Adult Development and Aging 8th

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 CHAPTER 6: ATTENTION AND MEMORY

Chapter Outline

This chapter serves as an introduction to the popular store model of information processing. The chapter
discusses the application of information processing to the cognitive processes of memory and intellectual
functioning. This section is often best covered by class discussion of the issues, such as the data that
could lead to controversy (e.g., not allowing older adults to drive or when to revoke the driver’s licenses
of older adults). Memory is influential in almost every aspect of daily life. Memory can be both an end
(how much do we remember) and a means to an end (the ability to tell people about ourselves).
Differences in active processing mechanisms are discussed, along with how people function in everyday
life despite normative memory losses.

I) OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL

A) Information-Processing Model
1) Information enters the system and is transformed, coded, and stored in various ways
2) Three assumptions of the information-processing approach
(a) People are active participants in the process
(b) Both quantitative and qualitative aspects of performance can be examined
(c) Information is processed through a series of processes
B) Sensory Memory
1) Sensory memory is a brief and almost identical representation of the stimuli that exist in the
observable environment
C) Attention: The Basics
1) Functional perspective: Attention is composed of separate dimensions serving different
functions
2) Attentional control is linked to the parietofrontal lobes
D) Speed of Processing
1) How quickly and efficiently the early steps in information processing are completed
(a) Evidence including neuroimaging studies indicates age-related slowing depends on what
adults are being asked to do (e.g., choosing which response to make)
(b) The amount of beta-amyloid protein in the central nervous system is related to the degree
processing speed slows
E) Processing Resources
1) The amount of attention one has to apply to a particular situation
2) Two possible reasons for decline in processing with age:
(a) Inhibitory loss: Older adults may have difficulty inhibiting the processing of irrelevant
information
(i) Emotionally supportive messages reduce distracting thoughts and improve
performance on everyday tasks
(b) Attentional changes: But older adults are not worse than younger adults at dividing
attention (performing multiple tasks simultaneously), in general
(i) Older adults are just as able to multitask but perform each task a bit more slowly
(ii) Older adults focus on walking and maintaining balance at the expense of memory
F) Automatic and Effortful Processing

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or
in part.
 1) Automatic processing places minimal demands on attentional capacity and gets information
into the system largely without us being aware of it
(a) Performance on tasks that depend on automatic processes does not demonstrate
significant age differences
2) Effortful processing requires all of the available attentional capacity
(a) When there is effort and deliberate processing involved to remember the information, age
differences emerge

II) MEMORY PROCESSES

A) Working Memory: The active processes and structures involved in holding information in mind
and using that information, sometimes in conjunction with incoming information, to solve a
problem, make a decision, or learn new information
1) Plays an active, critical, and central role in encoding, storage, and retrieval
2) A limited-span capacity where only a few items can be processed at once
3) Unlike a more passive short-term memory, also with a limited capacity, working memory
shows a greater age-related decline
4) Here information obtains meaning and is transformed for longer storage; thus, it is extremely
important for information processing
5) Working memory capacity declines with age and seems to be related to:
(a) Declines in storage capacity
(b) Declines in ability to allocate capacity to more than one task
(c) Slower rates of information processing
6) Age-related declines are not universal; however, they are greater
(a) For spatial working memory than for verbal working memory, although there are
declines in both
(b) Greater working knowledge in older adults appears to counterbalance declines in
working memory in some situations
(c) On more complex tasks relative to simpler ones
B) Implicit versus Explicit Memory
1) Implicit Memory: Facilitation or change in task performance that is attributable to having
been exposed to information at some earlier point in time but does not involve active explicit
memory
(a) Results from studies are mixed, and this type of memory is generally spared from age-
related declines
2) Explicit memory: The deliberate and conscious remembering of information learned and
remembered at a specific time
(a) Performance on explicit memory tasks declines with age

