). The results of the study validated the successful
online implementation of the instructional module.
The instructional module addresses the lack of material and educational resources about
subject research and data collection, an important step in the documentary filmmaking process.
Five Tips from Filmmakers for Documentary Film Research and Data Collection is valuable
because it adds a much-needed, relevant, useful, and easy-to-use original educational resource to
the limited body of knowledge on the topic. It is a quality online educational resource with
valuable content for documentary film subject research and data collection presented in an
engaging, multimedia format with free, online accessibility that will help guide and assist
beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary film production.
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Documentary film production can be such a subjective, creative and intuitive process, one
that is often iterative, intuitive and fluid; thus, it can be difficult to document or label a
methodical process of subject research and data collection for documentary film (Iwasaki, 2021).
This study is particularly significant because it successfully evaluated the positive educational
value of an existing resource about this topic that is challenging to document.
Beginner filmmakers and students now have the advantage of the wisdom and
recommendations from veteran filmmakers. This instructional module can provide beginner and
student filmmakers a head start in the often long and complex documentary filmmaking process,
allowing them to share their important stories using the effective medium of film with the world
more quickly, perhaps with less questions and problems. This professional guidance in the film
process would benefit beginner and student filmmakers, as well as society at large (Leavy, 2015;
Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018). Diverse audiences would be able to be exposed to increased learning
opportunities by having an expanded availability of timely, important and meaningful
documentaries from filmmakers.
Looking forward, since documentary film is such an integral part of learning in a
thriving, multicultural global society, future research in this area would add to the informational
and educational resources in the field and practice of documentary film research and data
collection, film studies and education. Such research would benefit this increasingly accessible,
ever expanding communication medium.
This study successfully applied and innovatively integrated social sciences theory,
methodology, and instructional design to humanities and arts research. This effective and
dynamic approach to designing and developing educational content and resources is an important
and significant contribution to the fields of instructional design, the learning sciences, and the
humanities. This study has significant potential to influence and impact the broad possibilities of
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documentary
AMC filmsite. (2018). Documentary films. Retrieved from www.filmsite.org/docfilms.html
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Environments, 24(6), 1355-1370.
Creswell, J. W. (2015). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Curry, L., & Nunez-Smith, M. (2015). Mixed methods in health sciences research: A practical
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documentaries.html
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Gallupo, M., & Chuba, K. (2020, August 24). 2020’s top 25 American film schools, ranked. The
Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved from https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/2020s-
top-25-american-film-schools-ranked
Gorard, S. (2003). Quantitative methods in social science. New York: Continuum.
Hodges C. B., & Kim, C. (2013). Improving college students’ attitudes toward mathematics.
Hood, N. (2017, August 29). The beautiful lies of Robert J. Flaherty’s “Moana with sound.”
Retrieved from https://mubi.com/notebook/posts/the-beautiful-lies-of-robert-j-flaherty-s-
moana-with-sound
5906.
Jacob, M. (2007, July 1). 10 things you might not know about Michael Moore. Chicago Tribune.
Retrieved from https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2007-07-01-chi-10-things-
michael-moore-story.html
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Ken Burns. (2020). Ken Burns Media. Retrieved from https://kenburns.com/
10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00701.x.
Learn How to Become (2020). Film school and careers in film: How to become a filmmaker.
Retrieved from https://www.learnhowtobecome.org/arts-humanities-careers/film/
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Chapter 6 Discussion and Conclusion
Introduction
As shown by the research presented in the three studies in this dissertation, an online
instructional module about subject research and data collection for documentary film was
designed, developed, implemented, and evaluated. The content for the module was designed
from the data capturing the real-world wisdom and expertise of professional filmmakers from
their actual filmmaking experiences in Chapter 3 (Iwasaki, 2021). This valuable information was
developed into an engaging, content-rich, interactive, easy-to-use instructional module on a
website in Chapter 4 (Iwasaki, in progress). In Chapter 5, results from evaluation surveys
completed by the target audience, beginner and student filmmakers, confirmed the educational
value and quality of the instructional module because of its content and format (Iwasaki, in
progress). The research proved that participants applied constructivism, the building and
constructing of new knowledge upon their pre-existing knowledge base. The successful
instructional module was intended to address the lack of literature and educational resources
about subject research and data collection, an important step in the documentary film production
process. As documentary filmmaking becomes an increasingly accessible and democratic
endeavor due to technological advancements (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston et al., 2017),
and its use in information distribution and education is increasing (Aufderheide, 2007; Leavy,
2015; Nash, et al., 2014), there is a greater need for educational resources to support this
essential part of the film process.
This final chapter will begin with a review of the methodologies that were used for the
three research studies that comprise this dissertation. This will be followed by a brief summary
of the research focus and findings for each of the three individual studies; and then a discussion
on how the findings link the studies together and how they connect to current literature. The
chapter will also discuss contributions to theory, significance of body of work, implications for
practice, limitations, and recommendations for future research. Finally, the dissertation will end
with a general summary and concluding comments.
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Methodologies
Each of the three studies featured a different and unique approach and method, but they
were all connected and integrated. They all had the same overarching content focus,
operationalized the same conceptual framework, and were systematically organized by an
instructional design process that bridged the three studies. Each study produced a specific
outcome in the overall plan, process and goal of the dissertation. The research and data collection
instruments in all three studies were informed and guided by a well-established model in
motivation and instructional design, Keller’s ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017), to
increase the likelihood that the instructional module and evaluation instruments would resonate
with the target audience, beginner and student filmmakers. The ARCS model also guided the
analysis and interpretation of the data collected in the studies.
The purpose of Chapter 3 was to capture and summarize the knowledge and insight about
subject research and data collection for documentary film from professional filmmakers from
their actual filmmaking experiences. For this reason, a qualitative interpretive inductive research
approach (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016) was used to seek greater understanding and
perspectives from the professional filmmaker participants. A pilot test interview (Bryman, 2012)
was conducted to ensure the interview questions collected the necessary descriptive, qualitative
data, and was used to make further minor adjustments to refine the questions. In addition to
audio-recorded, semi-structured, in-depth interviews of participants, journaling, field notes and
observations were recorded during all phases of this study and were used to apply triangulation
to strengthen and increase credibility and validity of the study (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin,
2016).
The five major categories that emerged from the data collected from the 11 professional
filmmakers in Chapter 3 were then used as the content to design an instructional module in
Chapter 4. In this study, Keller’s ARCS motivational model (1983, 2010, 2017) and Mayer’s 12
principles of multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011) served as
frameworks to inform and guide the development of the module. While applying educational
best practices, the ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001;
McGriff, 2000; Serhat, 2017) systematically guided and organized the study’s learning design
process.
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In Chapter 5, a convergent mixed methods design (Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2007, 2009,
2015, 2018) approach was used to collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data from
the target audience, the beginner and student filmmakers, during the same time frame. Applying
both quantitative and qualitative methods rigorously strengthened the data collection, analysis
and interpretation of the Phase III study in order to provide a better understanding and
examination of the research topic. Along with the quantitative and qualitative instruments, field
notes and observations were recorded during the study’s phases and used in analysis and
interpretation. Thus, triangulation, the application of different valid collection methods, was
applied to strengthen the study and increase credibility and validity (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992;
Yin, 2016).
Pilot testing (Bryman, 2012) confirmed that the research instruments worked well to
collect the necessary data, and integration of the study’s mixed methods approach ensured
feasibility (Curry & Nunez-Smith, 2015). A pilot test of the instructional module and evaluation
instruments, the surveys, was conducted with a student in Phase III Chapter 5. The research that
was conducted and the data that was collected were recorded, documented, and validated as
much as possible. The ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001;
McGriff, 2000; Serhat, 2017) guided the study’s overall learning design process.
Major Findings
This section will briefly review the research focus and results for each of the chapters in
this dissertation. This will be followed by a discussion about how the findings link the chapters
together, how they connect to current literature, significance of the work, and how the three-
chapter dissertation format benefitted the researcher.
Chapter 3
Chapter 3 focused on collecting professional filmmakers’ knowledge, experiences and
insight on subject research and data collection for documentary film. This was accomplished by
conducting in-depth, semi-structured interviews with professional filmmakers. The researcher
transcribed the 45 to 60-minute audio-recorded interviews with each of the 11 participants out of
a pool of 14. Many of the interview questions were open-ended to allow for expansion, emergent
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or additional information from participants and the researcher conducted the interviews to
encourage thick and rich narrative responses (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Yin, 2016).
The researcher analyzed and interpreted the data from the interviews using an inductive
approach, also including the journaling, field notes and observations, by applying the Five
Phases of Analysis and their Interactions framework (Yin, 2016). After analysis and
interpretation were completed, five major recommendations emerged on how the filmmakers
approached research and data collection for documentary film: 1) do the research, 2) tell the
story visually, 3) find strong characters, 4) support universal themes, and 5) relate to your
audience. The data from the professional documentary filmmakers were also grouped according
to their relationship with the concepts of the ARCS model: attention, relevance, confidence and
satisfaction (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas, 2015) because they represented similar
motivational goals for documentary filmmakers. Table 6.1 on the next page presents the results
from the study: five major recommendations for subject research and data collection for
documentary film in short, concise text and their alignment with the ARCS concepts. The intent
behind the design was to provide a relevant and useful educational resource to guide and assist
beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary film production. A formal evaluation
would need to be implemented to find out how the target audience received and assessed this
information (Chapter 5).
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Table 6.1. Five Major Recommendations/Categories for Documentary Film Subject Research
and Data Collection and their Relationship to the ARCS Model Concepts




