Abnormal Psychology Perspectives Update Edition 5th Edition Dozois Test Bank

Abnormal Psychology Perspectives
Update Edition 5th Edition Dozois Test

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Test Item File to accompany Abnormal Psychology: Perspectives, 5e
CHAPTER 7
Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Conditions
Multiple Choice Questions:
1) The idea that psychological processes can affect bodily states

A) has not yet taken hold in western culture but has in other cultures.
B) is relatively new to western culture but is starting to take hold.
C) is new unique to western culture but accepted elsewhere.
D) has a long history in western culture but is unique to western culture.
E) has a long history in western culture and may be even more deeply embedded in other
cultures.
Answer: E
Diff: 2 Type: MC Page Ref: 147
Skill: Factual
2) “Voodoo Death” is a phenomenon in which

A) sublimated drives result in heart failure.
B) death is directly caused by voodoo.
C) ritualistic suicide occurs in Caribbean culture.
D) people die as a result of a nervous breakdown.
E) the individual dies after learning that he has been cursed.
Answer: E
Skill: Factual
3) Somatic symptom and related disorders involve psychological processes that give rise
to apparent physical symptoms without a medical basis; psychological factors affecting
medical conditions, in contrast
A) involve psychological processes that give rise to identifiable disturbances in bodily
structures and functions.
B) involve purely emotional processes that give rise to apparent physical symptoms.
C) are the result of physical processes that have psychological consequences.
D) involve physical symptoms with physiological causes.
E) involve purely cognitive processes that result in physical symptoms, without
intermediary physiological processes.
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
4) The early years of research concerning the role of psychological processes on physical
health were known as
A) psychosomatic medicine.
B) cognitive physiology.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc.

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C) dualistic behaviourism.
D) neuropsychophysiology.
E) behavioural medicine.
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
5) The theorist argued that the biomedical model of disease should be

expanded to a biopsychosocial model.
A) Franz Alexander
B) Helen Flanders Dunbar
C) George Engel
D) Walter Cannon
E) Hans Selye
Answer: C
Skill: Factual
6) Which of the following would most likely be considered a treatable problem in

behavioural medicine?
A) gallstones
B) a stroke
C) essential hypertension
D) cancer
E) cardiac arrythmias due to genetic illness
Answer: C
Skill: Conceptual
7) is defined as the application of psychological methods and theories to

understand origins of disease, individual responses to disease and the dimensions and
determinants of good health.
A) Health Psychology
B) Behavioural medicine
C) Health Physiology
D) Biomedicine
E) Psychosomatic medicine
Answer: A
Skill: Factual

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8) A mechanism is
A) something which regulates a physical system.
B) the means by which unconscious conflict produces psychological disturbances.
C) a process, activity of a living system that mediates the influence of an antecedent
factor on disease.
D) the effect neurotic behaviour has on the family or social environment.
E) an axis of internal regulation that involves pulmonary and immunological functioning.
Answer: C
Skill: Factual
9) The difference between a sign and a symptom is

A) one refers to a lesion and the other a level of functioning.
B) one is a mainly objective and the other a mainly subjective indication of illness.
C) one refers to a psychological condition and one a medical condition.
D) one is an antecedent and one is a consequence of illness.
E) neither are directly observable.
Answer: B
Skill: Conceptual
10) When a sign involves the specific disruption of bodily tissue or normal function of a
bodily system, these disruptions are called
A) lesions.
B) ulcers.
C) mechanisms.
D) symptoms.
E) challenges.
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
11) Illness is defined by which are whereas disease is defined

by that are .
A) signs; subjective reports of internal states; symptoms; objective indications of a
specific process
B) symptoms; subjective reports of internal states; symptoms; objective indications of a
process
C) signs; subjective reports of internal states; signs; objective indications of a process
D) signs; subjective reports of internal states; symptoms; objective indication of a process
E) symptoms; subjective reports of internal states; signs; objective indications of a
specific process

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Answer: E
Skill: Factual
12) The three body systems that are responsive to psychosocial variables are:
A) endocrine system; immune system; cardiovascular system
B) autonomic nervous system; endocrine system; cardiovascular system
C) autonomic nervous system; central nervous system; immune system
D) autonomic nervous system; endocrine system; immune system
E) somatic nervous system; endocrine system; cardiovascular system
Answer: D
Skill: Factual
13) The body system responsive to psychosocial variables involved in the production of
hormones is the
A) immune system.
B) endocrine system.
C) autonomic nervous system.
D) central nervous system.
E) somatic nervous system.
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
14) Perhaps the best known endocrine hormone system known to be highly responsive to
psychosocial variables involves the
A) ovaries.
B) pancreas.
C) pineal gland.
D) HPA axis.
E) testes.
Answer: D
Skill: Factual
15) The brain structure that makes up part of the HPA axis is the
A) thalamus.
B) hypothalamus.
C) medulla.
D) hippocampus.
E) amygdala.

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Answer: B
Skill: Factual
16) Adrenocorticotrophic hormone

A) informs cells in the liver to convert glycogen to usable sugars.
B) prompts cells in the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol.
C) is released by the pineal gland.
D) is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor.
E) is a glucocorticoid.
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
17) Glucocorticoids
A) cause inflammation.
B) have not been indicated in the development of neuronal damage in the brain.
C) prevent the development of atherosclerosis.
D) are only beneficial when released for long periods of time.
E) have been indicated in the suppression of immune system function.
Answer: E
Skill: Factual
18) It is increasingly recognized that released during stress plays an

important role in the development of abdominal obesity
A) ACTH
B) androgens
C) adrenal emissions
D) cortisol
E) catecholamines
Answer: D
Skill: Factual
19) Most organs that are innervated by the sympathetic system

A) are primarily involved in digestion.
B) are typically accompanied by an awareness of their function.
C) are also innervated by the parasympathetic branch.
D) are not innervated by the parasympathetic branch of the nervous system.
E) are under the control of the parasympathetic branch of the nervous system.

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Answer: C
Skill: Factual
20) Sympathetic is to parasympathetic system as

A) accelerator is to brakes.
B) brakes are to car.
C) deceleration is to acceleration.
D) flour and sugar are to baking a cake.
E) horse is to buggy.
Answer: A
Skill: Conceptual
21) Immune cells are produced and stored in all of the following except the
A) thymus gland.
B) large intestines.
C) lymph nodes.
D) bone marrow.
E) small intestines.
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
22) The process of engulfing and digesting invading organisms is called

A) suppression.
B) cellular inhibition.
C) phagocytosis.
D) nonspecific immune response.
E) lymphocytosis.
Answer: C
Skill: Factual
23) Cells that remain permanently altered after an immune episode are called
A) B-cells.
B) Suppressor T-cells.
C) Memory T-cells.
D) Helper T-cells.
E) Natural Killer.
Answer: C
Skill: Factual

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24) In the alarm phase of Hans Selye's (1956) General Adaptation Syndrome, the body
A) waits for the brain to make a “decision” about the threat.
B) mobilizes its defences.
C) suffers tissue damage.
D) is exhausted due to depletion of energy stores.
E) actively fights or copes with the challenge to the system.
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
25) The final phase of Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome is the
phase.
A) adaptation
B) resistance
C) exhaustion
D) alarm
E) resolution
Answer: C
Skill: Factual
26) Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer and Lazarus (1981) suggest that the most common sources
of stress in people's lives are
A) inner conflicts.
B) medical problems.
C) hassles.
D) drastic life changes.
E) financial.
Answer: C
Skill: Factual
27) Primary appraisal involves

A) deciding whether or not an event is threatening.
B) addressing our memory to determine how to deal with a threatening event.
C) choosing an appropriate course of action for dealing with the threat.
D) inducing a different feeling state as a way to deal with a problem.
E) seeking advice from a clinical psychologist about a problem.
Answer: A
Skill: Factual