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in part.
 C) Long-Term Memory: Involves the ability to remember rather extensive amounts of information
over a few seconds to a few hours to decades
1) A large-capacity store that is not a single unitary construct, but consists of multiple systems
that are functionally different and served by different brain structure
(a) Semantic memory: Concerns learning and remembering the meaning of words and
concepts that are not tied to any specific occurrences of events in time (e.g., knowing the
definitions of words)
(i) Deliberate and effortful system of long-term memory
(b) Episodic memory: The general class of memory having to do with the conscious
recollection of information from a specific event or time (e.g., what you did on spring
break)
(i) Deliberate and effortful system of long-term memory
(c) Age differences in semantic memory
(i) Semantic memory is relatively spared in normal aging
(ii) Changes can happen if it becomes hard to access and retrieve if the knowledge is not
used and if adults are experiencing momentary retrieval failure (tip-of-the-tongue)
(d) Age differences in episodic memory
(i) Older adults perform worse than younger adults on recall tests
▪ Omit more information
▪ Include more intrusions
▪ Repeat more previously recalled items
(ii) Less difference with recognition tests
▪ Older adults are more likely to say they recognize items that were never
presented
▪ Change in brain activity in the prefrontal cortex
(iii) Autobiographical memory is more resistant to declining
D) Age Differences in Encoding versus Retrieval
1) Encoding
(a) A strategy is anything people do to make the task easier and increase the efficiency of
encoding or retrieval
(b) The spontaneous use of strategies during the learning of new information declines with
age
(c) Changes in the left lateral prefrontal cortex underlie the encoding declines
2) Retrieval
(a) Older adults tend to spontaneously use fewer retrieval strategies than younger adults
3) Neuroscience evidence
(a) Pet scans show age differences in how the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus work
together
(b) Age-related compensatory brain activity for retrieval to work around the normal changes
occurring in information processing.

VII) MEMORY IN CONTEXT

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in part.
 A) Prospective Memory
1) Remembering to perform a planned action in the future
2) Differences between event-based and time-based future events
(a) Time-based remembering is more age related
3) Autobiographical memory
(a) Involves remembering information and events from our own life
(b) It is a form of episodic memory
(c) Flashbulb memories are vivid memories of very personal or emotional events, but these
are often inaccurate
4) Events experienced between 10 and 30 years of age are reported more often than those
occurring in middle adulthood
B) Source Memory and Processing of Misinformation
1) Source memory
(a) The ability to remember the source of a familiar event and the ability to determine if an
event was imagined or actually experienced
(b) Older adults are less accurate at many source memory tasks
(c) Older adults show overactivation of the prefrontal cortex when confronted with source
memory tasks
2) False memory
(a) When one remembers items or events that did not occur
(b) Older adults tend to be more susceptible to false memory issues than younger adults

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or
in part.
 C) Factors That Preserve Memory
1) Specific factors, known as cognitive reserve, help preserve memory performance
(a) Exercise
(i) Physical exercise improves cognitive performance
(b) Multilingualism and cognitive functioning
(i) Research suggests that older adults who speak four or more languages had the best
cognitive state
(c) Semantic memory in service of episodic memory
(i) Older adults are better in episodic memory when they can use previously learned
semantic information to support episodic knowledge
(d) Negative stereotypes and memory performance
(i) Older adults do worse on memory tasks if they believe that age hampers memory
ability
D) Training Memory Skills
1) Training people how to remember information better through the use of memory strategies
can be aimed at any adult
(a) Pay attention
(b) Make connections from existing knowledge to new material
(c) Provide the basis for future retrieval cues
(d) Place memory strategies in the context of healthy lifestyles
(i) E-I-E-I-O strategy combines explicit memory and implicit memory with external and
internal memory aids
(ii) Internal memory aids rely on mental processes such as imagery
(iii) External memory aids rely on environmental resources
▪ Smartphone apps aim at relieving the memory burden
▪ Social media link names and faces
2) Five drugs have been approved to help people with memory difficulties
(a) All the drugs work through neurotransmitters