they’re seeing.
185
Chapter 4
In Chapter 4, the five major themes were organized, condensed, and renamed as five
beneficial “tips” intended to guide and assist student filmmakers. Figure 6.1 shows a
representation of the ADDIE process used for this chapter. Please note the ADDIE model’s
implementation and evaluation phases with the target audience, the beginner and student
filmmakers, were conducted in Chapter 5.
ADDIE
Model of
PHASE II: EVALUATION

(Conducted in another study) PHASE I: ANALYSIS
the target audience. Needs assessment of the target
Summative assessment; results of the audience.
evaluation surveys. Analysis of tasks.
PHASE I: DESIGN
PHASE II: IMPLEMENTATION Design the instructional module
(Conducted in another study) based on data from the Analyze
Implement the instructional module phase:
PHASE I: DEVELOPMENT
instructional module:
the next iteration.
Figure 6.1. Representation of the Chapter 4 study using the ADDIE model design process.
During the development phase, multiple formative assessments were conducted with
experienced educator/reviewers which informed and guided the strategic design decisions and
improved each iteration. After three iterations, a basic, simple infographic evolved to become an
engaging, content rich, technology-enhanced, interactive instructional module on a website that
featured the five tips for filmmaking. Appropriate photos were featured with each tip, and a short
186
audio clip of a professional filmmaker highlighting key elements and details were embedded
with each tip (Iwasaki, in progress). The results of this study, an online, instructional module, has
the potential of being a relevant, useful and important educational resource for beginner and
student filmmakers exploring documentary film production. Here is the link to the website titled
Five Tips from Filmmakers for Documentary Film Research and Data Collection. Please note
that the completed website also includes the embedded evaluation surveys for the instructional
module that were designed and developed in another study (Iwasaki, in progress). Figure 6.2 is a
sample screenshot of the page featuring “Tip 1. Do the Research” from the instructional module
website.
Figure 6.2. Screenshot of “Tip 1. Do the Research” webpage from the website.
Chapter 5
Chapter 5 focused on evaluating the educational value of the instructional module that
was designed and developed in Chapter 4. In this chapter, the study’s implementation and
187
evaluation phases of the ADDIE model were conducted with the target audience, the beginner
and student filmmakers. These were the instruments used in the study: a pre-module and post-
module quantitative survey featuring response scale items and one qualitative question; and five
in-module qualitative surveys with open-ended questions. There were seven surveys in total (see
Appendix B). After participants reviewed the module and completed the surveys, the results
confirmed the educational value of the instructional module. Participants successfully applied
constructivism, the building and constructing of new knowledge upon their pre-existing
knowledge base.
In the post-module survey, 16 participants answered 16 Likert response scale items and
one qualitative question. Table 6.2 features the results of the 5-point Likert psychometric
response scale (Bryman, 2012; Gorard, 2003) and their alignment with the ARCS model
concepts.
Categories
Confidence module
Relevance

Satisfaction
Satisfaction

Satisfaction
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film
Participants found the instructional module captured their interest and attention; the
layout, design, and colors were appealing; the graphics interesting and appropriate; the sound
clips engaging and interesting; and their ability to read and understand information on the
module reported a high average rating. The instructional module substantially increased
participants’ familiarity with documentary film, knowledge of the process of creating a
documentary film, and interest in and knowledge on how to conduct research and data collection
for a documentary film after deciding upon a subject. The results also revealed that applying the
ARCS model (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) as a design and development framework helped
motivate students to become interested in subject research and data collection for documentary
film. It also helped successfully inform, guide and instruct students about the process of subject
research and data collection for documentary film, and increased their understanding and
knowledge.
189
an inductive approach (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016) was implemented and responses were
analyzed and aligned with the coding concepts of the ARCS model: attention, relevance,
confidence and satisfaction (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017; Pappas, 2015). Participants affirmed that
the instructional module was helpful and useful to guide and assist beginner and student
filmmakers. Table 6.3 lists the alignment of the ARCS concepts and definitions with a sampling
of participant answers.
Model Concepts
Please explain why.
Attention
“It is an appealing and credible product.” – Participant #1
Relevance
Confidence
Satisfaction
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Participant #5
These significant quantitative and qualitative findings, as well as field notes and
observations that utilized triangulation, (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016) confirmed that the
instructional module did indeed have a positive educational impact on the participants. The
overall positive results of the instructional module as evidenced by the data collected from the
evaluation surveys substantiates the educational quality, value and validity of the instructional
module.
Connecting the Findings

