Computer Fundamentals

Assignment Set – 1

1)
a) Elaborate the classification of computers.

Computers can be classified into various categories based on different criteria such as
their size, functionality, processing power, and intended use. Here are some common
classifications of computers:
Supercomputers: Supercomputers are the most powerful and fastest computers
available. They are used for complex scientific calculations, weather forecasting,
molecular modeling. Supercomputers are typically large in size and consist of multiple
processors working in parallel.
Mainframe Computers: Mainframe computers are large and powerful machines
designed to handle extensive data processing and serve multiple users simultaneously.
Minicomputers: Minicomputers, also known as midrange computers that are often used
for tasks that require moderate computing power, such as scientific research,
engineering design, and industrial control systems.
Personal Computers (PCs): Personal computers are the most familiar type of computer
used by individuals for general-purpose computing. They come in various forms such
as desktops, laptops, and tablets. PCs are suitable for tasks like word processing, web
browsing, multimedia consumption, and running a wide range of software applications.
Workstations: Workstations are high-performance computers optimized for specialized
tasks such as computer-aided design (CAD), video editing, 3D modeling, and scientific
simulations. They typically have powerful processors, abundant memory, advanced
graphics capabilities, and multiple storage options.
Servers: Servers are computers designed to provide resources and services to other
computers, known as clients, over a network. They are used for tasks such as hosting
websites, managing databases, file storage, and network infrastructure.
Embedded Computers: Embedded computers are specialized computers integrated into
other devices and systems. They are designed to perform specific functions and are
often found in everyday devices such as smartphones, automobiles, home appliances,
industrial machinery, and medical equipment.
 Besides these above, smartphones and tablets, wearable computers, quantum computers
are some other classification of computers.

b) Explain the key characteristics of each generation of computers.

The evolution of computers can be divided into five generations, each characterized
by significant advancements in technology and computing capabilities. Here are the
key characteristics of each generation:
a) First Generation (1940s-1950s):
 Vacuum Tubes
 Large Size
 High Power Consumption
 Limited Programming
 Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC I, EDVAC, and EDSAC.
b) Second Generation (1950s-1960s):
 Transistors
 Smaller Size
 Assembly Language and High-Level Languages
 Magnetic Core Memory
 Examples: IBM 1401, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, and UNIVAC 1107.
c) Third Generation (1960s-1970s):
 Integrated Circuits
 Multiple Users
 High-Level Languages
 Operating Systems
 Examples: IBM System/360, DEC PDP-11, and IBM 370/168.
d) Fourth Generation (1970s-1980s):
 Microprocessors
 Personal Computers
 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
 Storage Advancements
 Examples: Apple II, IBM PC, Commodore 64, and Atari ST.
e) Fifth Generation (1980s-Present):
 VLSI Technology
  Networking and the Internet
 Graphical and Multimedia Capabilities
 Mobile Computing
 Artificial Intelligence (AI)
 Examples: IBM Deep Blue, Apple Macintosh, IBM Watson, and modern
laptops/smartphones.

It's important to note that these generations are not strictly defined, and advancements
in technology often overlap. Additionally, subsequent generations have built upon the
achievements of earlier generations, leading to increasingly powerful and versatile
computers.

2) Convert (1D7F)16 to an Octal system number and (5A9.63)16 to a decimal system

number.
 (1𝐷7𝐹) to octal system.

Step 1: 1 = 0001 D = 1101 7 = 0111 F = 1111 (Conversion into Binary system)

Step 2: 0001 1101 0111 11112
Step 3 : 0 001 110 101 111 112 (Grouping into set of three digits from the right)
Step 4: 00 = 0 011 = 3 101 = 5 011 = 3 111 = 7 112 = 14 (Conversion into Octal
System)
. .̇ (1𝐷7𝐹) = 0165757

 (5A9.63)16 to a decimal system number.

5A9 (in base 16)

=(5𝑋16 ) + (10𝑋16 ) + (9𝑋10 )
= (5 * 256) + (10 * 16) + (9 * 1)
= 1280 + 160 + 9
= 1449
Also,
Converting the fractional part to decimal. 0.63 (in base 16)
= (6𝑋16 ) + (3𝑋16 )

= +

= 0.375 + 0.01171875
= 0.38671875
 Combine the decimal values of the integer and fractional parts.
Decimal value = Integer part + Fractional part
= 1449 + 0.38671875
= 1449.38671875