IV) SELF-EVALUATIONS OF MEMORY ABILITIES

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in part.
 A) Aspects of Memory Self-Evaluations
1) Metamemory: Knowledge about how memory works and what we believe is true about it
2) Memory monitoring: Involves knowing what you are doing mentally right now
B) Age Differences in Metamemory and Memory Monitoring
1) Older adults:
(a) Seem to know less about how memory works than younger
(b) View memory as less stable
(c) Expect that memory will deteriorate
(d) Perceive they have less control over memory
2) The role of memory self-efficacy
(a) Memory self-efficacy: The belief that one will be able to perform a specific task
(i) Is an important construct in understanding how people make judgments about
performance before they have experience with a task
(ii) Overall, older adults with lower memory self-efficacy translate to poorer memory
performance
(iii) But these same older adults are more likely to rely on someone else or use strategies
to help themselves remember
3) Age differences in memory monitoring
(a) Memory monitoring: Involves knowing what you are doing mentally right now
(i) Older adults who are better at monitoring are more likely to use effective strategies
(ii) Metamemory and predictions without experience: Estimating your performance
without having a chance to see if what we are up against is hard (e.g., estimating your
performance on the first exam in this class)
4) The ability to monitor one’s memory does not appear to decline with age

VIII) CLINICAL ISSUES AND MEMORY TESTING

A) Normal versus Abnormal Memory Aging
1) One way to separate normal from abnormal aging is to determine whether memory changes
are affecting daily functioning
2) Brain imagining techniques allow localization of problems with more precision
3) Some diseases (i.e., dementias) are marked by severe memory impairments
4) However, in many cases, telling the difference between normal and abnormal memory
impairments is difficult
B) Memory and Physical and Mental Health
1) Damage to the brain can cause memory issues (e.g., concussion)
2) Temporary global amnesia (TGA):
(a) People temporarily experience a complete loss of memory and are disoriented in time
(b) Cause is unknown but has been associated with migraines, temporal lobe epilepsy, a
deficiency in a valve in the jugular vein, and transient ischemic attacks
(c) There are a variety of negative effects on cognitive functioning following concussion

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or
in part.
 3) Memory and nutrition
(a) Several components in healthy diets are essential for well-functioning memory
(b) Flavonoids may reverse age-related deficits in spatial memory
(c) Iron has also been associated with better verbal memory
(d) Vitamin B including 6 and 9 (folic acid)
(e) Serious decrements in memory may be caused by poor diet

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or
in part.
Going Beyond the Book and Lecture Suggestions

1. Discuss different models and theories of attention, and then map each onto the pattern of age
differences reported in the text.
2. Examine vigilance and air traffic controllers. This could provide a discussion lead-in to issues on
burnout and age.
3. Describe various environmental design issues that are responses to data concerning information
processing and sensory changes.
4. Present Hasher and Zacks’s (1988) inhibition hypothesis. Discuss how failure to inhibit could be
responsible for age differences in cognitive performance. Think about everyday examples and
implications.
5. Research has consistently reported that older adults are slower than younger adults. Briefly,
summarize the extensive research of Salthouse on speed. Salthouse and colleagues have developed a
variety of tasks designed to measure speed.
6. Students are often fascinated by flashbulb memories, and it is a topic they can relate to well because
they usually have their own memories of a landmark event. Go into greater depth on the ways that
flashbulb memories can be wrong by using examples from Talarico and Rubin’s research on the
World Trade Center attacks.
7. Define and describe various types of memory loss and how each relates to the aging processing.
8. During lecture, you can present false memory research in the context of elder abuse. Encourage
students to consider the ways in which older adults’ poor ability to ward off misinformation could
result in inaccurate reporting of elder abuse. Do students think false memory issues would result in
overreporting, underreporting, or have no effect on reporting?
9. Much of the research on everyday memory touches on the issue of automatic versus effortful
processing. As a class, discuss the impact of smartphones on memory and possible applications as an
external source for memory improvement for aging adults. Describe this issue and research relating to
age differences.
10. As a class, construct an intervention to bolster memory self-efficacy among older adults. Prompt
students to consider the best format for this intervention (written, video, in-person, some other form?)
and to think about the specific elements that might assist older adults in having a positive view of
their ability to perform a specific task. Ask students to consider where there is a way to make this
intervention generalize beyond one task.

Discussion Questions

1. Given your new understanding of adulthood information-processing skills, do you think that we
should place old-age limits on driving privileges? If so, what criteria might you use to screen drivers?
2. In what ways is memory important for human functioning? In what ways can we function without
various types of memory? As you discuss, be as specific about types of memory as you can.
3. How do we tell the difference between normative and abnormal age-related memory changes?
4. What are some examples of things that we normally forget? What are some examples of things that
would be classified as abnormal if forgotten?
5. What are the stereotypes about memory performance in older adults? What are possible effects of
social expectations on the memory of older adults? What does the research suggest about each of
these areas: myth versus reality?
6. How do older adults perform on everyday memory and list-learning tasks?
7. How could older adults benefit from technology to support memory?
© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or
in part.
8. Many adults intensely fear memory loss as they age and particularly live in fear of developing
Alzheimer’s. Why do you think this fear exists? Is it justified? What would you tell someone to help
allay his or her fear of age-related memory loss?

Suggested Activities and Assignments

1. Have students identify various occupations requiring rapid reaction and find out whether they have
age restrictions. Debate the pros and cons of such restrictions based on the compensating role of
experience.
2. Demonstrate various types of attention and reaction time tasks (or psychomotor speed). A simple
attention activity is to ask students questions about the face of a penny or another very common
object all students are likely to come in contact with. Students may also take memory/reaction time
tests on the web: https://www.humanbenchmark.com/tests/memory
3. Think of everyday examples of simple, choice, and complex reaction time tasks. Describe each type
of task and indicate how your example illustrates that type of task. Based on your knowledge of
information processing, do you feel comfortable with older adults performing these activities?
4. Have students design an optimal living environment for older adults. The living environments should
take into account normative sensory, physical, and information-processing changes.
5. To demonstrate attention, have students participate in the Stroop color word task, which can be found
in most cognitive psychology textbooks, or you can find a version available from NOVA
(www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/exposure/stroopintro.html).
6. Ask students to interview their older relatives and/or members of the community about their flashbulb
memories of notable events (e.g., the assassination of JFK). The students can then write a paper or
create a presentation discussing the characteristics they noticed in the flashbulb memories and how
this compares to research on flashbulb memories. The students might incorporate their own flashbulb
memories for an event, such as September 11.
7. Our society places a tremendous amount of emphasis on a “good” memory. Is a similar emphasis
found in other cultures? Investigate the importance of memory cross-culturally.
8. Have students list their major autobiographical memories, and look for organizing themes (e.g., first-
time experiences, traumatic events). Discuss why each event was remembered so vividly and compare
these results with research described in the text.
9. Have students bring home videos that captured past events in their lives. Before watching the videos,
have students write down in detail their memories of an event they have recorded. Screen the video
for verification of their memories. Discuss the challenges with memory that older adults would have
with the same task.
10. Have students draw parallels between text structure as described by prose researchers and outlines
from English composition classes.
11. Create a pamphlet on suggestions for improving memory using the information in the book on text
variables.
12. Have students list episodes of forgetting and whether, when confronted with evidence of poor
memory, they are concerned about it. Have students think about how they would respond to forgetting
the same things if they were 80 years old. Compare these results to similar findings discussed in the
text.
13. Ask students to browse an app store for memory aid apps. Compare the features of the apps and
discuss how the apps could benefit older adults facing loss of memory challenges.
14. Ask students to interview their parents and other middle-aged or older adults about their experiences
of memory issues and their fears about losing their memory as they age. The students can then write a
© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or
in part.
 paper about how justified their fears are, and whether the memory loss incidents are normative for
age.

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or
in part.
Suggested Websites

1. Memory (www.exploratorium.edu/memory): Memory was a major exhibition at the Exploratorium

Museum in San Francisco. The exhibit was interactive and allowed both children and adults to
interact with the exhibits. The website allows visitors to view memory from personal, social, cultural,
psychological, and neurological perspectives. There are many slides, interactive activities, quizzes,
and webcasts that can be used in class to extend your discussions.
2. Mayo Clinic (www.mayoclinic.com): The Mayo clinic site has tips on all aspects of health and many
sections dedicated to aging. This site also provides video to illustrate many issues around memory
and other topics included in text. For this chapter on memory, there are tips sheets (based on research)
to help improve memory, when one should seek help for memory impairments, what is Alzheimer’s
disease, and what is mild cognitive impairment.
3. Center on Aging at the University of Utah (http://aging.utah.edu/): The Center on Aging at the
University of Utah unites aging-related research, education, and clinical programs at the university.
This site can be used to enhance many lectures and has overviews on many aspects of aging.
4. Alzheimer’s Foundation of America (http://www.alzfdn.org/): This foundation offers comprehensive
information about Alzheimer’s, including caregiving, prevention, and memory screening. There is
also a way to Skype, live chat, or e-mail social workers to ask questions about Alzheimer’s.
5. American Psychological Association (http://www.apa.org/research/action/memory-changes.aspx):
Numerous articles on memory and aging.
6. Family Caregiver Alliance (https://www.caregiver.org/caring-adults-cognitive-and-memory-
impairment): Articles, resources, and support are available to members and nonmembers.

Additional Suggested Readings

Have your students read the following articles, and use the questions listed for each article either to
stimulate in-class discussion or on an exam.

Anonymous. (2017). May smartphones help to maintain memory in patients with mild Alzheimer’s
disease? Science News, March 1, 2017.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/03/170301105526.htm
This article discusses the success of using Google calendar to maintain prospective memory in a
patient with mild Alzheimer’s disease.
• What strategy was used to help the patient with memory tasks?
• What other potential benefits could be gained with smartphone technology to help
Alzheimer’s patients with memory?
• How do you use your smartphone/tablet/fitness monitoring device to help you with
memory?

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or
in part.
Morrow, D., Leirer, V. O., Carver, L. M., Tanke, E. D., & McNally, A. D. (1999). Repetition improves
older and younger adults memory for automated appointment messages. Human Factors, 41, 194–
204. A101942851
http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5001304618
This article investigates whether repetition and listener age improved memory for automated
appointment messages. The goal of this research is to improve automated appointment messages
by focusing on how they are presented.
• What aspects of memory are involved in remembering appointments?
• What is a situational model? How does a listener create a situational model?
• What role does repetition play in comprehension and memory?
• Describe the measures used to assess cognitive ability and speed of processing.
• What were the main findings of the current research?

Sit, R. A., & Fisk, A. D. (1999). Age-related performance in a multiple-task environment. Human
Factors, 41, 26–34. A55919221
http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=KscQ3xMnWZ8RPmKMQnRCZYsn7nZ1
Sngx7MZwT8pZBQTryCjfQHcY!-1058699480!-950397748?docId=5001307311
Younger and older adults performed multiple tasks (dual-task performance). Deficits in
performance were more pronounced for older adults compared to younger adults. However,
practice closed the gap in performance between younger and older adults. This article can extend
class discussion of how factors influence older adults’ performance on attention tasks.
• What factors influence multiple task performance?
• Can training improve performance on multiple tasks? What types of training have been
investigated?
• Describe the procedure used in this study.
• What were the main findings from this study?
• Did training improve performance on tasks?
• How might you apply these results to tasks in older adults’ everyday life?

Anonymous. (2013, January 28). Sleep deprivation may be behind memory loss in elderly. The
Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/28/sleep-deprivation-memory-
loss_n_2566999.html
This article reports on a study conducted at the University of California at Berkeley investigating
causes of memory loss among older adults. It is a good example of the multifaceted nature of
memory, which depends on contextual factors in addition to brain factors to function properly.
• How was the study at the University of California at Berkeley conducted?
• What did the researchers find?
• Why might sleep deprivation be related to memory loss? Discuss the mechanisms underlying
the issue.
• Based on this study, what should older adults do to improve their memories? Attempt to
brainstorm beyond the ideas presented in the article.

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or
in part.
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 Spirit stains are but little used where surfaces of any size are to be
covered. They are expensive, fade easily, and are hard to apply
evenly.
They are applied with a brush and dry very quickly.
A stain which penetrates deeply and is clear is obtained by placing
the wood in a closed receptacle in which is placed a dish of
concentrated ammonia. The fumes of this liquid cause a chemical
change to take place, giving to the wood a rich nut-brown color.
153. Waxing.—An old finish that has recently become popular is
that of waxing. It takes the place of the varnish, by
which it was supplanted years ago.
Wax finish is easily applied and is cheaper than varnish. It will not
stand wetting. However, it is easily repaired.
Our ancestors used to make wax polish by “cutting” beeswax with
turpentine.
Rapid drying and hardening waxes can be purchased now-a-days.
They require a smooth surface and a very thin application for a
successful result. Too much wax upon a rough surface will produce
very ugly, white, chalk-like spottings as the wax dries. These are
especially noticeable upon dark finishes. Waxes colored black
overcome this but are not needed if the ordinary wax is properly
applied.
In finishing with wax the following directions may be followed: (1)
Stain the wood, if a very dark finish is desired. (2) If the wood is
coarse-grained, put on two coats of paste filler and rub it off carefully,
that a smooth surface may be prepared. Allow the stain twelve hours
in which to dry, also each coat of the filler. (3) With a soft cloth apply
as thin a coating of wax as can be and yet cover the wood. Wax is in
paste form. (4) Allow this to stand five or ten minutes, then rub
briskly with a soft dry cloth to polish. (5) After this coat has stood for
twenty-four hours another may be applied in the same manner.
A thin coat of shellac brushed evenly upon the hardened filler
“brings out” the grain and makes an excellent base for wax as well
as varnish. It should stand twenty-four hours and then be sanded
smooth with No. 00 sandpaper before the wax is applied.
There are other patent preparations which give the same soft
effects as wax and are as easily applied—in fact, some of them are
but wax in liquid form.
154. Varnishes.—Varnishes are used where a hard transparent
coating is desired. There are two kinds, (1) shellac
or spirit varnish, (2) copal or oil varnish.
Varnishes vary greatly in quality and therefore in price. If made of
specially selected pale gum for use on light or white woods the price
will be higher than for that of ordinary color tho the quality may be no
higher.
Rubbing varnishes are so made that they may take a “rubbed
finish.”
Varnishing should be done in a room in which the temperature can
be kept from 70 to 80 degrees Fahr., and which is comparatively free
from dust. The surface to be covered must be clean, dry and filled
even and smooth.
155. Shellac.—Shellac or spirit varnish is a solution of lac and
alcohol. Lac is soluble in both grain and wood
alcohol but grain alcohol is preferable. Beds of crude lac are found in
parts of Africa and South America where the lac has been left by the
decay of leaves and twigs which it at one time encrusted. Crude lac
is deposited upon leaves and twigs of certain of the lac-bearing trees
by countless numbers of insects which draw out the sap.
Stick-lac is crude lac which has been purified somewhat of the
bodies and eggs of the insects and rolled into stick forms. When
crushed and washed it is known as seed-lac. When fully purified,
which is done by melting and straining, it is spread out and is known
as shellac.
White shellac is obtained by bleaching. Orange shellac is
unbleached. Pure white shellac is used where the more yellow
shellac would discolor. Orange shellac is stronger than white and will
last longer but is harder to apply because it sets more rapidly.
Shellac varnish sets quickly, dries hard but softens under
moisture. Unlike oil varnish, it does not “level up” and must,
therefore, be brushed on quickly, using long, even strokes. No spots
must be omitted for they cannot be “touched up.”
156. Shellac Finishes.—The use of one or more coats of shellac
preparatory to a varnish finish has been
noted.
 A very simple finish, and one that is easily applied, is obtained by
covering stained wood with a very thin coat of shellac.
To obtain the finish known as egg-shell gloss, (1) Coat the smooth
wood with from three to six applications of thin shellac. Allow each
coat twenty-four hours in which to harden. (2) Rub to a smooth
surface each hardened coat using curled hair or fine steel wool or
fine oiled sandpaper.
157. Oil or Copal Varnishes.—Oil varnish is composed of copal
gum, boiled oil and turpentine. Copal
gums are obtained from Africa mainly, in certain parts of which they
are found as fossil resins, the remains of forests which once covered
the ground.
Pressed flaxseed furnish crude linseed oil while the long leaf pine
of the South, furnishes the turpentine pitch.
The oil is prepared for use by boiling it in huge kettles with
different materials which cause it to change chemically. It is then put
away to settle and age, that is to clear and purify itself. It takes from
one to six months for the oil to reach a proper degree of clearness
and purity. Turpentine is obtained from its pitch by distillation.
The copal gums are melted and boiled thoroly with the oil.
Turpentine is added after the mixture of gum and oil has cooled
sufficiently. The whole is then strained several times, placed in tanks
to age or ripen. From one month to a year, or even more, is required.
The quality of varnish depends upon the qualities of the gums, the
proportion of oil and turpentine and the care which is exercised in the
boiling process.
158. Flowing Copal Varnish.—(1) Lay on the varnish quickly in a
good heavy coat. Use a good
varnish brush and dip the bristles deeply into the liquid, wiping them
off just enough to prevent dripping. (2) Wipe the bristles quite free of
varnish; go over the surface and pick up as much of the surplus
liquid as the brush will hold. Replace the varnish in the can by wiping
the bristles on the wire of the can. Repeat until the entire surface has
been left with but a thin smooth coating.
Two, three, four or more coats are applied in this manner, forty-
eight hours being allowed between each for drying. Dry varnish
comes off in sanding as a white powder; if not dry it will come off on
the sandpaper as little black spots.
159. Typical Finishes for Coarse-Grained Woods.—Egg-Shell
gloss: (1) One
coat of water stain, English, golden, etc., according to the result
desired. (2) Allow time to dry, then sandpaper lightly with fine
sandpaper. This is to smooth the grain and to bring up the highlights
by removing stain from some of the wood. Use No. 00 sandpaper
and hold it on the finger tips. (3) Apply a second coat of the stain
diluted about one-half with water. This will throw the grain into still
higher relief and thus produce a still greater contrast. Apply this coat
of stain very sparingly, using a rag. Should this stain raise the grain,
again rub lightly with fine worn sandpaper, just enough to smooth. (4)
When this has dried, put on a light coat of thin shellac. Shellac
precedes filling that it may prevent the high lights—the solid parts of
wood—from being discolored by the stain in the filler, and thus
causing a muddy effect. The shellac being thin does not interfere
with the filler’s entering the pores of the open grain. (5) Sand lightly
with fine sandpaper. (6) Fill with paste filler colored to match the
stain. (7) Cover this with a coat of orange shellac. This coat of
shellac might be omitted but another coat of varnish must be added.
(8) Sandpaper lightly. (9) Apply two or three coats of varnish. (10)
Rub the first coats with hair cloth or curled hair and the last with
pulverized pumice stone and crude oil or raw linseed oil.
Dull finish: A dead surface is obtained by rubbing the varnish after
it has become bone dry, with powdered pumice stone and water,
using a piece of rubbing felt. Rub until the surface is smooth and
even being careful not to cut thru by rubbing too long at any one
spot. The edges are most likely to be endangered. Use a wet sponge
and chamois skin to clean off the pumice.
Polished finish: The last coat should be rubbed first with pulverized
pumice stone and water, and then with rotten stone and water. For a
piano finish rub further with a mixture of oil and a little pulverized
rotten stone, using a soft felt or flannel. A rotary motion is generally
used and the mixture is often rubbed with the bare hand.
Gloss finish: For a gloss finish, the last coat is not rubbed at all.
160. Patching.
—It frequently happens in rubbing with pumice that the varnish is cut
thru so that the bare wood shows. To patch such a spot proceed as
follows: (1) Sandpaper the bare place lightly with very fine paper, No.
00, to smooth the grain of the wood raised by the pumice water. (2) If
the wood has been stained or filled, color the spot to match the rest
of the finish. Apply a little with a cloth and wipe off clean. (3) When
this has dried, apply a thin coat of varnish to the bare wood,
carefully. Draw it out beyond the bare wood a little, “feathering” it so
that there shall not be a ridge. (4) Allow this to dry hard and apply a
second coat, feathering it beyond the surface covered by the first
coat. (5) Repeat until the required thickness has been obtained; then
(6) rub with pumice and water. Rub lightly, using a little pumice and
much water. The slightly raised rings made by the lapping of one
coat upon another will need special attention. It is best not to
sandpaper between coats, because of the danger of scratching the
rubbed finish adjoining the patch.
161. Painting.—The purpose of paints is to preserve the wood by
covering it with an opaque material. Paints are
usually composed of white lead or zinc oxide and coloring materials
mixed or thinned with raw or boiled linseed oil. Turpentine is also
used for thinning and as a drying agent.
Paint must be well brushed out so that a thin film may result.
In painting, (1) Cover the knots with shellac, or the oil of the paint
will be absorbed thru two or three coats and a discoloration result.
(2) Put on a prime coat. This coat should be mixed as thin as it can
be and still not “run” when applied to vertical surfaces. (3) Fill the nail
holes with putty. Sand lightly if a smooth finish is desired. (4) Apply
two or three coats of paint thin enough to flow freely but thick enough
to cover well and not “run.”
The second coat is given a little more than the usual amount of
turpentine that a “flat effect” may prepare the way for the final gloss
coat. If the last coat is to be dull, turpentine is used in it as well as
the second. Oil causes gloss, turpentine causes a dull or flat effect.
 APPENDIX I.
Additional Joints.
 Butt Joint. Hopper Joint.
Toe Nail Joint. Glued and Blocked Joint.
Doweled Butt Joint. Draw Bolt Joint.

Plate 1.
 End-Lap Joint. Middle-Lap Joint.
Lapped Dove-tail Joint. Ledge or Rabbet.
Gained Joint. Through Mortise & Tenon.
Plate 2.
 Stub Mortise & Tenon. Pinned Mortise & Tenon.
Double Mortise and Tenon. Slip Joint.
Wedged Mortise & Tenon. Fox Tail Tenon.

Plate 3.
Dove-tail Mortise & Tenon. Tusk Tenon.
Stretcher Joint. Stretcher Joint.
Ledge and Miter Joint. Spline Miter.
Plate 4.
 Dovetail Dado. Lapped & Strapped Joint.
Fished Joint—A. Fished Joint—B.
Splice Joint. Scarf Joint.
Plate 5.
 Spliced Joint.
Thrust Joint—A.
Scarf Joint.
Bevel-Shoulder Joint. Thrust Joint—B.
Plate 6.
Spline Joint. Matched Joint.
Rabbeted & Fillistered Joint.
Beaded Joint.

Plate 7.
 APPENDIX II.
Wood Finishing Recipes.
1. Wax.—Cut up beeswax and add to it about one-third of its
volume of turpentine. Heat to the boiling point in a double
boiler. Or, melt a quantity of beeswax and to this add an equal
quantity of turpentine. Care must be taken that the turpentine shall
not catch fire.
2. Water Stains.—Any coloring matter that is soluble in water will
make a stain.
Mahogany: Three quarts of boiling water, one ounce of Bismarck-
brown aniline.
Brown: Extract of logwood, the size of a walnut, dissolved by
boiling in four ounces of water. Apply hot and repeat until the desired
color is obtained.
Black: First stain the wood brown with the logwood solution. Coat
this with a stain prepared as follows: Soak a teaspoonful of cast iron
filings in four ounces of acetic acid or vinegar. Allow it to stand for a
week, stirring it occasionally.
Walnut: Make a strong solution of powdered bichromate of potash
and hot water. Over this stain, apply a coat of the logwood stain.
3. Oil Stains.—Coach colors ground in Japan when thinned with
turpentine make good stain. Mix in the proportion of
one-half gallon of turpentine to one pound of color and add a little
boiled oil. Colors commonly used are drop black, Vandyke brown,
medium chrome yellow, burnt and raw umber and burnt and raw
sienna.
Green: Drop-black, two parts, medium chrome yellow, one part, a
little red to kill the brightness.
Walnut: Asphaltum with a little Venetian red.
Golden oak: Asphaltum and turpentine thinned like water, to be
followed with filler darkened with burnt umber and black.