The studies in this dissertation successfully applied and innovatively integrated social
sciences theory, methodology, and instructional design to humanities and arts research. The
researcher successfully utilized consultation with experts, the interviews with the professional
filmmakers from the Asia-Pacific region, and used that knowledge and wisdom, to augment
learning sciences theory to design and develop instructional material that will aid and improve
the creativity and production of beginner and student documentary filmmakers. The research
revealed that participants applied constructivism, the building and constructing of new
knowledge upon their pre-existing knowledge base. Evidence from the studies emphasize the
value, appreciation and need for authentic, expert, real-world knowledge and contributions in the
design of instructional material. In addition, the instructional module can also benefit filmmakers
locally, nationally, and internationally at all levels of expertise.
The dissertation has provided strong evidence of the need of making the research, data
collection and the creative process of filmmaking to become more equitable and inclusive. As
documentary filmmaking, and filmmaking in general, becomes an increasingly democratic
endeavor due to technological advancements (Loustaunau & Shaw, 2018; Winston et al., 2017),
there is a need for information and educational resources to support these creative practices. This
191
dissertation could serve as an example of how the instructional design process could be applied
to make the arts, humanities and other creative content areas more accessible and obtainable.
This effective and dynamic approach to designing and developing educational content
and resources is an important and significant contribution to the fields of instructional design, the
learning sciences, education, and the humanities. The research has significant potential to
influence and impact the broad possibilities of interdisciplinary and intersectional research
design and collaboration.
The three-study format dissertation option facilitated these important and positive
findings and outcomes of the entire research project. The three studies were designed and
developed to be three complete, distinctive works; they were three individual “mini
dissertations.” However, although each study was written as a stand-alone article, the three
research studies supported the overall goal of designing, developing, implementing and
evaluating an instructional module intended to guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers
with documentary film subject research and data collection. The three-study format allowed the
researcher to focus on and dive deeply into the research and design of each one separately,
creating strong articles for publishing opportunities. Each separate study was strong on its own;
yet they were designed to work together, with each study building upon and informing the next
study. They were all connected and integrated with the same overarching content focus and
objective, creating a substantial and rigorous dissertation in its entirety. Each study utilized the
ARCS model of motivation (Keller, 1983, 2010, 2017) as a conceptual framework and the
ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000)
systematically organized and integrated the separate studies, and the learning design process of
the entire dissertation. This section identifies and discusses the common themes found in all
three research studies.
Due to the design of the research topic, the researcher benefitted from the three-study
dissertation option that the Learning Design and Technology Department at the UH Mānoa
College of Education offers to doctoral students to help build their portfolios for careers in
research or academia. The goal of the dissertation and the design of the research questions
appropriately aligned with the three-study option. The researcher is also on the teaching faculty
in the UH system, therefore the research studies help build her portfolio for contract renewal and
promotion. The researcher found the guidance and constructive feedback from her dissertation
192
chair and committee to be very helpful to revise and improve the studies for publication. The
feedback from qualified, experienced, knowledgeable educator/reviewers was invaluable. The
first study was presented online at the IAFOR (International Academic Forum) 11th Asian
Conference on Media, Communication & Film November 12-14, 2020 held virtually from
Kyoto, Japan, and was published as an official conference proceeding in January 2021. The
researcher looks forward to submitting the chapter 4 and 5 studies to appropriate targeted outlets.
The researcher has also been working on a personal documentary film project; thus, the valuable
information gained, and the contacts established, through the research, will be extremely helpful
in moving the project forward.
Documentation of Artistic, Creative Endeavor

For the most part, producing a traditional documentary film takes a highly subjective
approach; the filmmaker directs the entire process, from subject selection, research, and data
collection, to creative approaches (Bell, 2011; Friend & Caruthers, 2016). Filmmakers declare
that making a documentary can be one of the most enjoyable and rewarding creative projects, yet
acknowledge that it is an extremely challenging and demanding pursuit with many obstacles.
(Adorama Learning Center, 2018). It can be a thrilling artistic adventure, but difficult; a journey
with no definitive rules or methodical procedures. A filmmaker often usually learns by simply
and intuitively doing (Desktop Documentaries, 2018).
After the interviews with the professional filmmakers were completed, the researcher
analyzed and interpreted the data through an inductive process, using Keller’s ARCS model of
motivation concepts (1983, 2010, 2017) as a framework and was able to successfully extract
themes and categories. Journaling, field notes and observations were recorded and also used to
apply triangulation to strengthen and increase credibility and validity (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992;
Yin, 2016). The researcher found the interviews with the professional filmmakers to be
extremely insightful and valuable because it documented their expertise and wisdom about
subject research and data collection for their documentary film projects.
Additionally, the researcher found the results supported the existing literature;
documentary filmmaking is an extremely artistic, intuitive, creative endeavor that makes it
difficult to define and pinpoint systematic methods or procedures for documentary film subject
193
Thus, what the researcher was able to accomplish in this dissertation is particularly
noteworthy. The researcher was able to interview professional filmmakers from the Asia-Pacific
region to successfully document and categorize their valuable knowledge and experience. She
then utilized that information within learning sciences theory to design and develop an
instructional module that will assist and guide beginner and student documentary filmmakers.
Addressed the Lack of Literature

The interviews also helped the researcher understand and explained why information on
the documentary film subject research and collection step of the documentary film process is
lacking in existing literature. Since producing documentary films can be such a subjective,
creative and intuitive process, it can be difficult to document a methodical, direct process. Each
filmmaker seems to develop their own method and procedure that works well for them, and even
that may change depending on the subject and needs of that particular documentary film project
(Iwasaki, 2021). Often, it is a more iterative and fluid practice that is quite challenging to
specify and label. The findings from the study is generally consistent with the ambiguous and
indefinite nature of the existing literature. The results helped explain why information and
educational resources in this area are lacking or inadequate.
The overall goal of this dissertation was to add an original, quality educational resource
to help beginner and student documentary filmmakers share their meaningful stories with the
world using the increasingly accessible and effective medium of film. This dissertation
accomplished its purpose in addressing this gap by designing and developing an online
instructional module about subject research and data collection for documentary film.
The use of this relevant and informative instructional module will be helpful as an
educational resource and will contribute to the literature of documentary film research and
studies, and the fields of instructional design, education and the humanities. This research project
successfully and innovatively merged social sciences theory and instructional design with
humanities and arts research.
ARCS Motivational Model Applied to Humanities and Arts Research

While each of the three studies featured a different and unique approach and method,
they all shared the same conceptual framework, Keller’s ARCS motivational model for
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instructional design (1983, 2010, 2017). The research and data collection instruments in all three
studies were informed and guided by this well-established model in motivation and instructional
design to increase the likelihood that the instructional module and evaluation instruments would
resonate with the target audience, beginner and student filmmakers. The ARCS model also
guided the analysis and interpretation of the data collected in the studies. The ARCS
motivational factors of attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction (Gagne, et al., 2005)
transferred well to the field of documentary film; the motivational and educational goals for
documentary filmmakers are very similar to educators and instructional designers (Astleitner &
Hufnagl, 2003; Bugis, 2018; Hodges & Kim, 2013; Keller & Suzuki, 2004; West et al., 2017).
framework and alignment helped the researcher categorize and make sense and meaning out of
the data; thus, enable important and meaningful findings and outcomes. This dissertation
successfully and innovatively applied and integrated social and learning sciences theory to
humanities and arts research.
Importance of Experts in Content Development

The researcher believes the successful research exploration of all three studies and the
instructional module was due to the quality of the content, the five filmmaking tips, that was
generated from the professional filmmakers’ expertise and knowledge in Chapter 3. The
information on the module featured the real-world knowledge and experience from professional
filmmakers about subject research and data collection for documentary film. This information
was supported by the audio clips featuring the actual voices from real filmmakers producing
documentary films (Iwasaki, in press). The audio clips supported the real-world wisdom, validity
and truth of the information and their actual voices added honesty and legitimacy to the
instructional material. The data collected from the implementation and evaluation of the module
made it clear that the short audio clips featuring professional filmmakers discussing and
explaining key points about the filmmaking tips were the highlights of the module and positively
resonated with the participants. This feedback strongly affirms the appreciation and need for
authentic, honest, expert voices in the design and development of content for instructional
material.
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Contributions to Theory
This dissertation contributes to the theory and research information of Keller’s ARCS
model of motivation (1983, 2010, 2017), the ADDIE model of instructional design (Allen, 2006;
Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Serhat, 2017), and Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia
learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011).
Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivation

This dissertation contributes to the research information of how Keller’s ARCS model of
motivation (1983, 2010, 2017) was utilized as the framework in all three studies in the design
and development of instruments, the instructional module, and the analysis and interpretation of
the data collected. It served as a useful, adaptive and relevant conceptual framework that flexibly
expanded to include the field of documentary film. The researcher believes that utilizing the
ARCS concepts was the key that helped generate the significant findings for the research in a
creative and artistic field that is difficult to document and analyze as documentary filmmaking. It
provided the necessary analytical framework to enable categorization and interpretation. This
dissertation provides strong evidence that a well-known analytical framework used in the
learning sciences can be successfully and innovatively applied and integrated with humanities
and arts research to produce significant findings.