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28) Secondary appraisal is analogous to asking the question

A) “is there anything I can do about this?”
B) “how can I make myself feel better?”
C) “can anyone observe how I handle this event?”
D) “why is this happening?”
E) “is this event threatening?”
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
29) Which of the following behaviours may NOT be considered emotion-focused

coping?
A) watching television
B) taking drugs
C) thinking about something unrelated to the problem
D) drinking
E) identifying and rectifying the source of the threat
Answer: E
Skill: Factual
30) Therapists might find it difficult to steer clients towards methods of

dealing with threats because methods are negatively reinforced (i.e., they
provide a rapid escape from unpleasant thoughts / feelings associated with the problem).
A) problem-focused coping; emotion-focused coping
B) reality-based action; self-medicating action
C) reality-based mood adjustment; self-medicating mood adjustment
D) practical; intellectualizing-based
E) practical; denial
Answer: A
Skill: Conceptual / application
31) Clients with limited capacity to delay gratification will find it difficult, particularly in
the beginning, to adopt because methods provide a faster
and easier escape from the unpleasant feelings associated with threats
A) courageous; self-soothing
B) reality-based action; self-medicating
C) reality-based mood adjustment; self-medicating
D) fact-based; intellectualizing-based
E) problem-focused coping; emotion-focused coping

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Answer: E
32) In a study conducted by Lazarus and colleagues, the researchers found that by
the scenes in films depicting rites of passage, arousal was decreased.
A) re-watching
B) identifying with
C) mentally modifying
D) intellectualizing or denying
E) ignoring
Answer: D
Skill: Factual
33) Which of the following was NOT a characteristic of dominant male baboons in
Sapolsky's (1995) studies of how social status may affect stress?
A) higher levels of circulating lymphocytes
B) reduced concentrations of cortisol
C) lower levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol
D) a greater ability to recover from provocation
E) lower blood pressure
Answer: C
Skill: Conceptual
34) control over stressful events is sufficient to reduce their harmful effects.
A) Perceived
B) Direct
C) Physical
D) Internal
E) Emotional
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
35) Individuals with an internal locus of control typically believe themselves

A) to be masters of their own destiny.
B) to be more stressed by events than other people.
C) to have little control over social situations.
D) to be buffeted by the random events in the world.
E) to be less healthy than those with an external locus of control.

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Answer: A
Skill: Factual
36) An example of a job rated as high in decision control and low in psychological
demand is
A) forester.
B) waiter/waitress.
C) janitor.
D) truck driver.
E) secretary.
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
37) In a study conducted employing cold viruses, Cohen, Tyrrell, and Smith (1993)
discovered that subjects with higher perceived stress and negative affect were
A) more likely to have died after a five-year follow-up study.
B) more likely to show “hard” immune system changes.
C) less likely to recover within a 5-day period.
D) more likely to develop another more debilitating illness.
E) less likely to show clinical evidence of a cold.
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
38) According to Alexander (1950) the role psychological factors might play in the
development of ulcers is
A) unconscious conflict creates neuronal death in the hypothalamus.
B) certain personality types are prone to overeating causing medical problems.
C) lowered immune function as a result of stress allows for bacterial infection.
D) an unsatisfied desire for love results in an overactivity in the digestive system.
E) stress decreases the effectiveness of the mucosal stomach lining.
Answer: D
Skill: Factual
39) A study on predictability conducted by Weiss (1970) discovered a relationship

between
A) rats shocked after being provided with a warning tone showed the same ulceration as
rats that did not receive a warning stimulus.
B) rats shocked after being provided with a warning tone showed ulceration much higher
than shocked rats without a warning and unshocked rats.

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C) rats shocked after being provided with a warning tone showed ulceration only slightly
higher than shocked rats.
D) shocked rats did not show a great deal of ulceration.
E) rats shocked and provided with a warning tone showed greater ulceration than
unshocked rats.
Answer: C
Skill: Factual
40) A study on controllability by Weiss (1971) discovered that

A) rats who could control the stressor suffered the same level of ulceration as rats who
could not control the stressor.
B) rats who could not exercise control over the stressor did not show any levels of
ulceration.
C) shocked rats did not show a great deal of ulceration.
D) rats who could exercise control over the stressor suffered milder ulceration than rats
who could not control the stressor.
E) rats who could control the stressor had higher levels of ulceration than those who
could not control the stressor.
Answer: D
Skill: Factual
41) Which of the following is NOT evidence collected indicating that Helicobacter pylori
plays a primary role in the genesis of ulcers?
A) Antibodies to the bacterium have been found in the serum of healthy controls.
B) This bacterium is present in the stomachs of a large proportion of individuals with
ulcer disease.
C) Twenty percent of people who test positive for the bacterium show evidence of ulcer.
D) Animals injected with H. pylori suffered from ulcer disease.
E) The condition of patients treated with drugs to kill H. Pylori improves.
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Type: MC Page Ref: 163-164
Skill: Factual
42) Since the 1950s deaths due to heart attack and stroke have declined by almost
A) 25%.
B) 10%.
C) 70%.
D) 50%.
E) 90%.

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Answer: D
Skill: Factual
43) Consistent with the water pump analogy of the cardiovascular system, the peak of the
wave of blood flow corresponds with
A) the point in the cardiac cycle called the systole.
B) the peripheral resistance found in the right ventricle.
C) cardiac output.
D) the point in the cardiac cycle called the diastole.
E) the contraction of the right ventricle.
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
44) Which of the following are most closely tied into the regulation of the cardiovascular
system?
A) serotonergic agonists
B) glucocorticoids
C) monamine oxidase inhibitors
D) dopaminergic antagonists
E) catecholamines
Answer: E
Skill: Factual
45) Consistent with the plumbing analogy of the cardiovascular system, which of the
following best describes atherosclerosis?
A) The tubing expands reducing pressure.
B) The tubing develops calcium deposits from the water.
C) The pump begins to operate sporadically.
D) The tubing branch points dry out and become brittle.
E) The pump begins to leak water.
Answer: B
Skill: Conceptual
46) In terms of cardiovascular functioning, which of the following is a controllable risk

factor?
A) jogging
B) high blood cholesterol
C) exercise

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D) marriage
E) high demand occupations
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
47) Under precisely defined conditions in a doctor's office, hypertension is defined by

A) blood pressure reading of more than 140/80.
B) blood pressure reading of more than 120/70.
C) decreased tension in blood vessel walls.
D) blood pressure reading of more than 160/100.
E) cardiac distress under high demand exercise.
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
48) The stress reactivity paradigm is used

A) to determine the risk of cardiovascular disease as a function of cardiovascular
reactivity.
B) to show how cardiovascular disease causes stress.
C) to measure the effects of risk factors such as smoking on cardiovascular disease.
D) to determine the cause of “essential” hypertension.
E) to show how the cardiovascular system can be altered by stressful psychosocial stimuli
or events.
Answer: E
Skill: Factual
49) Cardiovascular reactivity refers to

A) the relationship between cardiovascular function and arherosclerosis.
B) that relationship between psychosocial stressors and cardiovascular disease.
C) the relationship between hypertension and psychosocial stressors.
D) how much a person’s cardiovascular function changes in response to a
psychologically significant stimulus.
E) how much hypertension is caused by a psychosocial stressor.
Answer: D
Skill: Conceptual
50) Type A people in general show more of the following except

A) neurotic behaviour.
B) hyperalertness.