3)
a) Discuss the advanced formatting options available in MS Word.
Microsoft Word offers a wide range of advanced formatting options that enable users
to customize the appearance and layout of their documents. These options allow for
precise control over elements such as fonts, paragraphs, headings, tables, and more.
Here are some of the key advanced formatting options available in MS Word:
a) Styles:
Styles provide a consistent and efficient way to format text throughout a document.
Word offers built-in styles for headings, titles, quotes, and other elements.
b) Themes:
Themes in Word are sets of coordinated fonts, colors, and effects that give a
document a consistent and professional look.
c) Page Layout:
Word allows users to control the layout and formatting of pages. This includes
setting page margins, adjusting page orientation (portrait or landscape), defining
page sizes, adding headers and footers, and controlling page numbering.
d) Tables:
Word offers a powerful set of tools for creating and formatting tables. Users can
insert tables, define the number of rows and columns, format cells, apply borders
and shading, and perform calculations within cells.
e) Paragraph Formatting:
Word provides extensive options for formatting paragraphs. Users can set alignment
(left, right, center, or justified), adjust indentation, apply line spacing, control
paragraph spacing, and set first-line or hanging indents.
f) Bullets and Numbering:
Word offers various bullet and numbering styles to organize and present
information. Users can choose from a range of predefined bullet styles or customize
their own.
 g) Fonts and Typography:
Word provides a wide selection of fonts to choose from, allowing users to customize
the appearance of their text. Additionally, users can modify font size, style (bold,
italic, underline), color, and apply effects like strikethrough or subscript/superscript.
h) Page Borders and Watermarks:
Word enables users to add decorative borders to pages or specific sections within a
document. Watermarks, such as "Confidential" or "Draft," can be added to indicate
the status of the document.
b) How would you create a custom template and apply it quickly to slides?

To create a custom template in Microsoft Word and apply it quickly to slides in

Microsoft PowerPoint, you can follow these steps:
Creating a Custom Template in Word:
Step 1 : Open Microsoft Word and create a new document.
Step 2 : Customize the document's formatting, such as font styles, colors, page layout,
headers, footers, and any other desired elements.
Step 3 : Once the document is formatted according to your preferences, click on the
"File" tab in the top-left corner.
Step 4 : Select "Save As" and choose the location where you want to save the template.
Step 5 : In the "Save as type" dropdown menu, choose "Word Template (.dotx)" or
"Word Macro-Enabled Template (.dotm)" format.
Step 6 : Enter a name for your template and click "Save."

Applying the Custom Template to PowerPoint Slides:

Step 1 : Open Microsoft PowerPoint.
Step 2 : Click on the "File" tab in the top-left corner.
Step 3 : Select "New" to create a new presentation.
Step 4 : In the search bar, type "Custom Templates" or navigate to the location where
you saved your custom Word template.
Step 5 : Select the custom template you created in Word. PowerPoint will automatically
apply the template to your slides.
Step 6 : Start adding content and modifying the slides using the template as a starting
point.
 By creating a custom template in Word and then applying it in PowerPoint, you can
ensure consistency in formatting and design across your presentation slides. It saves
time and effort by providing a pre-defined structure and visual elements for your
presentation.

Computer Fundamentals
Assignment Set – 2

4)
a) Explain various design strategies for software system design.

There are several design strategies or principles that can be employed to create effective
and efficient software solutions.
Here are some commonly used design strategies:

a) Modularity: This strategy focuses on breaking down a complex system into

smaller, independent modules or components. Each module performs a specific
function and interacts with other modules through well-defined interfaces.
Modularity promotes code reusability, maintainability, and scalability.
b) Abstraction: Abstraction involves hiding unnecessary details and exposing only
the essential features of a system or component. It helps in managing complexity
and enhances the understandability of the software. By abstracting away
implementation details, developers can focus on high-level concepts and design
interfaces that are easy to work with.
c) Separation of Concerns: This strategy aims to divide a system into distinct
sections, each responsible for handling a specific concern or functionality.
Separating concerns improves code organization, allows for independent
development and testing of components, and facilitates code reuse.
d) Encapsulation: Encapsulation involves bundling data and the operations that
manipulate that data into a single unit called an object. It promotes data hiding,
meaning that the internal workings of an object are hidden from other objects.
Encapsulation enhances security, modifiability, and code maintainability by
enforcing access restrictions and providing a clear interface for interacting with
objects.
 e) Loose Coupling: This design strategy emphasizes minimizing dependencies
between software components. Loose coupling reduces the impact of changes in
one component on others, making the system more flexible and easier to maintain.

These design strategies are not mutually exclusive, and often multiple strategies are
combined to create robust and well-designed software systems. The specific strategies
employed may vary depending on the nature of the system, its requirements, and the
preferences of the development team.

b) What are the four quality measures for building software products?