Using the ADDIE model (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Serhat, 2017) as
the instructional module’s overarching systematic design process also adds to the information
and research base about instructional design application. Conducting an analysis ensured that the
study focused on the target audience, beginner and student filmmakers. The researcher knew the
goal and output of the dissertation would be an instructional resource, with stand-alone
attributes; however, she didn’t know what final form the resource would take. The iterative
instructional design process included applying best educational practices and multiple formative
assessments by experienced educator/researchers. The constructive feedback informed and
guided the strategic design modifications for the next iteration and significantly improved and
helped the module take its final form and shape. What started out as a basic, simple infographic
evolved to become an engaging, content-rich, interactive instructional module on a website.
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ADDIE appropriately connected and bridged the successful design of the three research studies.
The use of the ADDIE process in the design and development of the instructional module about
film documentary research and data collection contributes to the knowledge base of ADDIE’s
responsive, expansive, and effective instructional applications. The strong evidence and findings
from this dissertation underscores that the popular social and learning sciences model can be
successfully applied and integrated with humanities and arts research.
Mayer’s 12 Principles for Multimedia Learning Learning

After multiple formative assessments in the design and development of the instructional
module, all of Mayer’s 12 principles for multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark &
Mayer, 2011) were successfully applied to the final iteration. Significant positive quantitative
and qualitative evaluation results supported the use of these principles in the online instructional
module. Participants expressed their appreciation of the integration of multimedia within the
instructional module, in particular providing positive comments on the combination of the
filmmaking tips text, photo and audio clip for each tip on the webpage. This addresses Mayer’s
multimedia design principles of combining graphics, narration and text, and that narration be
spoken in a friendly human voice. The data collected in this study confirms and contributes
research to Mayer’s theory that multimedia online delivery can increase learning potential and
outcomes. The results of the study also validated the successful online implementation of the
instructional module and supports the target audience’s online learning academic needs as
determined by the needs analysis.
Significance of Body of Work

This dissertation was designed to add an original, quality instructional module that may
guide and assist student filmmakers with the process on how to conduct subject research and
collect data for documentary film. The significance of this body of work as noted in the
“Connecting the Findings” section in Chapter 6 discussed the following key points:
• Designed and developed instructional material about an artistic, subjective, intuitive, and
creative process that is difficult to document or define systematic methods.
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• Categorized and presented professional filmmakers’ valuable knowledge and expertise in
documentary film research and data collection into clear, meaningful and constructive
knowledge and information.
• Addressed the lack of literature and educational resources about documentary film
• Applied and integrated learning sciences theory (ARCS, ADDIE, Mayer’s 12 Principles
of Multimedia Learning) successfully and innovatively to humanities and arts research,
contributing to the information and research base of these theories and their frameworks.
• The ARCS conceptual framework and alignment helped the researcher categorize and
make meaning and understanding of the data; thus, it enabled the researcher to establish
meaningful findings and outcomes.
• Affirmed and supported the need and importance of authentic, legitimate, expert
knowledge and voices in the design and development of instructional content to improve
learning, creativity and production of beginner and student filmmakers. This approach
and design can be applied not only to the learning sciences, but to humanities and arts
research and beyond.
• Provided strong evidence of the need to make the research, data collection, and the
creative process of filmmaking to become more equitable and inclusive.
• Served as an example of how the instructional design process and constructivism could
be applied to make the arts, humanities, and other creative endeavors more accessible and
obtainable.
• Generated a relevant and informative online instructional module that will be helpful as
an educational resource that will benefit filmmakers locally, nationally, and
internationally from beginners to all levels of expertise.
• The research conducted in this dissertation will contribute immensely to the field and
literature of documentary film research and studies; as well as the fields of instructional
design, education, and the humanities.
This research project successfully and innovatively merged social sciences theory and
instructional design with humanities and arts research. It has made an important and significant
contribution to the fields of instructional design, the learning sciences, education, and the
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humanities. The research has significant potential to influence and impact the broad possibilities
of interdisciplinary and intersectional research design and collaboration.
Implications for Practice

The instructional module provides practical implications that support film documentary
research and production. It addresses the lack of material and educational resources about subject
research and data collection, an important step in the documentary filmmaking process. It adds a
much-needed, relevant, useful, and easy-to-use original instructional module to the limited body
of knowledge on the topic. Five Tips from Filmmakers for Documentary Film Research and
Data Collection is a quality online instructional module with valuable content for documentary
film subject research and data collection presented in an engaging, multimedia format with free,
online accessibility that will help guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers exploring
documentary film production. The instructional module can benefit filmmakers locally,
nationally, and internationally from beginners to all levels of expertise.
Beginner filmmakers and students now have the advantage of the wisdom and
more quickly, perhaps with less questions and problems. This professional guidance in the film
documentaries from filmmakers. There is much potential for its use as an effective and helpful
instructional module that will contribute to the resources and practice of documentary film
research and data collection, and film studies and education. Here is the title and link to the
instructional module website: Five Tips from Filmmakers for Documentary Film Research and
Data Collection.
The results of the research conducted in all three studies also provide evidence in support
of Keller’s ARCS motivational model (1983, 2010, 2017), the ADDIE model of instructional
design (Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000; Serhat, 2017), and Mayer’s 12 principles
of multimedia learning (2001, 2005, 2009, 2017; Clark & Mayer, 2011), as successful
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instructional design frameworks for educational best practices. They were strong and dynamic
frameworks for effective instructional design that flexibly expanded to include the field of
documentary film. This dissertation provides a good example of how these learning sciences
theories and their frameworks can be successfully and innovatively applied and integrated with
humanities and other interdisciplinary research possibilities.
Limitations
The researcher purposely designed the research for the dissertation with a focus on
Hawai’i. Her intersectional research interests include utilizing place-based, culturally-relevant
resources in educational practice. The professional filmmakers who participated in the study in
Chapter 3 were required to have completed a minimum of one to two documentary films with
public distribution on a topic that is relevant or related to Hawai‘i, or who is based in Hawai‘i.
Thus, she deliberately used a relatively small sampling of 11 professional filmmakers in the
Asia-Pacific region. Chapter 5 also used a relatively small sampling of 17 students at a four-year
comprehensive regional university in the western United States. The research was purposely
confined to a specific geographic region and showcases the diversity, relevance, and strength of
place-based, culturally-relevant, creative content resources.
Although the studies were limited to a specific geographic area and by the specific
instruments and procedures that have been described and were used in the study (Katz & Raths,
1990), the researcher believes that the findings may be generalizable and transferable to a
different population. Yin (2016) describes this as statistical generalization and goes so far to
encourage researchers to make analytical and transferable generalizations at a “conceptual level
higher than that of specific findings or of the specific conditions in the initial study” (p. 107). He
suggests that researchers dismiss the traditional line of thinking that small sample sizes lack
reliability. The researcher agrees with Yin’s (2016) reasoning and strongly believes other
researchers will be able to replicate this study in their own or expanded geographic areas using
both similar and larger sample sizes (Katz & Raths, 1990). Their findings may be similar to these
studies and will contribute to the field of documentary film research and studies.
By its nature, qualitative studies must often depend on the integrity of the researcher, and
the data, observations, interpretations and findings must be reliable, trustworthy and, as much as
possible, documented and validated (LaBoskey, 2006; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994; Sandretto,
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2009; Tidwell et al., 2009; Yin, 2016). Thus, Chapter 3 applied the following four assessments,
that were documented as much as possible, to further validate the research: 1) triangulation of
data, 2) inter-rater reliability, 3) respondent validation or member check, and 4) trustworthiness
and authenticity of data sources. Chapter 5 applied the following that were documented as much
as possible: 1) triangulation of data, 2) inter-rater reliability, 3) external reviews and 4)
trustworthiness and authenticity of data sources.
Although two experienced, knowledgeable and respected professionals in the field of film
and video provided suggestions of filmmakers and inter-rater reliability for the professional
filmmakers sampling in Chapter 3, the participant sampling was purposive, relying on a
subjective approach from the researcher. The participant sampling for Chapter 5, the beginner
and student filmmakers, was also purposive, relying on a subjective approach from the
researcher.
The interviews represented self-reported data which can lead to researcher positionality,
interpretation and bias (Bryman, 2012). The researcher was also familiar to some of the
professional filmmakers, who may respond with response bias such as social desirability effects
and may not reflect true behavior or belief (Bryman, 2012).
An unforeseen challenge occurred when technical complications emerged with the online
delivery of the instructional module. Although the researcher pilot tested the instructional
module and surveys with a student filmmaker, it didn’t occur to her to test out different web
browsers or browser syncing issues with the university online security system. This was an
informative learning opportunity for the researcher and perhaps others designing and
implementing online educational resources. In future design projects, an important element to
add to the instructional design process would be to consult a university ITS specialist if
collecting data via university email addresses. Fortunately, the two students were eventually able
to view the instructional module and complete the surveys. Documented field notes and
observations like this strengthened the study by utilizing triangulation, the application of
different valid collection methods (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Yin, 2016).
Recommendations for Future Research