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C) competitiveness.
D) sense of time urgency.
E) hostility.
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
51) A number of studies using the have found an association between

hostility and increased risk of heart disease.
A) The Anger Interview
B) Cook-Medley Hostility Scale
C) Turner Interruption Test
D) Stroop Colour-Word Conflict Test
E) Structured Interview
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
52) The psychosocial vulnerability model suggests that hostile people

A) are innately predisposed to illness.
B) experience a more demanding interpersonal life than others.
C) are more likely to engage in unhealthy behaviours and less likely to have healthy
practices, such as exercise.
D) are more at risk for diseases because they experience exaggerated autonomic and
neuroendocrine responses during stress.
E) create a social world that is antagonistic and unsupportive.
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
53) Frasure-Smith, Lesperance, and Talajic (1993) found that depression soon after the
heart attack
A) had no effect on the risk of dying.
B) was associated with a greater than five-fold increase in the risk of dying within six
months.
C) was associated with a greater than five-fold increase in the risk of another heart attack
within 6 months.
D) was associated with a greater than five-fold increase in the risk of dying within six
months only in men, but not in women.
E) was associated with a greater than ten-fold increase in the risk of another heart attack
within 6 months.

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Answer: B
Skill: Factual
54) The INTERHEART study found that of the nine risk factors, the following three had
the greatest impact on the risk of heart attack.
A) abdominal obesity, psychosocial factors, and low physical activity
B) raised lipids, smoking, and psychosocial factors
C) psychosocial factors, high blood pressure, and raised lipids
D) low consumption of fruits and vegetables, high blood pressure, and diabetes
E) smoking, low physical activity, and lack of consumption of moderate amounts of
alcohol
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
55) Cognitive-behavioural techniques aimed at stress management do so by

A) teaching control of specific muscle groups.
B) helping the individual to re-assess stress causing thought patterns.
C) using biofeedback to lower physiological arousal responses.
D) encouraging people to invoke images of warmth and heaviness.
E) autogenic training.
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
56) In a series of interventions for stress performed by Dean Ornish and colleagues
(1996), found that predicted the extent of coronary lesions.
A) hours spent meditating in a week
B) aerobic exercise
C) the amount of practice patients devoted to stress management
D) the switch to a vegetarian diet
E) the number of people involved in group support meetings
Answer: C
Skill: Factual
57) Linden and Chambers (1994) in their study on hypertension, discovered that stress
management could
A) never be as effective as drug treatment.
B) actually worse a patient's condition when standard prescription drugs were not given.
C) be effective if coupled with drug treatment.

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D) be as effective as drug treatment if targeted and individualized to each patient.

E) be as effective as drug treatment if implemented in a standardized fashion.
Answer: D
Skill: Factual
58) Friedman et al. (1986) found that after three years of cardiac counselling
implemented through the Recurrent Coronary Prevention Project, patients showed
A) an increase in the amount of type A behaviour.
B) no change in the amount of type A behaviour.
C) half as many occurrences of cardiac events as controls.
D) no difference from controls in the occurrences of cardiac events.
E) half as many occurrences of cardiac events as controls, but also no reduction in
measured Type A behaviour.
Answer: C
Skill: Factual
True/False Questions:
59) There is considerable evidence that experience or expression of anger plays a role in
heart disease.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Type: TF Page Ref: 148
Skill: Factual
60) Health psychology refers to using psychological methods to mental illnesses that
have physical consequences.
A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
61) A mechanism is a process, an activity of a living system that mediates the influence
of an antecedent factor on disease.
A) True
B) False

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Answer: A
Skill: Factual
62) A sign is a unmeasurable subjective experience of illness.

A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Conceptual
63) A lesion is a symptom of a physical illness.

A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Conceptual
64) ACTH is secreted by the pineal gland.

A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
65) The three body symptoms affected by psychosocial variables are the autonomic
nervous system, the somatic nervous system and the immune system.
A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
66) One of the effects produced by cortisol is the reduction of inflammation.

A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual

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67) One of the effects produced by cortisol is neuronal damage that may contribute to
dementia.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
68) The endocrine system is characterized by manufacturing hormones that produce an

effect in “targeted” areas of the body.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
69) Evidence has been found to indicate glucocorticoids suppress immune function and
promote the development of atherosclerosis.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
70) Most, but not all organs that are innervated by the sympathetic system are also
innervated by the parasympathetic branch.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
71) In comparison to sympathetic system innervation, which relies on hormonal

transmission, the parasympathetic system operates much more quickly.
A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Factual

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72) Cellular immunity is based on the action of granulocytes and monocytes.

A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
73) In humoral immunity, invading antigens are presented by macrophages to B-

lymphocytes, some of which remain as memory B-cells.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
74) In the resistance phase of the GAS, the body mobilizes its defenses, in order to deal
with a stressor.
A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Conceptual
75) Primary appraisal may be thought of as if a person were asking the question “is this a
threat to me?”
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Conceptual
76) In terms of psychosocial factors that may affect disease, a dominance hierarchy in
monkeys may be seen as analogous to socio-economic-status.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Conceptual

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77) Ischemic heart disease is a condition in which the blood supply to the heart becomes
compromised.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
78) Cardiac output, one of the aspects of blood pressure, specifically refers to the
diameter of the blood vessels.
A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
79) Epinephrine and norepinephrine interact directly with blood cells and the cells lining
blood vessel walls.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
80) In 90% of cases of hypertension a specific cause can be identified.

A) True
B) False
Answer: B
Skill: Factual
81) Cardiovascular reactivity refers to how much an individual's cardiovascular function

changes in response to a psychologically significant stimulus.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Conceptual

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82) Some key type A characteristics are hyperarousal, competitiveness, and hostility.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
83) Techniques employed for stress management range from teaching control of specific
muscle groups to autogenic training.
A) True
B) False
Answer: A
Skill: Factual
Essay Questions:
84) Identify one similarity and one difference between the psychological factors affecting
medical conditions and the somatic symptom and related disorders. Specify how mind
interacts with body in each category of disorder.
Answer: Psychological factors affecting medical conditions involve an interaction

between a psychological process (e.g., chronic fearful / anxious arousal) and a
disturbance in bodily structures and functions. The psychological process plays a causal
role in the physiological disturbance. The somatic symptom and related disorders
involve an interaction between a psychological process (e.g., the perception and
experience of pain; thoughts and feelings consistent with the experience of disease) and
the experience of physical symptoms suggestive of medical illness, but for which no
bodily disturbance can be identified. In this case some physical AND/OR psychological
process is giving rise to the subjective experience. Thus, both involve an interaction
between mental and physical processes but only in the former category are the physical
processes observable.
Diff: 3 Type: ES Page Ref: 137; 147

85) Describe Engel's (1977) argument for a biopsychosocial model of disease.
Answer: Engel's argument is that any model explaining disease should incorporate a
range of factors. Among these factors are psychological characteristics and societal
forces. This spawned from the realization that many, and perhaps all, disease states are
influenced directly or indirectly by social or psychological factors.

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Diff: 1 Type: ES Page Ref: 147

Skill: Conceptual
86) Outline the differences between signs and symptoms.
Answer: Symptoms are subjective reports of internal states. An example would be a

person suffering from the flu complaining of being hot and tired. Signs are objective
indications of an underlying disease process, observable directly by a person with the
appropriate training or indirectly through the administration of a specific test.

Skill: Conceptual
87) Describe the functioning of the endocrine system. Include the relevant organs,
method of transmission, and both the nature and role of cortisol.
Answer: The endocrine system functions mainly through the release of hormones into the
bloodstream in order to reach target areas. These target areas include the heart, liver or
bones. The main organs involved are the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal gland.
Cortisol is a highly active hormone that produces a variety of effects in the body
including suppressing inflammation, mobilizing glucose from the liver, increasing
cardiovascular tone, producing immune-system changes, and inhibiting the activity of
other endocrine structures.