There are various quality measures for building software products, and different
organizations may emphasize different aspects based on their specific requirements.
However, here are four commonly recognized quality measures in software
development:
a) Functionality:
Functionality refers to the ability of a software product to deliver the intended
features and perform the desired tasks. It involves ensuring that the software meets
the functional requirements specified in the project's scope and design.
Functionality is typically assessed through thorough testing and validation
processes to identify any bugs, defects, or deviations from expected behavior.
b) Reliability:
Reliability measures the software's ability to perform consistently and predictably
over a specified period or under specific conditions. It involves ensuring that the
software operates as intended and can handle various scenarios without failure or
unexpected errors. Reliability is often assessed through techniques like testing for
fault tolerance, performance under stress, and monitoring for failures in real-world
usage.
c) Usability:
Usability focuses on how easily users can interact with and utilize the software
product. It involves designing the user interface and overall user experience to be
intuitive, efficient, and user-friendly. Usability assessments often involve user
testing, gathering feedback, and making iterative improvements to enhance the
software's ease of use, learnability, and overall user satisfaction.
d) Maintainability:
Maintainability measures the ease with which the software product can be modified,
updated, and extended over its lifecycle. It involves factors like code readability,
modularity, documentation, and the use of industry-standard practices.
Maintainable software is easier to troubleshoot, debug, enhance, and adapt to
changing requirements. Code reviews, adherence to coding standards, and the use
of version control systems contribute to maintaining software quality.
 While these four quality measures are widely recognized, it's worth noting that other
factors, such as performance, security, scalability, and efficiency, may also be important
depending on the nature of the software being developed.
5)
a) Enlist the main functions of the operating system.

An operating system (OS) is a software program that acts as an interface between

computer hardware and software applications. It performs various functions to facilitate
the efficient and reliable operation of a computer system. Here are some common
functions of an operating system:
a) Process management: The OS manages the execution of processes or programs,
allocating system resources such as CPU time, memory, and input/output devices.
It creates, schedules, and terminates processes, ensuring fair and efficient utilization
of system resources.
b) Memory management: The OS handles memory allocation and management,
keeping track of available memory, allocating memory to processes, and handling
memory deallocation when processes no longer need it. It ensures efficient
utilization of memory and prevents conflicts between processes.
c) File system management: The OS provides a file system that organizes and
manages files on storage devices such as hard drives. It enables file creation,
deletion, and manipulation, as well as providing features like file access control,
directory structures, and file metadata management.
d) Device management: The OS manages input/output (I/O) devices such as
keyboards, mice, printers, disks, and network interfaces. It handles device driver
communication, device allocation, and synchronization, ensuring that multiple
processes can use devices without conflicts.
e) User interface: The OS provides a user interface (UI) that allows users to interact
with the computer system. This can be a command-line interface (CLI) or a
graphical user interface (GUI). The UI enables users to run programs, manage files,
configure system settings, and perform various tasks.
f) Network management: In networked environments, the OS facilitates network
communication by providing protocols and services for network connectivity. It
handles tasks such as IP address allocation, routing, and network security, allowing
users and applications to communicate over a network.
g) Security management: The OS includes security mechanisms to protect the system
and user data. It controls access to system resources, enforces user authentication
and authorization, and implements security features like encryption, firewalls, and
antivirus software to safeguard against unauthorized access and malicious activities.
h) Error handling and recovery: The OS detects and handles errors or exceptions
that may occur during system operation. It provides mechanisms for error reporting,
error handling, and system recovery, aiming to minimize system downtime and data
loss.
i) Task scheduling: The OS employs scheduling algorithms to determine the order in
which processes are executed on the CPU. It ensures fair access to system resources
and optimizes resource utilization based on priority, deadlines, and other factors.
 j) System monitoring and performance management: The OS monitors system
performance, resource usage, and system health. It provides tools and utilities to
track system metrics, diagnose issues, and optimize performance.
These functions can vary slightly depending on the type of operating system (e.g.,
Windows, macOS, Linux) and the specific features and capabilities provided by
different OS versions.
b) Describe various components of operating system.

An operating system (OS) is a software program that manages and controls computer
hardware and software resources, providing a stable and efficient environment for other
software applications to run. It consists of several components that work together to
perform different tasks. Here are the various components of an operating system:
a) Kernel:
The kernel is the core component of the operating system. It provides essential
services, such as memory management, process management, device management,
and file system management. It acts as a bridge between the hardware and software
components of the system.
b) File System:
The file system is responsible for organizing and managing files and directories on
storage devices, such as hard drives and solid-state drives. It provides methods for
creating, reading, writing, and deleting files, as well as organizing them into a
hierarchical structure.
c) Process Management:
Process management involves managing and controlling the execution of processes
or programs on a computer system. The operating system schedules processes,
allocates system resources (CPU time, memory, and I/O devices) to them, and
provides mechanisms for inter-process communication and synchronization.
d) Memory Management:
Memory management deals with allocating and managing the computer's primary
memory (RAM) effectively. It keeps track of which parts of memory are in use by
processes and allocates memory to processes as needed. It also handles memory
swapping and paging, allowing the operating system to use secondary storage (such
as the hard disk) as an extension of the main memory.
e) User Interface:
The user interface enables interaction between the user and the operating system. It
can be in the form of a command-line interface (CLI) or a graphical user interface
(GUI). The CLI allows users to enter commands manually, while the GUI provides
a visual environment with icons, windows, and menus for easier interaction.
f) File and Data Management:
Operating systems provide utilities for creating, opening, closing, and manipulating
files and data. They handle file permissions, file attributes, and data organization,
ensuring data integrity and preventing data loss.
6)
a) Discuss the TCP/IP protocol layers with the help of a diagram.

The TCP/IP protocol stack is a set of networking protocols used for communication
over the Internet and other interconnected networks. It consists of four layers, each
responsible for specific functions. Here is a description of each layer along with a
diagram illustrating the TCP/IP protocol layers:
a) Application Layer:
 The Application layer is the topmost layer of the TCP/IP stack.
 It provides network services directly to user applications and high-level
protocols.
 Examples of protocols at this layer include HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, and Telnet.
 Application layer data is encapsulated into TCP or UDP segments for further
transport.
b) Transport Layer:
 The Transport layer handles end-to-end communication between hosts and
ensures reliable data transfer.
 It provides connection-oriented (TCP) or connectionless (UDP) transport
services.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) offers reliable, ordered, and error-checked
data delivery with flow control and congestion control.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) provides an unreliable, connectionless transport
service without the overhead of reliability mechanisms.
 Transport layer data is segmented into packets and passed to the Internet layer
for routing.
c) Internet Layer:
 The Internet layer (also known as the Network layer) deals with logical
addressing and routing of data across networks.
 It uses IP (Internet Protocol) for addressing and routing packets.
 IP defines unique IP addresses for each device on the network and handles the
fragmentation and reassembly of packets if necessary.
 The Internet layer encapsulates data into IP packets and forwards them based
on destination IP addresses.
 It also performs routing functions to determine the best path for packet delivery.
d) Link Layer:
 The Link layer (also known as the Network Interface layer or Network Access
layer) is responsible for transmitting data packets over the physical network
medium.
 It interacts directly with the network hardware, such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or DSL.
 The Link layer adds hardware-specific headers and trailers to the IP packets to
form frames that can be transmitted over the physical medium.
 It also handles error detection and correction, media access control, and physical
addressing (MAC addresses).
 Here's a simplified diagram illustrating the TCP/IP protocol layers:
In this diagram, the Application
layer interacts with user
applications, such as web
browsers or email clients. The
Transport layer receives data
from the application layer and
segments it into TCP or UDP
packets. The Internet layer adds
IP addressing and routes the
packets across networks.
Finally, the Link layer transmits
the packets over the physical
network medium.
b) Explain how internet works.

The Internet is a global network of interconnected devices and computer networks that
allows the exchange of information and communication between users all around the
world. It is a complex system, but I'll provide a simplified explanation of how it works.
a) Devices and Endpoints: The Internet connects a vast array of devices, including
computers, smartphones, tablets, servers, and more. Each device is assigned a
unique identifier called an IP (Internet Protocol) address, which enables it to send
and receive data.
b) Protocols: The Internet operates on a set of rules and protocols that facilitate the
exchange of information. The most fundamental protocol is the Internet Protocol
(IP), which defines how data packets are addressed and transmitted across the
network. Other important protocols include Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
for reliable data delivery and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for web
communication.
c) Data Transmission: When you send or receive information over the Internet, it is
broken down into smaller units called packets. Each packet contains a portion of
the data, as well as addressing information such as the source and destination IP
addresses. These packets are then routed through the network based on the
addressing information.
d) Routers and Switches: Routers are network devices that receive packets and
determine the most efficient path for them to reach their destination. They analyze
the IP addresses within the packets and forward them to the next router along the
path. Switches, on the other hand, connect devices within a local network and
facilitate the flow of data between them.
e) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): ISPs are companies that provide users with
access to the Internet. They have their own network infrastructure and connect to
other ISPs, forming the backbone of the Internet. When you subscribe to an ISP,
they assign you an IP address and provide you with the necessary connectivity to
access the Internet.
f) Domain Name System (DNS): The DNS is a system that translates human-
readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses. When you
enter a domain name in your web browser, the DNS server associated with your ISP
resolves the domain name to the corresponding IP address, allowing your device to
establish a connection with the intended server.
g) Client-Server Model: Many Internet-based services operate on a client-server
model. Clients are devices or software applications that request and consume
information or services, such as web browsers. Servers are powerful computers that
store and deliver content or services requested by clients.
h) Security: Security is a crucial aspect of the Internet. Encryption protocols such as
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) ensure that data
transmitted over the network is encrypted and protected from unauthorized access.
Firewalls, antivirus software, and other security measures are employed to
safeguard networks and devices from potential threats.