The three studies that comprise this dissertation progressively designed, developed and
evaluated an instructional module about documentary film subject research and data collection.
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The results from Chapter 5 confirm that the output of the dissertation is indeed a quality
instructional module and there is immense potential for its use and application. The module is
presented in an engaging, content-rich, multimedia format that is available online at no cost that
will help guide and assist beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary film
production. Further research can include looking into distribution and increased sharing
possibilities.
Although not included in this dissertation, another stand-alone article draft was written
that comprises the instructional design process for the evaluation surveys that were embedded
into the instructional module. These were the instruments that were designed and developed
during the design and development of the instructional module itself in Chapter 4: a pre-module
and post-module quantitative survey featuring response scale items and one qualitative question;
and five in-module qualitative surveys with open-ended questions. There were seven surveys in
total (see Appendix B). Initially, the process for the evaluation surveys was included in Chapter
4, but the organization and writing process became overly complex and confusing; thus, two
members of the dissertation committee suggested removing the process of the evaluation surveys
from Chapter 4 and they recommended using the information for another possible article. Thus, a
fourth article can be produced from this dissertation in the near future.
This dissertation served as a successful example of how professional filmmakers’
knowledge and expertise was successfully applied to generate an instructional module to
augment and improve creativity and production in documentary filmmaking. Follow up studies
could delve deeper in the research regarding the need and importance of authentic, expert
knowledge and voices in the design and development of instructional content to support and
improve overall learning, creativity, and production. It would be beneficial to conduct research to
learn more about how this dissertation’s design could be applied and integrated to different
disciplines and fields, including the arts, humanities, and other creative endeavors.
Actually, the research and data collection that was conducted with the professional
filmmakers in Chapter 3 could generate even further research and articles. When the researcher
presented her dissertation proposal in Fall 2019, she focused most of the prepared questions to
the professional filmmakers on subject research and data collection. However, a member of the
dissertation committee felt that the researcher should broaden her questions so that the
filmmakers could respond with greater flexibility to include rich, narrative responses and
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intrinsic motivations on filmmaking. A pilot test interview was also recommended. The
researcher revised the questions as suggested and a pilot test, semi-structured face-to-face
interview was conducted with a professional filmmaker actively producing documentary films in
the Asia-Pacific region for many years. She is also the executive director of a nonprofit
organization committed to achieving intersectional gender equity in filmmaking and is a
filmmaking instructor. The face-to-face interview was conducted at the organization’s location
which is in a thriving coworking space in central Honolulu. The interview went extremely well
and provided insightful, descriptive responses; the environment also supported rich field notes
and observation data. The pilot data was used to make further minor adjustments to refine the
interview questions.
Thus, the researcher was able to get to know the filmmaker participants and collect rich,
deep, descriptive data that expanded beyond the more clinical topic of subject research and data
collection for documentary film. This research data from the professional filmmakers, many of
whom are well-known award winners in the documentary field, has the potential to go much
further. The data will be very helpful for future research projects and will contribute immensely
to the field of documentary film and filmmaking.
Looking forward, since documentary film is such an integral part of communication and
learning in a thriving, multicultural global society, future research in this area could add even
more informational and educational resources in the field and practice of documentary film
research and data collection, film studies and education. Such research would benefit this
increasingly accessible, ever expanding communication medium.
Conclusions and Summary

