Unit 1 - Stoichiometric Relationships

Terms
● A chemical element is a single pure substance, made of only one type of atom.
● A compound is a chemical combination of different elements, containing a fixed ratio of
atoms.
○ Different physical properties
○ Different chemical properties
● A mixture is composed of two or more substances in which no chemical combination has
occurred.
○ Homogenous mixtures have a uniform composition (evenly dispersed particles)
(e.g. milk)
○ Heterogenous mixtures have a no uniformity (different dispersal) (e.g. cookie
dough)
● Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance.
● Relative atomic mass, Ar, is the weighted average of the isotopes of one atom of an
element relative to 1/12 of an atom of carbon-12.
● Relative formula mass, Mr, is the sum of the weighted average of the masses of the
atoms in a formula unit relative to one-twelfth of an atom of carbon-12.
● The molar mass of a substance, M, is its relative atomic mass, Ar, or its relative formula
mass, Mr, expressed in grams. It has the unit g mol−1.
● One mole is the mass of substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in
12 g of carbon-12.
● Limiting Reactant: Reactant that limits the amount of product that can be formed
● (e.g. A + B → C + D; once A or B finishes, the reaction is over, and the one that finishes
first is the limiting reactant and the other is in excess
● Theoretical Yield: the max amount of product that could be formed in a perfect scenario.
● Actual Yield: the amount of product formed experimentally

Important Formulae
● To find the number of moles in a solid, use
○ n (mols) = M (mass in grams) / Mr (Molar Mass in grams)
● To calculate the number of particles (atoms, molecules, etc) in a sample, use
○ n (mols) x NA (avagadro’s number: 6.02 x 1023)
● To calculate the % yield and the efficiency of an exp. (must use the same unit), use
○ (actual amount / theoretical amount) x 100
● To calculate the number of moles in a gas, use
○ n (mols) = volume of gas (dm3) / molar volume of the gas (dm3)
● Ideal Gas Equation - remember the units in which each variable is calculated
○ pV = nRT p(pressure in Pascals) x V(volume in m3) = n(mols) x R (gas constant)
x T (temperature in Kelvin)
● To calculate the number of moles in a solution, use
○ n (mols) = c (concentration in mols/dm3) x v (volume in dm3)
 Theory
Gas Laws:
● Avagadro’s law: At a constant temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases will
have the same number of particles; volume is directly related to the n (moles)
● Boyle’s Law: P1V1 = P2V2
● Charles’ Law: V1/T1 = V2/T2
● Combined Law: P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 which is directly proportional to number of moles in a
gas
● Homogenous mixtures have a uniform composition (evenly dispersed particles) (e.g.
milk)
● Heterogenous mixtures have a no uniformity (different dispersal) (e.g. cookie dough)

Boiling:

● Boiling occurs at a specific temperature, which is determined by when the vapour

pressure (pressure of the boiling gas) reaches the external pressure.
● Therefore, as external pressure increases, more energy is needed to boil a liquid.

Pressure cooker:

● A pressure cooker is a sealed container in which a higher pressure can be generated.

● This raises the boiling point of water and so cooking time decreases.
● Conversely, at high altitude, where the atmospheric pressure is lower, the boiling point of
water is reduced so it takes much longer to cook food.

Freeze drying:

● Freeze-drying is an effective process for the preservation of food and some

pharmaceuticals.
● Depends on the sublimation of ice.
● The substance to be preserved is first frozen, and the water inside the substance turns
to ice.
● Then it is warmed gently at very low pressure which causes the ice to change directly to
water vapor [sublimation].
● The process is slow but has the significant advantage that the composition of the
material, and so its flavor, are largely conserved.
● The freeze-dried product is stored in a moisture-free package that excludes oxygen, and
can be reconstituted by the addition of water.

Dew point:

● It is the atmospheric temperature (varying according to pressure and humidity) below

which water droplets begin to condense and dew can form.
● At night as the temperature is lowered, the rate of condensation increases.
 ● As the air temperature drops below its saturation point, known as the dew point, the
familiar condensed water called dew forms.
● The temperature of the dew point depends on the atmospheric pressure and the water
content of the air – that is, the relative humidity.
● A relative humidity of 100% indicates that the air is maximally saturated with water and
the dew point is equal to the current temperature.

Refrigerators:

● The process of refrigeration is usually based on energy changes during the evaporation
and condensation cycle under changing pressure of a volatile liquid known as the
refrigerant.
● At low pressure the liquid vaporizes and absorbs heat, causing cooling of the
surroundings.