Skill: Factual
88) Explain the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. Include in your
explanation the functioning of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.
Answer: The Autonomic Nervous System seems to operate almost entirely out of range
of conscious control. The ANS operates of two anatomically distinct parts. The
sympathetic branch consists of nerve fibres that emanate from the thoracic and lumbar
regions of the spinal cord and make contact with a large number of body organs. These
include the: heart, stomach and blood vessels. The parasympathetic branch consists of
fibres emanating from the cranial and sacral regions of the spinal cord. The sympathetic
system arouses the body for vigorous action. The parasympathetic system returns the
body to a more quiescent state.
Diff: 1 Type: ES Page Ref: 151-152

Skill: Factual
89) Explain the process of cellular immunity.
Answer: Cellular immunity is based on the action of a class of blood cells called T-
lymphocytes. The “T” designation refers to the locus of their production, the thymus

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gland. Cellular immunity results from a cascade of actions of various types of T-

lymphocytes. An antigen is presented to T-lymphocytes by macrophages. The T-cells
proliferate and then circulate in the body. Other T-cells participate including Helper T-
cells, Natural Killer T-cells and Suppressor T-cells.

Skill: Factual
90) State and explain the three stages of Hans Selye's (1956) General Adaptation
Syndrome. Does this model treat stress as stimulus or as response?
Answer: This is a stress-as-response model. In the alarm phase, the body attempts to
adapt by mobilizing its defences. If the challenge persists, the body then enters the
resistance phase. In this phase the body actively fights or copes with the challenge
through immune and neuroendocrine changes. If the challenge persists still further then
the body enters the exhaustion phase. At this point the body has depleted its energy store
and can not maintain resistance. It is at this stage that the body may succumb to a disease
of adaptation.

Skill: Conceptual
91) Briefly explain Lazarus and colleagues' (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) transactional
model of stress. Does this model treat stress as stimulus or as response?
Answer: This is neither a stress-as-stimulus nor a stress-as-response model. In this model,

stress is an ongoing series of transactions between an individual and his or her
environment. Central to this theory is the idea that people constantly evaluate what is
happening to them and its implications for themselves.

Skill: Conceptual
92) Define emotion-focused and problem-focused coping. Provide an example of each.

In simple terms and in one sentence, describe how utilization of each type of coping is
reinforced (i.e., met with reward, or loss of reward, punishment or escape from
punishment).
Answer: Emotion-focused coping refers to strategies aimed at reducing negative feelings

associated with exposure to the threat. Examples include anything that removes the
threat from awareness, resulting in escape (e.g., intellectualization; use of substances;
highly stimulating and distracting behaviors, such as eating-to-soothe, video-gaming,
gambling, use of pornography). These methods are reinforced immediately by escape
from the negative (punishing) feelings associated with awareness of the threat. Problem-
focused coping refers to strategies aimed at realistically dealing with the threat itself,
such as identifying the source of the problem and taking steps to rectify it. Problem-

7-23
focused coping is rewarded eventually, through negative reinforcement (i.e., actual

removal or reduction of the threat). The rewards are often delayed and require effort, and
the experience of additional stress while coping with the problem.

93) Use the transactional model to identify the psychological processes that give rise to
the disease-related physiological processes described in the chapter. What exactly are the
psychological events or processes that interact with the body and how? Briefly list the
bodily impact (the physiological systems affected by) of these events and processes?
Answer: Cognitive appraisals of threat and their emotional significance are what trigger
the disease-related physiological processes describe in the chapter. The cognitive-
affective components are understood as subjective stress or stressors and the behavioral
responses are called coping. The transactional model examines stress from a
psychological level of analysis. We can then use the biological level of analysis to study
the physical impact of these psychological states and coping behaviors. The transactional
model views stress as resulting from ongoing transactions between an individual and her
environment. Transactions include attention to and identification and appraisal of threat,
followed by a coping behavior, followed by an environmental response, followed by re-
appraisal and so on. Primary appraisal determines if the stimulus constitutes a threat
whereas secondary appraisals determine what, if anything can be done about it. A
behavioral coping response is selected, executed and evaluated in terms of effectiveness –
the impact on the stimulus in the environment. These cognitive appraisals occur together
with changes in the emotional state of the person, which shift dynamically over time
(across multiple transactions) in concert with the unfolding appraisal process. Although
we cannot neatly “cleave” the cognitive and affective components, it can be said that it’s
the affective component (i.e., fear / anxiety) that directly interacts with HPA and
sympathetic nervous system, triggering the processes related to disease that are describe
in the chapter (i.e., autonomic, endocrine, immune, and cardiovascular systems and
processes).

94) Explain both internal and external loci of control. How may an internal locus of
control influence the disease process?
Answer: In an internal locus of control the individual believes himself to be master of

his/her own destiny. Those with an external locus of control see themselves as being
buffeted by the random events of the world. Those with internal loci of control are likely
protected against the harmful effects of stress on their health.

Skill: Conceptual

7-24
95) Explain the evidence for and against the role Helicobacter pylori plays in the
formation of gastric ulcers.
Answer: The bacterium is present in large proportions of individuals with ulcer disease.
Antibodies are present in their serum. Treatment with drugs to eliminate this bacterium
produces improvement in affected patients. But, the antibodies are found in normal
controls. The bacterium is associated with other diseases. Patients have also been shown
to improve without the bacteria being treated.

Skill: Factual
96) Describe the plumbing analogy for the human cardiovascular system (be sure to
include in your description both systolic and diastolic blood pressure).
Answer: The heart is a pump, the vasculature is a hose. As the heart pumps, the blood
constituents will be transmitted through the tube in cycles that correspond to the pumping
action. The peak of the wave of blood flow corresponds to contraction of the left ventricle
of the heart at a point during the cardiac cycle, called the systole. When the pump is at
rest (the point called the diastole) blood will still be flowing but at a much reduced
pressure. So, the blood is always flowing but depending on when the pump was last
primed (the heart last contracted; the pressure level is higher or lower. The pressure can
be affected by either the amount of blood or the diameter of the tubing.

Skill: Conceptual
97) Name and define the three general psychosocial factors that have been shown to
influence disease. For each, and in one sentence, summarize the link that research has
supported between the psychosocial factor and physical disease.
Answer: Each of the three general psychosocial factors can be understood within the
transactional framework: they exert their effects by way of the threat appraisal-and-
coping transactions that the individual makes with her environment. The first factor,
social status refers to an individual’s position in a social hierarchy. Research shows that
people and animals in higher positions live longer, an effect mediated by differences in
neuroendocine, autonomic and immune system profiles: higher status persons / animals
are reactive to stressors, but show a faster return to resting conditions, and normalized
immune system response. The presence of social supports refers to the extent to which
an individual feels connected to other people in meaningful ways. The presence of high
social support is associated with reduced mortality, especially in men; the absence of
social support appears to make existing disease worse. Controllability refers to a
person’s ability to control potentially stressful events. Research shows that people who
have perceived control over a stressor and/or who have internal (vs. external) locus of
control show reduced sympathetic arousal than those who do not believe they have
control and are protected against the harmful effects of stress on health.

7-25

Skill: Factual / conceptual
98) Compare and contrast the 5 models of the relationship between hostility and health
risk. What is the status of each in the research literature? What model should be chosen
on the basis of current knowledge?
Answer: The psychophysiolocial reactivity model suggests that hostile people are at
higher risk because they experience exaggerated autonomic and neuroendocrine response
during stress. The psychosocial vulnerability model suggests that hostile people
experience a more demanding interpersonal life than do others. The transactional model
suggests that hostile people actively construct a world that has high interpersonal stress
and a lack of social support, which increases vulnerability. Presumably this hybrid model
includes higher physiological reactivity to the same psychosocial stressors, which adds to
the impact of elevated stress for persons high in hostility. The health behavior model
suggests that hostile people, perhaps as a result of their higher stress levels, are at
increased risk of choosing unhealthy behaviors (e.g., smoking). The constitutional
vulnerability model posits that a third variable causes both hostility and increased risk of
disease. Each of these models has received research support. Therefore the best model
would be one that incorporates all five: a truly transactional model that includes increased
probability of engaging in unhealthful behaviors, and where a portion (but not all) of the
shared variance (between hostility and health risk) is accounted for by a third variable –
constitutional vulnerability.

Skill: Factual / application

7-26
Another random document with
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invention of it would have been made shortly after by B, and by him
possibly would have been brought to light in still greater perfection. If
the invention of A, however, is patented, the inventive perfectioning
of the object by B must rest until the expiration of A’s Patent.
The more an invention is to the purpose for general adaptability,
the more reasonable appears the supposition that others would have
arrived at the same invention.
In spite of the contrary intention, Patents proved themselves an
impediment to the progress of human ingenuity, and by each newly-
granted Patent an unrelenting “halt” is shouted to the competition in
that direction.
On closer reflection, even persons who move in circles which,
from personal interest, have hitherto used their influence to give the
greatest possible stability to Patent-rights, will come to the conviction
that the disadvantages outweigh by far the advantages.
The Patent system, viewed from a standpoint of political economy,
produces a similar influence as the Lottery. The “grand prize”
dazzles all; however, only one can have it, and the multitude of those
who contributed to the solving of the problem lose very often a not
inconsiderable stake in uselessly-incurred costs, and lost time and
trouble.
Many have been induced by the system to rush after doubtful
reward in the shape of a Patent, instead of steadily applying their
ability and knowledge to regular industry.
Besides, it is not sufficient to make up one’s mind to make an
invention capable of being patented; such proceedings lead to a
success in the most rare cases. The most important discoveries
have proceeded, on the contrary, from those who thoughtfully
prosecute their regular avocations. The fear that with abolition of
Patents the ingenuity of mankind would slacken, we cannot share,
because the germ of progress is embodied in human nature, and
because the joy over an invention made, and the satisfaction felt at a
new discovery, in themselves are powerful impulses for the
employment of energies in such directions. A strong proof of the
correctness of this assertion the men of science furnish, whom we
have to thank for the most important discoveries, in so far as the
application of physical and chemical laws to industry are concerned
—which have been always handed over immediately to the public
with the utmost liberality. Others have based their inventions on such
laws, and managed to acquire for this one or that other a Patent, and
thus, to their own advantage and to the cost of the public, made an
invasion of territory hardly legitimately theirs. They reaped where
others had sowed.
Let us take, for instance, all the lighting apparatuses during the
last twenty-five years. The different lamp contrivances during this
period for which Patents have been granted by the industrial States
of Europe will number several hundreds. Now, if we sift the matter,
we will find that all these patented combinations are simply variations
of a principle which Berzelius established and applied to his spirit-
lamp.
Similar is the experience with the invention of Bunsen, who
reduced the costs of the electric battery considerably, by applying a
hard sort of coke in place of the platinum in Grove’s Battery.
In a still higher degree has Morse acted meritoriously. It is true,
Morse, in consideration of the signal importance of his invention, has
received a public reward in the shape of money, and this mode of
acknowledging real merit in the province of inventions recommends
itself for adoption even in individual States.
After the abolition of Patents, apart from such acknowledgments
as aforesaid, very soon associations of the various interested parties
who, by each discovery, would be equally benefited, will be formed
for the purpose of rewarding new inventions made in accordance
with indicated problems, the solution of which may be felt to be most
important to them.
For State rewards only such inventions should be taken
cognizance of as, according to their nature, cannot be kept secret,
and are not of a kind that will ensure to the inventor an adequate
reward by his own use of them.
Principles, which hitherto have not been admissible for Patents,
would be likewise excluded from rewards. There could be also no
premiums for new modes of manufacture, such as simpler or
cheaper manufacture of materials already known, and in the same
manner manufacture of new articles directly going into consumption,
because, in the first case, the secret use of the invention would
present an equivalent, while in the latter cases the start which the
inventor has with regard to manufacturing, as well as disposal,
before and over his competitors, in most cases is more than
sufficient reward for the merit of having given mankind new means of
satisfying human enjoyments and necessities. It was consequently a
timely Convention between the States of the Zollverein, which
already, under date of 21st September, 1842, acknowledged the
principle that the granting of a Patent henceforth could establish no
right to prohibit either the import or the sale, nor the use of articles
agreeing with those patented, as far as articles of consumption are
concerned, and that a right of that nature was only applicable to
machinery and tools for manufacturers and artisans.[10] Accordingly,
the granting of rewards would have to be restricted to inventors of
useful machinery and tools, who do not use them solely in their own
interest and keep their construction a secret, but, on the contrary,
make them accessible to everybody by multiplication.
With such regulations as to Patent-right in force in Germany, it will
be observed that here, as in other countries, the great disadvantage
arises from this, that by the patenting of an invention its utilisation or
trial is prohibited to home industry, while the foreigner is quite at
liberty to make use of it and to bring the articles in question to market
in the country where the Patent exists.
In this manner foreign industry is actually enjoying a preference, to
the detriment of the industry of that country in which the Patent is
granted; consequently even the patentee, through such foreign
competition, loses the intended reward partially. The example
furnished by the Patent on the manufacture of aniline colours in
France illustrates the case. On the whole, it is not to be denied that
those advantages which the Patent monopoly should guarantee are
often not in harmony either with the value or the importance of the
patented invention; just as often these advantages do not reach the
author of the invention at all, but flow into the pockets of such people
as make it a business either to purchase Patent-rights, and so work
them for their own account, or in partnership with the patentee,
taking care to secure for themselves the lion’s share. It is further
proved by experience that insignificant and most simple inventions
have often brought extraordinary advantages to the patentee, while
the discoverers of important novelties (we instance only Reissel, who
introduced the screw as a motor in navigation), in spite of Patent-
rights, could not find gratitude nor reward for what they
accomplished.
We arrive, consequently, at the conclusion, that the partly
imaginary advantages of Patents are outweighed by the
disadvantages attached, and that, as the industrial condition of
Switzerland exemplifies, no further use of such means is any longer
required in helping to elevate industry in all its branches to a very
high standard, or to keep pace with the development of other
countries in that direction.
[10] I cannot but think the patenting of machinery a great

disadvantage to any community. Yet if importing were allowed in
spite of the Patent, the exaction of heavy royalties, and of
royalties graduated according to work performed (which is the
greatest source of evil), would be impossible, and the
disadvantage be neutralised.—R. A. M.
EXTRACTS FROM M. VERMEIRE.
After most of this fasciculus is in type, I am favoured with a copy of
M. Vermeire’s “Le Libre Travail,” Brussels, 1864, from which I subjoin
three extracts.
The first, a noble passage quoted by that gentleman from M.
Bastiat’s “Harmonies Economiques:”—
“C’est la concurrence qui fait tomber dans le domains

commun toutes les conquêtes dont le génie de chaque siècle
accroît le trésor des générations qui le suivent. Tant qu’elle
n’est pas intervenue, tant que celui qui a utilisé un agent
naturel est maître de son secret, son agent naturel est gratuit
sans doute, mais il n’est pas encore commun; la conquête est
réalisée, mais elle l’est au profit d’un seul homme ou d’une
seule classe. Elle n’est pas encore un bienfait pour l’humanité
entière. Si les choses devaient rester ainsi avec toute
invention, un principe d’inégalité indéfinie s’introduirait dans le
monde; mais il n’en est pas ainsi, Dieu, qui a prodigué a
toutes ses créatures la chaleur, la lumière, la gravitation, l’air,
l’eau, la terre, les merveilles de la vie végétale, l’électricité et
tant d’autres bienfaits innombrables, Dieu, qui a mis dans
l’individualité l’intérêt personnel qui, comme un aimant, attire
toujours tout à lui, Dieu, dis-je, a placé aussi au sein de
l’ordre social un autre ressort anquel il a confié le soin de
conserver à ses bienfaits leur destination primitive, la gratuité,
la communauté. Ce ressort, c’est la concurrence.
“Ainsi l’intérêt personnel est cette indomptable force
individualiste qui nous fait chercher le progrès qui nous le fait
découvrir, qui nous y pousse l’aiguillon dans le flanc, mais qui
nous porte aussi a le monopoliser. La concurrence est cette
force humanitaire non moins indomptable qui arrache le
progrès, à mesure qu’il le réalise, des mains de l’individualité,
pour en faire l’héritage commun de la grande famille humaine.
Ces deux forces qu’on peut critiquer, quand on les considère
isolément, constituent dans leur ensemble, par le jeu de leurs
combinaisons, l’harmonie sociale.
“Et, pour le dire en passant, il n’est pas surprenant que
l’individualité, représentée par l’intérêt de l’homme en tant
que producteur, s’insurge depuis le commencement du
monde contre la concurrence, qu’elle la réprouve, qu’elle
cherche à la détruire, appelant à son aide la force, la ruse, le
privilége, le sophisme, la restriction, la protection
gouvernementale, le monopole.”
The second, portion of an interesting letter by M. Paillottet, éditeur-

commentateur of Bastiat’s works, (written in May, 1863):—
“Cette connaissance, résultat de son travail, est pour

toujours à lui; nul ne peut la lui enlever ni ne doit l’empêcher
de s’en servir.
“Seulement, comme la nature permet à d’autres hommes
de se livrer à la même recherche, qu’elle les y excite et
souvent même leur en fait une nécessité, le jour doit arriver
où la notion que cet homme possédait seul est aussi
possédée par d’autres. Ce jour-là, je dis que le premier
inventeur n’a plus seul le droit de se servir d’une notion qu’il
n’est plus seul à posséder. Prétendez-vous que je le dépouille
du résultat de son travail? J’ai à vous répondre: Si je
dépouille le premier, vous, vous dépouillez le second, le
troisième, le centième inventeur peut-être; si je dépouille le
Chinois, vous, vous dépouillez Guttemberg!
“Un mot maintenant sur le droit à la réciprocité de services.
“Je crois fermement, avec Bastiat, que ‘la véritable et
équitable loi des hommes, c’est: Echange librement débattu
de service contre service.’
“Si un inventeur me rend service, je lui dois un service
équivalent; Dieu me garde d’en disconvenir. Mas de même
que je n’exige pas de l’inventeur ses services et ne l’oblige
pas à en recevoir de moi, j’entends qu’il n’exige pas les miens
et ne m’impose pas les siens. Entre lui et moi, l’échange doit
être précédé d’un libre débat amenant le consentement des
deux parties. M. Le Hardy de Beaulieu oublie ou supprime la
nécessité du libre débat.”
The third, a narrative by my able and ardent Belgian fellow-

labourer in this great cause, the Abolition of Patents, M. Vermeire
himself, to whose work I refer readers. He will allow me to say I
impute it to no deficiency in courtesy on his part that it escaped
earlier and due notice. He there gives the Chambers of Commerce
of this kingdom credit for opinions which they have not generally
embraced up to this hour:—
“M. Eugène Flachat attaque la loi des brevets comme une

lépre industrielle. M. Arthur Legrand ne critique pas moins
vivement cette législation surannée ainsi que M. Michel
Chevalier, que l’on peut considérer, à juste titre, comme le
chef des économistes français.
“Quand l’opinion de ces hommes érudits me fut connue je
n’hésitai plus et je publiai l’exposé de ma doctrine du Libre
travail dans l’Economiste Belge du 28 Mars, 1863.—Plus tard
M. Macfie, president de la Chambre de Commerce de
Liverpool, fit connaître ses idées sur la matière et le congrès
des économistes allemands réuni à Dresde en Septembre,
1863, émit la résolution suivante qui fut adoptée à une forte
majorité:
“‘Considérant que les brevets d’invention n’encouragent
pas les progrès des inventions et mettent plutôt obstacle à la
réalisation de celles-ci.
“‘Considérant, que les brevets d’invention entravent plutôt
qu’ils ne favorisent la prompte exploitation des inventions
utiles et qu’ils ne sont pas un mode convenable de
récompense.
“‘Le congrès a résolu que les brevets d’invention sont
nuisibles au développement de la prospérité publique.’
“Cet avis des hommes de la science a été écouté en
Allemagne par les hommes de la pratique; car sur les 47
Chambres de Commerce que renferme la Prusse, 31
viennent de se prononcer pour l’abolition des brevets
d’invention d’après ce que je viens de lire dans les journaux,
au moment même où j’écris ces lignes.—
“Le libre travail qui fut suivi, de mon Examen critique de la
garantie légale des modèles et dessins de fabrique provoqua
une ardente discussion,” &c.
MOVEMENTS IN GERMANY,
BELGIUM, AND HOLLAND.
A Belgian projet de loi in favour of copyright of models and
designs in manufacture, having been defeated, in consequence, as
is alleged, of M. Vermeire’s efforts through the press and otherwise,
we are told—
“This fact demonstrates once more that in Belgium, as

everywhere else, opinions in favour of intellectual property
within the domain of industry are declining, and that so far
from legislation tending in the direction of giving such property
increased proportions, it will soon be proposed to demolish
entirely the superannuated legislation which interposes so
many and so serious obstacles to the progress of industrial
operations.
“The tactics of the partisans of such property consist in
identifying or assimilating it with material property. This
similarity permits the conclusions and deductions to be drawn
which form the basis of Patent legislation.
“The pretended identity or similarity has been completely
overthrown by M. Vermeire in his ‘Le Libre Travail.’ His
‘Examen Critique de la Garantie Légale des Modèles et
Dessins de Fabrique’ deals a fresh blow against the
confounding of property in a thing and property in an idea.”
EXTRACT OF LETTER, BRUSSELS, JUNE 11,

1869.
There is in Belgium, as in England and all other countries, a
feeling antagonistic to Patent-rights. It is even shared in by many
eminent political economists. I think, however, I may venture to
assert that in this country the Government, far from participating in
this feeling, would rather be inclined, in the event of a revision of the
Patent-Laws, to secure in a more effectual way the rights of
inventors.
GERMANY.
EXTRACT FROM LETTER OF AN EMINENT HOUSE IN
COLOGNE.
Although we think it rather difficult to form a general opinion on this

matter, we still believe that most Industrials would welcome abolition
of Patents for Inventions. The Cologne Chamber of Commerce
expressed, in September, 1863, its opinion in the same sense.
German legislation regarding Patents will probably be reformed. A
proposition made in this direction by Count Bismarck to the
Bundesrath, contained in the “Annalen des Norddeutschen Bundes,”
by Dr. George Hirth, 1ster Heft Jahrgang, 1869, page 34, 42, II.,
would interest you much, as it coincides, we believe, with your
motion. The latest publications in German literature on the subject
are Klostermann “Die Patents Gesetzgebung aller Lander,” Berlin,
1869; Barthel “Die Patent-frage,” Leipzig, 1869.
EXTRACT FROM “DIE PATENTS GESETZGEBUNG ALLER

LANDER,” BY DR. R. KLOSTERMANN (BERLIN, 1869).
A short time since, in the course of the present decade, the public
has spoken out, following numerous and important persons who
wished the entire abolition of Patents for inventions, because they
allege that the existence of such is incompatible with the free-trade
movements. They said that such impede industry instead of
advancing it; that the claim of the first inventor to a monopoly is
untenable; that discovery is not the work of one man, but the ripe
fruit of industrial development.
From the difficulty and complexity of the subject, men would do
away with Patent-Laws; but the real cause of the agitation against
them lies in the enormous development which our international
commerce has undergone in the last ten years through free-trade,
steam-boats, and railways.
As the complete abolition of the “customs-limits,” with the German
Zollverein [customs-union], was not made without a direct
transformation of the Patent-Laws and a positive limitation of Patent
protection, so is—through the concluding of the treaties of commerce
made during the last ten years between the Zollverein and France,
Great Britain, Belgium, and Italy—a total reform in the Patent-Law
rendered necessary.
All countries, with the single exception of Switzerland, recognise
by their existing laws the necessity of Patent protection; and this
case of Switzerland is particularly brought forward by those opposed
to the Patent movement. The Commission which was appointed of
Swiss experts (and which said that Patent protection is unnecessary
and tends to nothing good) was impartial enough to avow that the
particular advantages which Switzerland draws from existing
circumstances arise from the fact that in all the adjoining countries
the protection of Patents does exist, but in Switzerland alone not so.
Swiss industry, which is exceedingly small, is placed in the position
of imitating all foreign Patents which find a market in Switzerland,
and getting the benefit of the discoveries made under the protection
of foreign Patents. Switzerland is just in the position of a man who
keeps no cats because he can use his neighbours’.
HOLLAND.
I have before me a series of valuable illustrative documents
printed by the Government of the Netherlands, which are too long to
introduce here. The movement for abolishing Patents in that country,
already referred to on pages 196-230, was consummated by a
striking majority, in the First Chamber, of no less than 29 to 1; the
abolition to take effect from 1st January next, existing rights, of
course, to be respected.
ON PERPETUITY OF PATENT-RIGHT.
The following observations, abridged from a review, by M. Aug.
Boudron, of M. le Hardy de Beaulieu’s La Propriété et sa Rente, are
from the Journal des Economistes for May:—
The author assimilates the inventor’s privileges to proprietorship of
a field. Nevertheless there is a fundamental difference between the
two kinds of property. Independently of State privileges, the
originator of a discovery may use it as his own, and even to the
exclusion of all others, provided he keep it secret, so that he shall
have no competitor to encounter; whereas the owner of a field, if he
is deprived of his right, loses all. The advantages of an invention
may be enjoyed simultaneously by many persons; the produce of a
field by one only. Now for a difference of importance affecting the
interests of the public. Give the possessor of a field his right in
perpetuity, and you have circumstances the most favourable for its
yielding all the produce which it can. Not so with the privilege of an
inventor, for it essentially consists in hindering others from bringing
the methods or materials that are patented into use. From the time of
invention and first exploitation the privilege is an obstacle; it limits the
amount of good that society would in its absence enjoy. What, then,
is the motive of certain States in conceding this exclusive
privilege?... The legislators who have created the right thought that
there would in consequence be a larger number of useful inventions
and improvements, and that, on the whole, society would be a
greater gainer than if there were no Patents.... As there are
innumerable instruments and processes for which Patents have
been and might still be taken, there must, if perpetuity of privilege be
granted, be a prodigious number of monopolies, and almost no
operation could be performed, nothing done, without people being
obliged to pay tribute to some privileged person. There would be a
countless host of administrators like receivers of tolls and pontages,
diminishing wealth in place of creating it; the world would soon
produce too little to sustain the monopolists and their employés. We
thus arrive at an impossibility. But conceive all this possible, and the
world must yet miss a great number of inventions and improvements,
that would under the system of perpetuity be prevented. This is seen
by the obstacles which even privileges of limited duration throw in
the way of new inventions. In actual practice progress is often
attained only by the use of previous inventions. But what if these are
the subject of Patents the holder of which will not come to terms or
cannot be treated with? Retardation, if the privilege is temporary; a
full stop, if perpetual.
NOTES ILLUSTRATIVE OF MR.
MACFIE’S SPEECH.
[Page 17.]
The views taken in the text as to the meaning of the word
“manufacture” receive confirmation from the following extract from
the Engineer of June 4, 1869:—
THE AMERICAN PATENT-LAW.

... Accordingly, in the first general Patent-Law passed by
Congress, the subject for which Patents were to be granted were
described as the invention or discovery of “any useful art,
manufacture, engine, machine, or device, or any improvement
therein not before known or used.” In the next statute—that of 21st
February, 1793—the phraseology was first introduced which has
been ever since employed—namely, “any new and useful art,
machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and
useful improvement in any art, machine, manufacture, or
composition of matter, not known or used before the application for a
Patent.”... We have, then, the following four heads of subjects
suitable for Patents—viz., an art, a machine, a manufacture, and a
composition of matter.... In England, to make a new process the
subject of a Patent, the word “manufacture” would be used, and
would have to be interpreted somewhat liberally. Thus, in some
cases, there might not be a perfect distinction between the thing
itself and the art or process of making the thing.... With regard to the
head “manufacture,” we cannot do better than give the definition
which Mr. Curtis has added as a note to his work. He says a
manufacture “would be any new combination of old materials,
constituting a new result or production in the form of a vendible
article, not being machinery.”...
As well as from the following extract from—
HINDMARCH ON “VENDING OR SELLING.”

“The sole privilege of making the invention as expressed ... is in
truth the same in substance as the sole privilege of using and
exercising it.... By the first section of the Statute of Monopolies,
patents granting ‘the sole buying, selling, making, working, or using
of anything’ are declared to be void, and the proviso in favour of
inventions contained in the sixth section only extends to ‘grants of
privilege of the sole working or making of any manner of new
manufactures,’ leaving the sole buying or selling of anything within
the prohibition.... The sole privilege granted by a Patent for an
invention authorises the inventor ‘to make, use, exercise, and vend’
the invention.... And as no one can use the invention except the
patentee, no one besides him can lawfully have such articles for
sale.... Every part of the privilege granted by a Patent for an
invention, when thus explained (!) is therefore clearly within the
meaning of the exception contained in the Statute....”
I demur. Is there anything in the Statute to prevent a person
importing articles and vending them though the same as the
privileged person is alone allowed to make or work? In point of fact
that surely might, when the statute was passed, be done from
Scotland and Ireland as to manufactures not patented in these
countries, but patented in England.
[Page 18.]
The number of Patents granted in the first fifty years after the
Statute of Monopolies was seventy-two, or at the rate of less than
one and a-half per annum.
[Page 19.]
The following list of applications for Patents up to the end of 1862,
in several classes, is abridged from Mr. Edwards’ interesting treatise
on, or rather against, “Letters Patent for Inventions:”—
Oct., 1852, to Before Total.
Dec. 31, 1862. Oct., 1852.
Railways and Railway
1,418 630 2,018
Carriages
Telegraphs 558 109 667
Steam and Steam Boilers 1,293 377 1,670
Steam-engines 1,228 704 1,932
Spinning 1,837 1,120 2,957
Electricity, Galvanism, and
662 38 700
Electroplating
Sewing and Embroidery 352 40 392
Heating and Evaporating 1,108 373 1,481
Fireplaces, Grates 317 169 481
Flues and Chimneys 278 75 353
Fuel 227 129 356
Ventilating Buildings,
392 81 473
Carriages, Ships, &c.
SUGGESTIVE EXTRACTS FROM DR. PERCY’S

WORKS ON METALLURGY.
[Page 34.]
The Copper Trade.
It would be sheer waste of time even to notice many of the mis-

called improvements in copper—something for which Patents have
been granted in this country during the last twenty years. Some of
the patentees display such deplorable ignorance of the first
principles of chemistry, and such utter want of practical knowledge,
as would seem hardly possible with the present facilities of acquiring
information.
Various Patents have been granted for alleged improvements in
the treating of copper ores, of certain products obtained in the
smelting of copper ores, &c., which are only worthy of notice as
affording, as I conceive, satisfactory illustrations of the defective
state of our existing Patent-Laws.... That a man who has worked out
an original and valuable process from his own brain, and who may
have incurred great expenses in bringing it to a practical issue—it
may be, after years of protracted toil and anxiety—should have
secured to him by law during a moderate term the exclusive privilege
of reaping the substantial reward of his own invention, appears to me
as just and reasonable as that an author should be protected against
piratical and unprincipled publishers. But that the law should confer
upon a man the exclusive right of appropriating to his own benefit
facts which are perfectly familiar to every tyro in chemistry, and of
practising operations which are of daily occurrence in the
laboratories of chemists, is as impolitic as it is unjust. And surely, the
particular “inventions” above referred to belong to this category. I
cordially subscribe to the opinion expressed by Mr. Grove, Q.C.—
namely, that the real object of Patent-Law was to reward not trivial
inventions, which stop the way to greater improvements, but
substantial boons to the public; not changes such as any
experimentalist makes a score a day in his laboratory, but
substantial, practical discoveries, developed into an available form.
The Hot Blast.
It cannot strictly be termed a great invention, for what great

exercise of the inventive faculty could it possibly have required for its
development? There was no elaborate working out of a process or
machine, as has been the case in many inventions, but the thing was
done at once. Without wishing in the smallest degree to detract from
the merit to which Mr. Neilson is justly entitled, I may nevertheless
express my opinion that the hot-blast was a lucky hit rather than an
invention, properly so-called. Whatever opinion may be entertained
as to the expediency of Patents, there can be no doubt that such a
Patent as this ought never to have been granted. A Patent, even
though it may be proved invalid, confers upon its possessor a locus
standi in the eye of the law, and enables him thereby to involve
innocent persons in most expensive litigation, to say nothing of the
attendant annoyance and anxiety. The preliminary examination
before the Attorney or Solicitor-General is in many cases an absolute
farce, and nothing less. The present system, although confessedly
an improvement on the old one, is yet in many cases highly
obstructive and injurious to national interests.
[Page 50.]
The following passage from the Engineer of May 28, proves
clearly that the Bessemer Patents do raise prices of iron:—
The present royalty on rails is 2l. per ton; on each ton a drawback
of 1l. is nominally allowed, but the nature of Mr. Bessemer’s
arrangements with regard to scrap, crop ends, waste, &c., is such
that the true royalty on every ton of Bessemer rails delivered to a
railway company—in other words, sold—amounts to about 1l. 5s. 6d.
After the lapse of Mr. Bessemer’s Patents in February, 1870, this
sum, all but 2s. 6d. per ton royalty on plant, will be saved; and,
therefore, in March next year, rails may be bought for at least 1l. 3s.
per ton less than they cost now.
WORKING MEN AS INVENTORS.

[Page 62.]
Somewhat to my surprise, I am led to apprehend that the interest
of working men will be represented as coinciding with retention of
invention monopoly. I hope they are too wide awake to believe such
a fallacy, and too upright to approve of the continuance of a proved
national disadvantage, even though it were not a fallacy. If Patents
are injurious to the community by raising prices of articles of
consumption and utility, then the operative and labouring classes,
inasmuch as they constitute the bulk of the population, must be the
chief sufferers. If Patents interfere with labour in any direction, and
tend to drive trade away from our island, they, as the mainstays of
industry, must be the chief sufferers. The only pretence for such an
allegation as I am combating is this: some inventions in all trades,
many inventions in some trades, are made by artisans, who
therefore will lose this form of reward. True enough; but is the reward
to these few individuals a compensation for the evils inflicted on the
many—the millions? and is not the reward often so like the gift of a
white elephant, or the catching of a Tartar—so much of a delusion, a
difficulty, a disadvantage, a snare, a ruin—that their wisest
counsellors would warn against its fascination, especially if through
their own favour for my propositions there is the choice of fair and
satisfactory alternative recompenses? The position of working men
in respect to Patents is frequently dealt with in this compilation; their
attention and co-operation I respectfully invite.
THE INVENTORS’ INSTITUTE.

An Inventors’ Institute has been formed for the purpose of
maintaining the Patent System, and amending it in such a way as, I
fear and am sure, will only make its yoke more galling and its burden
heavier. The public will do well to remember that, in spite of the
name, this is rather a society of patentees, including in its
membership a portion only of those inventors who take Patents, and
not including the innumerable inventors who do not take Patents,
and who suffer by the system which the Institute is intended to
perpetuate, extend, and knit more tightly on us all and in the first
place on them. The honoured names who direct that society will do
well to consider who are inventors and what are inventions. If they
would but reflect that we are almost to a man inventors in the sense
in which the great mass of patentees are such, and that the majority
of inventions which choke the Patent-office are such as themselves,
at any rate, would disdain to claim and scorn to annoy their fellows
by patenting, they would probably arrive at the conviction—which is
half-way on the road to complete emancipation of trade from the
fetters they hug—that the system is so practically bad that
rectification is hopeless, and would join in endeavours, not to amend
what is, even theoretically, defective and bad, but to devise and
introduce a thoroughly good substitute. I hope the present
publication will not be in vain, when it endeavours to remove well-
meaning prepossessions by force of truth.

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Multiple Choice Questions:

1) The idea that psychological processes can affect bodily states

2) “Voodoo Death” is a phenomenon in which

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5) The theorist argued that the biomedical model of disease should be

6) Which of the following would most likely be considered a treatable problem in

7) is defined as the application of psychological methods and theories to

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9) The difference between a sign and a symptom is

11) Illness is defined by which are whereas disease is defined

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16) Adrenocorticotrophic hormone

18) It is increasingly recognized that released during stress plays an

19) Most organs that are innervated by the sympathetic system

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20) Sympathetic is to parasympathetic system as

22) The process of engulfing and digesting invading organisms is called

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27) Primary appraisal involves

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28) Secondary appraisal is analogous to asking the question

29) Which of the following behaviours may NOT be considered emotion-focused

30) Therapists might find it difficult to steer clients towards methods of

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35) Individuals with an internal locus of control typically believe themselves

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39) A study on predictability conducted by Weiss (1970) discovered a relationship

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40) A study on controllability by Weiss (1971) discovered that

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46) In terms of cardiovascular functioning, which of the following is a controllable risk

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47) Under precisely defined conditions in a doctor's office, hypertension is defined by

48) The stress reactivity paradigm is used

49) Cardiovascular reactivity refers to

50) Type A people in general show more of the following except

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51) A number of studies using the have found an association between

52) The psychosocial vulnerability model suggests that hostile people

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55) Cognitive-behavioural techniques aimed at stress management do so by

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D) be as effective as drug treatment if targeted and individualized to each patient.

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62) A sign is a unmeasurable subjective experience of illness.

63) A lesion is a symptom of a physical illness.

64) ACTH is secreted by the pineal gland.

66) One of the effects produced by cortisol is the reduction of inflammation.

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68) The endocrine system is characterized by manufacturing hormones that produce an

71) In comparison to sympathetic system innervation, which relies on hormonal

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72) Cellular immunity is based on the action of granulocytes and monocytes.

73) In humoral immunity, invading antigens are presented by macrophages to B-