This dissertation was able to successfully and innovatively merge social sciences theory
and instructional design with humanities and arts research. It has made an important and
significant contribution to the fields of instructional design, the learning sciences, education, and
the humanities, and has potential to influence and impact the broad possibilities of
interdisciplinary and intersectional research design and collaboration. The valuable data that was
collected from the studies could generate further research and articles that would contribute to
the fields of documentary film education and practice, and instructional design.
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Further research could include delving deeper into the need and importance of
constructing knowledge and information from authentic, knowledgeable experts and voices in
the design and development of instructional content to support and improve overall learning,
creativity, and production. Also, how this dissertation’s design and approach could be applied
and integrated to different disciplines and fields, including the arts, humanities, and other
creative endeavors.
The instructional module successfully addressed the lack of material and educational
resources about subject research and data collection, an important step in the documentary
filmmaking process. The research agrees with the existing literature that documentary film
production can be such a subjective, creative and intuitive process, one that is often iterative and
fluid; and it can be difficult to document or label a methodical process of subject research and
data collection for documentary film (Iwasaki, 2021).
Thus, the three studies that comprise this dissertation are particularly noteworthy because
they successfully achieved the overall goal of producing an instructional module about this topic
that is challenging to document. The studies captured, analyzed and interpreted data from
professional filmmakers; designed and developed an instructional module about subject research
and data collection for documentary film; and successfully evaluated and validated the positive
impact and educational value of that module. The research findings revealed that the
instructional module was successful because of its content and format. The research proved that
participants applied constructivism, the building and constructing of new knowledge upon their
pre-existing knowledge base. Five Tips from Filmmakers for Documentary Film Research and
Data Collection is valuable because it adds a much-needed, content-rich, multimedia, online,
educational resource to the limited body of knowledge on the topic.
Although each study was written as a stand-alone article, the three research studies
supported the overall goal of designing, developing, implementing and evaluating an
instructional module. The three-study format allowed the researcher to focus on and dive deeply
into the research and design of each one separately, creating strong articles for publishing
opportunities. Each separate study was strong on its own; yet they were designed to work
together, with each study building upon and informing the next study. They were all connected
and integrated with the same overarching content focus and objective, creating a substantial and
rigorous dissertation in its entirety. Each study utilized the ARCS model of motivation (Keller,
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1983, 2010, 2017) as a conceptual framework and the ADDIE model of instructional design
(Allen, 2006; Dick et al., 2001; McGriff, 2000) systematically organized the phases and chapters,
and the learning design process of the dissertation. The overall result confirmed that the
instructional module is indeed an informative, engaging, useful, and relevant online educational
resource for documentary film subject research and data collection that will guide and assist
beginner and student filmmakers exploring documentary film production.
Due to the design of the research topic, the researcher benefitted from the three-study
dissertation option that the Learning Design and Technology Department at the UH Mānoa
College of Education offers to doctoral students to help build their portfolios for careers in
research or academia. The goal of the dissertation and the design of the research questions
appropriately aligned with the three-study option. The researcher found the guidance and
constructive feedback from her dissertation chair and committee to be very helpful to revise and
improve the studies for publication.
The three-study dissertation option, which required three stand-alone research articles,
was an excellent learning opportunity for the researcher to develop and acquire the qualities
necessary to become a skilled academic researcher. The deeper research exploration into specific
areas within the broad topic of documentary film was both energizing and sustaining for the
researcher. It provided a valuable foundation and pathway from which to continue the
researcher-educator journey.
Beginner filmmakers and students now have the advantage of the real-world wisdom and
more quickly, perhaps with less obstacles and problems. This professional guidance in the film
documentaries from filmmakers. The overall goal was to add an original, quality educational
resource to help beginner and student documentary filmmakers share their valuable stories with
the world using the increasingly democratic and effective medium of documentary film.
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Appendix A – Interview Questions for Professional Filmmakers
Patsy Iwasaki, Student Investigator
Project title: Gathering the Story: Applying Instructional Design to Documentary Film Research
Script: Thank you so very much for meeting with me today. Today is ________; I am Patsy Iwasaki
and I am at _____________ (location) interviewing __________________ via phone/online/face-to-face,
who is at _________________ (location).
1. Why do you create documentary film or other film projects? What is your motivation?
2. How do your film projects address current issues/concerns?
3. What steps do you take to conduct research and collect data for your documentary film project
after the topic or subject has been decided?
4. What are some of your primary considerations in conducting research and data collection for your
film/story?
5. Does consideration of the different film styles, techniques and delivery affect your research and
data collection?
6. Do you include real life examples, stories or profiles of people for your documentary film? Why?
7. How have you collected these real-life examples, stories or profiles for your documentary film?
8. How do you present surprise, anticipation, uncertainty or suspense in your film?
9. What has been frustrating or difficult about the research and data collection process?
10. How does the film process contribute to your own feelings of enjoyment, success, learning,
recognition or satisfaction?
Impact on Audience
11. How do you approach research and data collection to capture the attention or curiosity of your
audience and maintain interest?
12. How do you incorporate research and data collection so that the film resonates and has an impact
on your audience?
13. How do you think your film impacts your audience?
14. How do you incorporate research and data collection so that the film will be a valuable learning
experience, or provide a benefit, for the audience?
15. How do you approach research and data collection to encourage useful connections, self-growth or
participatory goals for the viewer?
16. How do you feel your documentary film(s) helps the audience address a real-world problem or
situation?
17. How does the incorporation of your research and data collection inspire the audience to critically
reflect or act upon the content of the film?
18. Do you think your documentary encourages the audience to feel positive and satisfied, or be
motivated to examination and action?
19. Is there anything else you would like to add or share?
20. Are there any final questions or comments about this interview or this research project?
Interview Questions/Professional Filmmakers – Version 1.5.2020

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Appendix B – Evaluation Surveys for Student Filmmakers
Online delivery of the following pre-module, in-module, and post-module survey questions: 1) quantitative
questions using a 5-point Likert psychometric response scale: strongly agree, agree, neither agree or disagree,
disagree, strongly disagree, and 2) qualitative, open-ended questions.
Pre-Module Survey
General Questions:
1. What is your class standing? (Freshman, Sophomore, Senior, graduate student, other)
2. What is your major or field?
Pre-Module Questions:
3a. I am interested in film and video production.
3b. Please explain why.
8. I am familiar with the documentary film genre.
9. I am familiar with many documentary films.
10. I am familiar with the process of creating a documentary film.
11. I am familiar with the tools of documentary filmmaking.
12. I know how to conduct research and data collection for a documentary film after deciding on my
subject.
In-Module Surveys for each of the Five Tips for Filmmaking

In-Module Questions for Tip 1: Do the research:
1. What stood out to you most with Tip 1: Do the research?
2. What was the most helpful element? And why?
In-Module Questions for Tip 2: Tell the story visually:
1. What stood out to you most with Tip 2: Tell the story visually?
In-Module Questions for Tip 3: Find strong characters:
1. What stood out to you most with Tip 3: Find strong characters?
In-Module Questions for Tip 4: Support universal themes:
1. What stood out to you most with Tip 4: Support universal themes?
In-Module Questions for Tip 5: Relate to your audience:
1. What stood out to you most with Tip 5: Relate to your audience?
Interview Questions/Student Filmmakers – Version 4.20.2020
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Appendix B – Evaluation Surveys for Student Filmmakers
Post-Module Survey
Post-Module Questions:
1. The instructional module captured my interest and attention.
2. I was able to read and understand the information on the instructional module.
3. The layout and design of the instructional module are appealing.
4. The colors of the instructional module are pleasing.
5. The graphics of the instructional module are interesting and appropriate.
6. The sound clips of the instructional module are engaging and interesting.
7a. I was able to easily navigate the instructional module.
7b. I was able to easily listen to the sound clips.
7c. I was able to easily access the surveys.
8. The instructional module increased my interest in watching documentary films.
9. The instructional module increased my familiarity with documentary filmmaking.
10. The instructional module increased my familiarity with research and data collection for documentary
film.
11. The instructional module made me feel interested in research and data collection for documentary film.
12. The instructional module increased my knowledge of how to begin the process of creating a
documentary film.
13. The instructional module increased my knowledge on how to conduct research and data collection for
a documentary film after deciding upon my subject.
14a. The instructional module is helpful for research and data collection for documentary film.
14b. Please explain why.
15. Is there anything else you would like to add or share about the instructional module?
Interview Questions/Student Filmmakers – Version 4.20.2020
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Appendix C – Journaling, Field Notes and
Observations Template
Date Field Notes Observation Inference Other Notes Journal
Notes
Template – Version 10.14.19
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Appendix D - Recruitment Email for Professional Filmmakers
University of Hawai'i
Email Invitation to Participate in a Research Project
Aloha ,
My name is Patsy Iwasaki and I am a PhD student at the University of Hawai'i at Mā noa in the
Learning Design and Technology Department. As part of the requirements for earning my
graduate degree, I am doing a research project.
I am writing to you because you have been identified by me (or by )

as someone who has professional experience in documentary filmmaking and/or
documentary film education and study.
The purpose of this project is to design, implement and evaluate an educational tool for
documentary film and video subject research and data collection that may guide and assist
beginners and students learning about and exploring documentary and educational film and
video production. The design and development of the educational resource will be guided by the
analysis and interpretation of the data collected from the professional filmmakers I will be
interviewing.
If you participate in this project, I would like to conduct an interview of about 15-20 questions
with you, via phone, online or face-to-face, that will be audio recorded. Your identity and the
transcript generated from the interview will be kept confidential.
Your participation in this project is completely voluntary. You may stop participating at any
time. If you stop being in the study, there will be no penalty or loss to you. Your choice to
participate or not participate will not affect you.
Please let me know if you are interested in participating. Please respond to this email
piwasaki@hawaii.edu or phone me at (808) 932-7074. I will send you a Consent to Participate
form that will need to be filled out and returned to me.
Thank you very much for your kind consideration in taking part in this research. I look forward to
hearing back from you.
Much Mahalo,
Patsy Iwasaki
Email: piwasaki@hawaii.edu
Phone: (808) 932-7074
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Appendix E – Consent Form - University of Hawai'i
Consent to Participate in a Research Project, Professional Filmmakers
Aloha! My name is Patsy Iwasaki and I am inviting you to take part in a research study. I am a
PhD student at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa in the Learning Design and Technology
Department. As part of the requirements for earning my graduate degree, I am doing a research
project.
What am I being asked to do?
If you participate in this project, I would like to conduct an interview with you, via phone,
online or face-to-face at a location and time convenient for you. This interview will be audio
recorded.
Taking part in this study is your choice.
Your participation in this project is completely voluntary. You may stop participating at any
time. If you stop being in the study, there will be no penalty or loss to you. Your choice to
participate or not participate will not affect you.
Why is this study being done?
The purpose of this project is to design, implement and evaluate an educational resource for
documentary film and video subject research and data collection that may guide and assist
beginners and students learning about and exploring documentary and educational film and
video production. I am collecting data for this educational resource by interviewing a network of
professional documentary filmmakers. The design and development of the educational resource
will be guided by the analysis and interpretation of the data collected from the professional
filmmakers. I am asking you to participate because you have been identified by me or by another
researcher as someone who has professional experience in documentary filmmaking and/or
documentary film education and study.
What will happen if I decide to take part in this study?

The interview will consist of 15-20 open ended questions. It will take 45 minutes to an hour.
The interview questions will include questions like, “What are some of your primary
considerations in conducting research and data collection for your film/story?” or “How do you
feel this documentary film helps the audience address a real-world problem or task?”
Only you and I will be present during the interview. With your permission, I will audio record
the interview so that I can later transcribe the interview and analyze the responses. You will be
one of about 10 people I will interview for this study. You will have the opportunity to approve
and validate the accuracy of the interview and intent of your answers.
What are the risks and benefits of taking part in this study?
I believe there is little risk to you for participating in this research project. You may become
stressed or uncomfortable answering any of the interview questions or discussing topics with me
during the interview. If you do become stressed or uncomfortable, you can skip the question or
take a break. You can also stop the interview or you can withdraw from the project altogether.
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1
Consent Form/Professional Filmmakers – Version 1.5.20
There will be no direct benefit to you for participating in this interview. The research design of
this project is to develop an educational tool that will help guide beginners and students, who
are learning about and exploring documentary and educational film and video production,
about data collection and research for a documentary or educational film.
Privacy and Confidentiality:
I will keep all study data secure in a locked filing cabinet in a locked office/encrypted on a
password protected computer. Only my University of Hawai'i advisor and I will have access to
the information. Other agencies that have legal permission have the right to review research
records. The University of Hawai'i Human Studies Program has the right to review research
records for this study.
After I write a copy of the interviews, I will erase or destroy the audio-recordings. When I
report the results of my research project, I will not use your name. I will not use any other
personal identifying information that can identify you. I will use pseudonyms (not your real
names) and report my findings in a way that protects your privacy and confidentiality to the
extent allowed by law.
Compensation:
You will receive a $5 gift card to either Starbucks or Jamba Juice, or small gift of equal value, for
your time and effort in participating in this research project.
Future Research Studies:

When reporting the results of this research project, your name will not be used; all identifiers
will be removed from your identifiable private information.
Questions:
If you have any questions about this study, please call or email me at (808) 932-7074 or email
me at: piwasaki@hawaii.edu. You may also contact my faculty advisor, Dr. Curtis Ho, at
curtis@hawaii.edu. You may contact the UH Human Studies Program at 808.956.5007 or
uhirb@hawaii.edu to discuss problems, concerns and questions; obtain information; or offer
input with an informed individual who is unaffiliated with the specific research protocol.
Please visit http://go.hawaii.edu/jRd for more information on your rights as a research
participant.
If you agree to participate in this project, please print, sign and date the following signature
page; then scan and return it to: piwasaki@hawaii.edu.
Please print or save a copy of the informed consent for your records and reference.
212
Consent Form/Professional Filmmakers – Version 1.5.2020 1
Signature(s) for Consent:
I give permission to join the research project entitled, “Gathering the Story: Applying
Instructional Design to Documentary Film Research.”
Please initial next to either “Yes” or “No” to the following:

Yes No I consent to be audio-recorded for the interview portion of this
research.
Name of Participant (Print): ___________________________________________________
Participant’s Signature: _____________________________________________
Signature of the Person Obtaining Consent: ___________________________________
Date: ____________________________
Mahalo!
213
Consent Form/Professional Filmmakers – Version 1.5.2020 1
Appendix F - Recruitment Presentation, Student Filmmakers
Presentation to Participate in a Research Project
Aloha students,
My name is Patsy Iwasaki and I am a PhD student at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa in the
Learning Design and Technology Department. As part of the requirements for earning my graduate
degree, I am doing a research project.
I am here today because you are students enrolled in this 11-week non-credit Video Production course
learning about and exploring film and video production, including documentary film and my research
project is about documentary film production. Thank you to your instructors for agreeing to let me come
to the class to ask for your help.
I would like to ask for your help in reviewing and evaluating an educational resource about subject research
and data collection for documentary film. I have interviewed and asked 11 documentary filmmakers about
their experiences in research and data collection. Based on these interviews and my analysis and
interpretation, I have designed this educational resource to guide and assist beginners and students learning
about and exploring documentary and educational film and video production. I would greatly appreciate
your help in evaluating this resource.
If you participate in this project, I would like for you to review the educational resource, which will take
a few minutes. Then I would like you to complete a survey designed to evaluate the educational value of
the resource. The evaluation surveys will consist of 10-15 open-ended questions which may take about
15-20 minutes to complete. You do not need to provide your name on the questionnaire so your identity
will remain anonymous concerning the survey.
Your participation in this project is completely voluntary. You may stop participating at any time. If
you stop being in the study, there will be no penalty or loss to you. Your choice to participate or not
participate will not affect you or your participation in the Video Production course.
If you participate in this project you will also need to complete a Consent to Participate form. I will
return after Spring break with the educational module for you to review and will have those forms with
me. Thank you very much for your kind consideration in taking part in this research.
Much Mahalo,
Patsy Iwasaki
Email: piwasaki@hawaii.edu
Phone: (808) 932-7074
Recruitment Presentation/Student Filmmakers – Version 1.5.2020

214
Appendix G – Consent Form - University of Hawai'i
Consent to Participate in a Research Project, Student Filmmakers
Aloha! My name is Patsy Iwasaki and I am inviting you to take part in a research study. I am a PhD student
at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa in the Learning Design and Technology Department. As part of the
requirements for earning my graduate degree, I am doing a research project.
What am I being asked to do?
If you participate in this research project, I would like you to review an online instructional module for
documentary film subject research and data collection that will guide and assist student filmmakers
learning about and exploring documentary and educational film production. While reviewing the online
module, I would like you to complete a set of surveys about the instructional module. The surveys will be
embedded into the online module. The review and surveys will be conducted during the 11-week non-
credit Video Production course you are enrolled in. Please review the module and complete the evaluation
surveys within two weeks.
Taking part in this study is your choice.
Your participation in this project is completely voluntary. You may stop participating at any time. If
you stop being in the study, there will be no penalty or loss to you. Your choice to participate or not
participate will not affect your enrollment in the non-credit Video Production course.
Why is this study being done?
The purpose of this project is to review and evaluate the impact and educational value of an instructional
module for documentary film subject research and data collection that will guide and assist student
filmmakers learning about and exploring documentary and educational film production. I am inviting you
to participate in my project because you are students enrolled in an 11-week Video Production course
exploring film and video production.
What will happen if I decide to take part in this study?

The review of the instructional module and completion of the surveys will take approximately 20-30
minutes. The evaluation surveys will include questions like, “Please explain why you are interested in film
and video production” and “Do you think the instructional module is helpful for research and data collection
for documentary film?”
What are the risks and benefits of taking part in this study?
I believe there is little risk to you for participating in this research project. You may become stressed or
uncomfortable answering any of the survey questions. If you do become stressed or uncomfortable, you can
skip the question or take a break. You can also stop the online evaluation on your own, or you can withdraw
from the project altogether.
There will be no direct benefit to you for participating in this interview. This study is designed to review
and evaluate the impact and educational value of an instructional module for documentary film subject
research and data collection that will guide and assist student filmmakers learning about and exploring
documentary and educational film production. This instructional module is intended to help beginners and
student filmmakers share and tell their valuable stories to the world using the increasingly accessible,
powerful and effective medium of film.
215
1
Consent Form/Student Filmmakers – Version 4.20.2020
Privacy and Confidentiality:

I will keep all study data secure in a locked filing cabinet in a locked office/encrypted on a password
protected computer. Only my University of Hawai'i advisor and I will have access to the information.
Other agencies that have legal permission have the right to review research records. The University of
Hawai'i Human Studies Program has the right to review research records for this study.
Your evaluation questionnaires will be anonymous. You will not be required to write your names.
Therefore, I will not have any record of your names attached to any reports of the results of my research
project, thus protecting your privacy and confidentiality to the extent allowed by law.
Compensation:
You will receive a $5 gift card to either Starbucks or Jamba Juice, or small gift of equal value, for your
time and effort in participating in this research project.
Questions:
If you have any questions about this study, please call or email me at (808) 932-7074 or email me at:
piwasaki@hawaii.edu. You may also contact my faculty advisor, Dr. Curtis Ho, at curtis@hawaii.edu.
You may contact the UH Human Studies Program at 808.956.5007 or
uhirb@hawaii.edu to discuss problems, concerns and questions; obtain information; or offer input with
an informed individual who is unaffiliated with the specific research protocol.
Please visit http://go.hawaii.edu/jRd for more information on your rights as a research participant.
If you agree to participate in this project, please sign and date the following signature page; then return it
to me at the focus group session.
A copy of the informed consent will be provided to you for your records and reference.
216
1
Signature(s) for Consent:
I give permission to join the research project entitled, “Gathering the Story: Applying
Instructional Design to Documentary Film Research.”
Please initial next to either “Yes” or “No” to the following:

Yes No I consent to review the instructional module and complete the
evaluation surveys for this research project.
Name of Participant (Print): ___________________________________________________
Participant’s Signature: _____________________________________________
Signature of the Person Obtaining Consent: ___________________________________
Date: ____________________________
Mahalo!
217
1
Appendix H - Recruitment Email for Student Filmmakers
Email Invitation to Participate in a Research Project
Aloha ,
My name is Patsy Iwasaki and I hope this email finds you and yours healthy and safe as we journey through
this challenging semester. I hope you remember me – I visited your Video Production class on Friday,
January 24 and talked briefly about my PhD research project about documentary film. I asked for your help
in reviewing and evaluating an educational resource about subject research and data collection for
documentary film. Your instructors kindly let me know your emails.
As I mentioned in January, my original plan was to visit your class after Spring break to present the
educational resource in person and ask you to fill out the hard copy evaluation survey. However, COVID-19
changed my plans! Instead, communication will be via this email and the review and evaluation will be
completed entirely online.
At this time, I’d like to invite you to review and evaluate an instructional module about subject research and
data collection for documentary film. I've interviewed 11 professional filmmakers about their experiences in
research and data collection for documentary film. Based on these interviews and my analysis and
interpretation, I have designed and developed this module that may help guide and assist beginners and
students learning about and exploring documentary, educational and other types of film and video production.
I would greatly appreciate your participation in reviewing and evaluating this instructional module. Your
participation is completely voluntary. You may stop participating at any time and there will be no penalty or
loss to you. Your choice to participate or not participate will not affect you or your participation in the Video
Production course.
What do I need to do?
• Review the attached Recruitment Presentation document that I presented in class in January.
• Review the module “Five Tips from Filmmakers” online link below at your own pace.
• Complete the embedded short survey in the instructional module.
• Sign and return the Consent Form attached or respond affirmatively with your participation to this
email.
Reviewing the instructional module and completing the surveys will take approximately 20-30 minutes to
complete. You must log in using your hawaii.edu email address.
Here is the link to the instructional module:

http://www2.hawaii.edu/~piwasaki/Five_Tips/
Please let me know if you have any questions via email. I am also requesting that you complete the module by
midnight Mon. May 4? Thank you very much!
Much Mahalo,
Patsy
Recruitment Email/Student Filmmakers – Version 4.20.2020
218
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GATHERING THE STORY:

APPLYING INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN TO DOCUMENTARY FILM RESEARCH

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY

LEARNING DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY

Keywords: instructional design, instructional content development, film studies, documentary

PHASE II: EVALUATION PHASE III: ANALYSIS

PHASE I and II: DESIGN

Phase I Consulting the Filmmakers

Phase II Designing the Instructional Module

Phase III Evaluating the Instructional Module

Background and Supporting Literature

Table 1.1. Six Primary Types of Documentary Films

Reflexive: The constructed nature of the documentary and flaunts it.

Cinematic values of visuals, design, composition and rhythm over content.

The Problem Focus

Structure of the Dissertation

Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning

ADDIE Model of Instructional Design

Research Design and Methodology

Participants. A purposive sampling (Bryman, 2012; Yin, 2016) of 11 professional

Relevance How do you incorporate “The key characters are

Confidence How do you approach “I try whenever possible to

“Through our website, our film

Satisfaction How do you feel your “The modern-day tie-ins and

Find Strong “Characters” (Attention)

Support Universal Themes (Relevance)

Do the Research (Confidence)

Relate to your audience (Relevance and Satisfaction)

Figure 1.2. First prototype of the module.

Third Formative Assessment. The two experienced, qualified researcher/educators who

Confidence Familiarity with process of creating 2.88 1.11 1.00 4.00

Confidence Knowledge of research and data collection for

“I think it increases learning. It’s an excellent educational resource.” – Participant #2

Tip 2: Tell the Story Visually

“Have experts on screen”; that portion of the Not answered by participants

It’s important to have captivating images/video.

Tip 3: Find Strong “Characters”

“You want to make sure the characters

Tip 4: Support Universal Themes

Filmmaker discussing the “bottom up” approach. “Supporting universal themes is

Tip 5: Relate to Your Audience

Post-Module Survey. In the post-module survey, 16 participants answered 16 Likert

Attention Module’s colors are appealing 4.63 0.50 4.00 5.00

Confidence/ Ability to navigate the module 4.69 0.79 2.00 5.00

Attention/ Module increased interest in watching 4.50 0.89 2.00 5.00

“Gives a more complete picture of the process.” – Participant #11

“Very thorough, easy-to-digest and informative.” – Participant #4

Third Formative Assessment. The two experienced, qualified researcher/educators who

Documentary Film Description and Background

Reflexive: The constructed nature of the documentary and flaunts it.

Cinematic values of visuals, design, composition and rhythm over content.

Documentary Film as Research Practice

Steps to a Documentary Film

Lack of Subject Research and Data Collection Information

ARCS Model of Motivation

Table 2.2. Keller’s ARCS Model Concepts and Definitions

Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction

Research and Practice

Phase I, II and III, (Chapters 3, 4 and 5)

Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning

ADDIE Model of Instructional Design

Research and Practice

Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate