Advertising and Promotion An

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 CHAPTER 10
MEDIA PLANNING AND BUDGETING FOR IMC
Chapter Overview

This chapter introduces the concepts involved in media planning. The chapter begins with an overview of
media planning by introducing the content of the plan and media planning challenges. The chapter then
focuses on media strategy decisions and media tactics decisions. The chapter concludes with a description
budgeting process, theories underlying budgeting decisions, and the managerial approaches to budgeting.

Learning Objectives

1. Illustrate how a media plan is developed.

2. Explain the process and identify the decisions for implementing media strategies.

3. Explain the process and identify the decisions for implementing media tactics.

4. Distinguish among the theoretical and managerial approaches for media budget setting.

5. Apply the methods for allocating the media budget to relevant IMC tools and market situations.

Chapter and Lecture Outline

I. MEDIA PLANNING

This first section presents a brief discussion of the factors involved in the media planning process and
illustrates the fact that media planning is an involved process influenced by a variety of factors including
the nature of the media, the marketing strategy, and the product being advertised.

A. Overview—a media plan defines a combination of media that will enable the marketer to
communicate the message effectively and efficiently. The activities involved in this plan are
detailed in Figure 10-2. A media plan is the actual document detailing these decisions.

B. Media Plan—media planning involves the series of decisions in delivering the message to the
target audience.

• media objectives—the objectives sought by the media plan

• media strategy—action designed to attain the media objectives. It includes the medium, the
general category of media channels like broadcast, print, or out-of-home, the media type, the
specific media category like television or radio for broadcast, and finally the media class such
like specialty TV channels for that context. Decisions include:

• reach—the number of potential audience members exposed once to a media vehicle in a

given period of time

• coverage—the potential audience that might receive a message through a vehicle

• frequency—the number of times the receiver is exposed to the media vehicle in a given
time period
 • media tactics—the more specific media decisions involving media vehicle (e.g., type of
television show to advertise on), fine-tuning the budget and timing of all media purchases.

C. Media Planning Challenges—a number of problems are identified, each of which directly impacts
the planning process such as: insufficient information, inconsistent terminology, need for
flexibility, role of media planners and problems in measuring effectiveness of a media plan. An
understanding of these problems is critical to the proper design of the media plan.

II. MEDIA STRATEGY DECISIONS

A. Media Mix—many media strategies require a combination of media to be used. The media mix
determines the various channels used. The objectives of the plan, the budget, and other factors,
will directly impact this decision. Figure 10-4 summarizes the strengths and limitations of the key
media characteristics. An attempt to include the same sixteen criteria for all six traditional media
makes comparison more systematic. Descriptive words to indicate the relative intensity of the
strength or limitation have be omitted as this is more of a judgment and is heavily dependent
upon other media decisions and creative decisions. Items for each media are investigated more
fully in each chapter.

B. Target Audience Coverage—Figure 10-5 provides a graphic illustration of marketing coverage

possibilities. Of course, the marketer would like to achieve full coverage through a combination
of media. As noted, this is not a likely outcome, and decisions have to be made that involve trade-
offs between less than full market coverage and over coverage or waste coverage.

C. Geographic Coverage—the decision as to where to promote at this point involves geographical

considerations. Once again, the discussion turns to the use of secondary information and indices
as aids in making this decision. A number of critical terms are introduced including: the Brand
Development Index, and the Category Development Index. The calculation of both BDI and
CDI is provided, based on actual examples. Figure 10-8 is a very useful way of presenting
strategies evolving around BDI and CDI.

D. Scheduling—marketers will typically employ one of three scheduling alternatives since it may
not be feasible (or necessary) to maintain a constant advertising schedule.

1. Continuity refers to a continuous pattern of advertising—that is every day, week, or month

depending on the planner’s time horizon for planning (food products, laundry detergents, etc.)

2. Flighting is a scheduling method in which there are intermittent periods of advertising and
nonadvertising (snow skis, etc.)

3. Pulsing is actually a combination of the two previous methods, in which a continuous

schedule is used, though the amount of monies spent will vary throughout the time period
(automobiles).

E. Reach and Frequency—given that advertisers have differing objectives, and are constrained by
budgets, the media decision usually involves a trade-off between reach and frequency. This
decision is essentially one of exposing more persons to the ad, or exposing fewer persons more
often. In making this decision, the media planner must take into consideration a number of factors
including:

1. How much reach is necessary?

 2. What frequency level is needed?

3. Determining effective reach and frequency.

4. Using gross ratings points (GRP's)

These four sections have been substantially re-written for clarity in the 5th edition.

III. MEDIA TACTICS DECISIONS

A. Media Vehicle—Creative aspects of the ad may require the use of specific media. For example,
television may be required to implement certain types of creative campaigns. Likewise, the mood
that a medium creates may carry over to the ad itself. For example, certain magazines may create
various moods as they are being read

Research may be designed to determine which media class (broadcast vs. print) generate the most
effective results, the location within a particular medium (front page or back page) and size or
length of time the ad or commercial runs. Another factor is the vehicle option source effect—the
differential impact that the advertising exposure will have on the same audience member if the
exposure occurs in one media option rather than another.

B. Relative Cost Estimates—costs must be considered in the determination as to which media will
be employed. Two types of costs must be addressed—absolute cost—which is the actual cost to
place the ad in the medium—and relative cost—or the relationship between the price paid for
advertising time or space and the size of the audience delivered. A comparison of media vehicles
is usually necessary, using criteria such as cost per thousand (CPM), and cost per ratings
point (CPRP)

C. Blocking Chart—the blocking chart summarizes many of the media strategy and media tactics
decisions made thus far, and includes extensive implementation details that guide the media
buyers as they attempt to achieve the media objectives.

IV BUDGET SETTING

A. Theoretical approaches in budget setting—most of the models used to establish advertising

budgets can be categorized as taking an advertising or sales response perspective. In this section
we discuss some of these.

1. Marginal analysis—Figure 10-21 in the text illustrates the concept of marginal analysis. As
the figure indicates, as advertising/promotional efforts increase, sales and gross margins will
also increase to a point and then level off. In using marginal analysis, the firm would continue
to spend promotional dollars so long as the marginal revenues created by these expenditures
exceeded the incremental costs. When the dollar expenditures exceed the returns, the budget
should be scaled back. In other words, the optimal budget would be at that point where
marginal revenues are equal to marginal costs, or where mr = mc. While this economic model
seems logical intuitively, in fact, there are two major weaknesses that limit its applicability:
(1) The assumption that sales are a direct measure of advertising and promotions efforts, and
(2) the assumption that sales are determined solely by advertising and promotions.

2. Sales response models—two budgeting models based on sales response are discussed in the
text. The first of these—the concave-downward function—is based on the microeconomic
 theory of the law of diminishing returns. Essentially, the model states that as the amount of
advertising expenditures increases, its incremental value decreases. The basic argument is
that those most likely to buy the product are likely to do so as a result of the earliest
exposures. Additional exposures are not likely to increase the probability of their purchasing,
nor is it likely to have an effect on those who are undecided or unlikely to buy. Thus, the
effects of advertising would rapidly diminish.

The second model—the S-shaped response function—takes a very different approach. In

this model, it is argued that initial outlays of promotional dollars will have very little impact
on sales. As indicated in Figure 10-22, in Range B an impact will begin to be noticed,
carrying through to Range C, where additional expenditures have again very little impact.
This S-shaped curve suggests that there are incremental values to be accrued from additional
dollar outlays, but only to a point. For example, it would be argued that a certain level of
expenditures is necessary to make an impact. However, after a certain point (beginning of
Range C) these dollars are unlikely to be of value.

In addition to considering the theoretical aspects of budget setting, a number of other factors
must be taken into consideration including: situational factors; customer factors; the
competitive environment; etc. Figure 10-23 can be used to demonstrate this point quite
effectively.

B. Managerial Approaches in Budget Setting—the more traditional methods of setting budgets and
the relative advantages and disadvantages of each are summarized. Both top-down and bottom up
approaches are summarized. Top down approaches occur when the budget is established at the
“top” by management and is passed down to the managers (e.g., affordable, arbitrary, percentage,
competitive, ROI). Bottom-up approaches focus on establishing specific objectives and
determining the budget based on the costs required to attain these goals (e.g., objective and task,
payout).

a. the affordable method—In this approach, the firm determines what level of advertising
and promotions expenditures they feel that they can afford, and set this amount as the ad
budget.

b. arbitrary allocation—when budgets are set through arbitrary allocation, there is no real
rhyme or reason for the amount established. Sad as this may seem, the truth is that for
many firms this is the method employed.

c. percentage of sales—perhaps the most commonly employed method of setting budgets

in large firms is the percentage of sales method. As noted in the text, there are a number
of variations on this method, as some firms use a flat percentage of sales figure, while
others may assign a percentage of the product cost to advertising with the budget based
on the number of units sold (see Figure 10-26). In addition, another variation stems from
which year is considered the base year for sales. One approach uses past sales histories,
while the second—a percentage of projected future sales—uses projected sales figures.
Many firms employ both methods, with a projection used for planning, and the final
budget adjusted according to actual sales.

d. competitive parity—in this method, budgets are set by matching the percentage
advertising/sales ratios of competitors.
 e. return on Investment (ROI)—while good in theory, the ROI method is rarely used. The
basis of this approach is that advertising expenditures should be considered as an
investment, returning sales as a result. Unfortunately, for many of the reasons cited in the
text, the ability to demonstrate this relationship is very difficult.

f. objective and task method—Figure 10-29 demonstrates the steps required in using the
objective and task approach. As can be seen, the process involves establishing objectives,
determining the specific tasks associated with attaining these objectives, and determining
the costs associated with these tasks. Monitoring and re-evaluation of these steps is
critical to the success of this method.

g. payout planning—By projecting the revenues that a product is expected to return over a
period of two to three years, the marketer can develop a payout plan. Based on this
expected rate of return, the marketer can assist in the determination of the advertising
expenditures necessary. An example of a payout plan is presented in Figure 10-31.

V. IMC PLANNING: BUDGET ALLOCATION

Budget allocation is determined by a number of factors.

A. IMC Tools—direct marketing, the Internet and other promotional tools are also receiving
increased allocation and requiring additional budget for marketing communications. Figure 10-31
summarizes a couple of examples. At this planning stage, managers are concerned with
determining the relative emphasis across various media and IMC tools to maximize media and
communication objectives and to the need to stay within the budget.

B. Market share goals—increasing or maintaining market share will impact the allocation decision.
Markets have varying sizes and potential and managers adjust their market share goals
accordingly. A study by John Jones concluded that (1) new brands generally receive higher than
average advertising support; (2) older, more mature brands are often “milked—that is, advertising
expenditures are reduced; and (3) there is an advertising economy of scale operating. James
Schroer’s approach (Figure 10-34) illustrates managerial options given a competitive and
company situational analysis. Some practitioners believe that there are economies of scale that
accrue to marketers holding large market shares, which allows them to spend less money due to
their past successes. As noted in the text, there is little or no evidence to support this theory, and
some studies show that an opposite effect may occur.

C. Organizational Factors After reviewing the literature, Low and Mohr conclude that a number of
organizational factors influence the budget allocation decision. These factors include: (1) the
organization’s structure, (2) power and politics in the organizational hierarchy, (3) the use of
expert opinions, (4) characteristics of the decision maker, (5) approval and negotiation channels,
and (5) pressure on senior managers to arrive at an optimal budget.

Teaching Suggestions

Both the length and complexity of this chapter make it a difficult one for students to comprehend. The
chapter contains a large number of terms, definitions, and formulas. Unfortunately, there is no way to
ignore all of these, as they are critical to the students' learning of media planning and strategy, and are the
"buzzwords" with which they will need to become familiar to participate in the advertising world,
regardless of which side of the buying-selling process they may be on.
One suggestion is to break the chapter into two lectures. In the first, the terms, formulas, etc., as well as
an overview of the planning process can be discussed. The second lecture can be more specific, focusing
on some of the objectives to be accomplished, discussing reach and frequency trade-offs, effective reach
and issues of budgeting.

Vignette

1. Do you agree with the placing of the three winners?

This is an opinion question to get a discussion going to essentially assess in what way the media
selections are innovative. A key point to raise is the interplay between creativity and media, and the
fact that creativity can exist within the selection of the media chosen.

2. How do these examples influence our thoughts about IMC?

Each of the winners demonstrates unique innovation in media such that one may wonder why or how
they are in the media chapter. This is precisely the point of the question where design, technology and
the ability to connect all facets of communication is opening the door for alternative views of what
constitutes the delivery of a marketing communication message. In fact the alternate view of media
raises the issue of whether the marketing communication message is in fact the same type of message
historically viewed. In either respect, the examples are interesting and presumably interesting topcis
for students to discuss.

IMC Perspective 10-1

1. How could Nissan have leveraged the experiential component of the plan beyond obtaining press
coverage?

This question invites students to consider other IMC tools that can work with an original idea once it
is fully established. Often in an IMC program a key lead tool or media, along with the creative
element, is fully established and then related messages and exposures can take hold. Students might
suggest placing the video imagery recorded of the car in public places with the screening on the walls
of buildings. This would produce a similar feeling to having seen it live and certainly surprise people.
Promotional activities might be possible in terms of product placement or promotional products for
continued exposure.

IMC Perspective 10-2

1. Which of these media executions appears to be the most innovative?

The awards winners manage to find a good fit with their message, creativity and media selected.
Media decisions in isolation cannot be considered effective as it is predicated on the target and what
the brand is attempting to say to the target audience. Combined, the overall effect appears quite
innovative in an area where it is difficult to innovate.

Answers to Review Questions

1. Media planning involves a tradeoff between reach and frequency. Explain what this means and give
examples of when reach should be emphasized over frequency and vice versa.
 In an ideal world, advertisers would like to maximize reach and frequency. Unfortunately, in the real
world, they are faced with budgetary constraints. Given budget limitations, the media planner is
forced to choose between reach and frequency. Given specific objectives of the plan, one or the other
may be emphasized.

Maximizing reach at the expense of frequency is more logical when the message is simple and easily
understood, the receiver is in the early stages of the response hierarchy (for example, awareness
and/or interest) and the target audience is broad. For example, campaigns targeting cola users use
very simple messages and are targeted to a broad audience. Thus reach is important.

When the consumer is at a higher level in the response hierarchy, for example, comprehension,
retention, etc., or the message is more complex, and/or the target audience is narrowly defined,
frequency may be a more important objective. For example, messages that have a lot of copy, and
may be more difficult to comprehend must consider the importance of effective frequency. One or
two exposures may not be enough to achieve the media objectives. Likewise, a narrowly defined
target audience may allow for an emphasis on frequency, and the minimization of waste coverage,
thus placing less emphasis on reach.

2. Describe what is meant by waste coverage. The decision must often be made between waste coverage
and under-coverage. Give examples of when the marketer might have to choose between the two, and
when it may be acceptable to live with waste coverage.

Of course, the optimal situation would be one in which there is a perfect match between the target
audience sought and the media coverage, with everyone getting potential exposure to the message,
and those not in the market not being exposed. In reality, this is not going to happen, so the marketer
must choose between the options of under-exposure or paying for coverage for recipients not in the
target audience. In some instances, the budget may not allow for full market coverage under any
situation. In other situations, the communications objectives, the cost of the media buy and other
factors must be taken into consideration. Most marketers would likely argue that they would rather
live with waste coverage, insuring that most if not all in their audience were exposed, rather than
under-coverage, as those not exposed are much less likely to purchase the product or service.

A recent trend in business to business advertising is to buy time and/or space in consumer oriented
media rather than the more targeted trade publications. While perhaps only a small percent of the
audience or readers is in the target audience, media buyers have found that it is still more cost
efficient to purchase the less-targeted medium than it would be to buy trade magazines, etc., even
though there is a high degree of waste coverage. A final consideration is the potential to convert non-
prospects into buyers. While the market may be defined as a specific group (let’s say 18-24), those on
the fringe (17, 25) may end up seeing the ad and ultimately purchasing—even though not in the
primary target audience. In such cases, what was thought to be waste coverage really was not.

3. What is meant by readers per copy? How is this different from CPM? Explain the advantages and
disadvantages associated with the use of both.

Many magazine advertisers argue that the circulation figure is an underestimate of media reach. They
contend that because many magazines may be read by more than one person, that the CPM is an
underestimate of cost efficiency. They believe a more accurate figure is readers per copy.

Readers per copy is determined by including a pass-along rate—a figure that includes readers who
may not subscribe or have paid for the copy. An advantage of using this number is that it may more
accurately reflect potential exposures to the medium. For example, it is well accepted that there is not
 always a one to one circulation to readership ratio. Smart buyers may be able to actually be able to
gain more exposure to their ads than they are paying for if they can find a medium with high pass
along readership. Consider a magazine like Time or Sports Illustrated. More than one person may
read each issue, whether the readership is taking place in the household, fraternity, etc. In this case,
the media buy based on circulation underestimates the reach, and the buy becomes more efficient.

The disadvantage associated with using readers per copy is that pass-along rate is very difficult—if
not impossible—to determine. While one may easily estimate the number of persons exposed to Time
magazine in a household, for example, the ability to estimate the number of persons exposed to
Business Week in a doctor's office, or fraternity house is much more complicated and lacks validity.
In many cases, the actual number of readers per copy is little more than a guess.

More and more media are presenting relative cost comparisons in terms of CPM rather than CPP (cost
per point). Part of the reason for doing so is the fact that it is often difficult to make cross media
comparisons using various cost figures. By providing the media buyer with a “standard” figure, it
makes the media buying process much simpler.

A disadvantage of this consistent use of CPM’s is also evident, however. A message appearing in print
is not the same as a message appearing on broadcast. One appearing in a magazine will not have the
same impact as one in newspaper. By providing a standard number the media buyer may be somewhat
mislead in terms of the impression that the ad carries. (Some have suggested using a comparison
called cost per minimum impression unit, but no one seems to know what that means.)

So long as the media buyer remembers that CPM refers to the cost to potentially expose one’s
message to a thousand people, there should be no problems associated with this common term. At the
same time, as the text warns, media buying is both an art and a science, and other factors must be
taken into consideration

4. Identify the information resources required to calculate the budget using the objective and task
method.

A number of information requirements are needed to perform the objective and task method; the size
and location of the target audience, precise definition of the communication tasks required, cost
information for all media considered, reach and possible frequency estimates for each media vehicle.
This extensive lists illustrates why this method is not commonly done as the work involved is quite
extensive.

5. .What factors influence the budget allocation to different media or different IMC tools?

The marketing objective in terms of sales or share is a major factor as these contribute to the target
audience selection and the subsequent behavioural and communication objectives. Beyond this,
planners would need to consider how media and IMC tools will contribute to these objectives and fit
with the decision-making process of the target audience. Internal organizational factors and
relationship with the different marketing communication agencies can also influence the decision
since these participants will put forth their own suggestions and recommendations.

Answers to Applied Questions

1. One long-time advertising agency executive noted that buying media is both an art and a science, with
a leaning toward art. Explain what this means and provide examples.
 There is a wealth of secondary information available to advertisers and media planners. As noted
throughout this chapter, audience profiles, media usage, media costs, and competitive information is
readily available. However, even given these large volumes of data, media buying may be less
scientific a process than one might think.

A number of reasons can be offered for this position. First, the validity of the data is often questioned
due to methodological difficulties. Secondly, there are factors that just don’t show up in the numbers.
The content of the material, the audience’s impression of or attitude toward a specific DJ, or
newscaster, etc. may not be reflected in the numbers, and must be evaluated more qualitatively.
Monthlies may offer greater potential for frequency of exposure than weeklies, etc.

Even when the numbers are valid, one must look purely beyond just the data per se. For example,
local news ratings for CBC stations may often be highest on a certain night because of the network’s
prime time programming. While the numbers may be there, this doesn’t indicate the fact that the
stations are more popular, only that people haven’t switched away from the station they were on.
While one might say, “so what, the numbers are there”, the quality of the viewer may not be the same
as on other nights when they specifically tuned into the news broadcast. The discussion on CPM’s vs.
Readers per Copy is another example when the media must be looked at and evaluated on criteria
other than just the numbers.

Most good media buyers know that numbers are important. Most also know, however, that they must
look beyond just the numbers in making their decisions. Qualitative aspect or the “art” of media
buying may be as important at the hard data.

2. Visit the website for a two magazines of the same genre and locate their media kit that tries to attract
advertisers to their particular media vehicle. Investigate how each magazine tries to persuade
advertisers and decide which magazine would be most suitable to advertise.

This should prove to be an illuminating activity so that students can appreciate the wealth of data
available for each media vehicle and to see the extensive promotion of media vehicles to entice
advertisers. For example, the media kit for Canadian Living 2014 is a pdf comprised of 22 pages with
colourful imagery, multiple tables showing the audience profile, the placement costs, production
requirements and schedule in addition to a few other items. In contrast, Chatelaine shows a few tabs
of the basic information and nothing more. Student could certainly compare others, but these are the
foremost magazines with a female readership skew and offer a good example if students do not come
to class with a good example.

3. Calculate the CPM for five or six different media vehicles that are interesting or topical.

This exercise can be done in conjunction with question 2 since students will be looking at the media
kits. Alternatively, students can try to locate multiple print vehicles in CARD and calculate the
CPMs. Whatever the selection, the students should be questioned on explaining why the numbers
differ. For example, a vehicle could have a very selective audience with a low readership, thus driving
up the CPM. Guidelines on comparing similar media vehicles could be offered as an extension to the
question.

4. Assume that a new entry level car brand wants to achieve thirty percent awareness among graduated
students aged 21 to 24; calculate how much would have to be spent in the budget to achieve this
objective.
 This is a very challenging question for students as it is an application of the objective and task method
of budget setting. They have to estimate the number of students first from a secondary data source.
From this, reach and frequency decisions need to be made taking into account any geographical
skews in the data in order to show how the 30% awareness could be achieved. Media selection is next
which would likely require multiple avenues. This part would open up debate on whether TV would
still provide sufficient coverage. Alternatively, consideration of Internet ads for young people
watching a “TV” show online would likely be evaluated by most students. Once the media selections
have be done, the costs for each need to be worked into the calculations along with the earlier
estimates for reach and frequency. In the end, an estimated budget based on the task of awareness
should arise. An extension question could investigate how the budget would need adjusting to achieve
other objectives.

5. For an up-and-coming brand of fashionable jeans, a re-branded local night club for dancing, and an
established energy drink, identify the most appropriate media budget allocation (in percentages) to
create awareness. Do the same for all three brands with respect to IMC tools.

Instructors could tabulate many alternatives in a class discussion and get students to express the
reason for their decisions. Each of the product selected fit within the life of a young student and all
three are at different stages of the PLC, new product, rebranded, and mature which should prove to be
a challenge to wrestle with and offer divergent opinions across the three options. The first question
looks to see how the students will allocate the budget across different media in a pure advertising
recommendation, while the second looks at the budget for multiple IMC tools. Of course there will be
some overlap where an IMC tool might require advertising. For example, if a brand is sponsoring an
event, it might advertise the sponsoring in media, so from a budget and communication effects
standpoint, it is both advertising and both an IMC tool. So in the end, this exercise draws upon the
key part of IMC planning which is the link between the IMC tools to achieve objectives.

Additional discussion questions (not in the text)

A. Using the BDI and CDI indices, explain the least desirable market situation for marketers. Provide
an example. Then do the same for the most desirable situation.

BDI compares the percentage of the brand's total Canadian sales in a given market area with the
percentage of the total population in the market. The resulting BDI indicates the sales potential
for that brand in that market area. CDI provides information on the potential for development of
the total product category rather than specific brands.

Figure 10-8 provides an excellent summary of how BDI and CDI can be used to develop
marketing strategies. The use of these indices provides marketers with insights into the market
potential for the product or brand. This, in turn, provides information regarding the amount of
media emphasis, weighting, etc. to be allocated.

The least desirable situation is one in which the BDI and the CDI are both low. In this situation,
there appears to be little potential for either the category or the brand. For example, consider
typewriters. If they are still marketed at all, the category is in the decline stage, and any brands
would be as well. No amount of advertising is likely to bring back the category or the brand.

The most desirable situation is one in which BDI and CDI are both high. In this case, the category
is growing, and the potential for the brand to grow is high as well. An example might be PC’s.
The use of computers is growing, and new brands may have the potential to grow as well. The
advertiser would be more likely to be successful by investing in this situation.
B. Discuss some of the factors that are important in determining frequency levels. Give examples of
each factor.

Figure 10-14 identifies factors important in determining frequency levels. The three factors and
specific examples of each are:

a. Marketing factors—these include factors such as brand history, brand share, degree of brand
loyalty, purchase and usage cycles, competitive share of voice, and target markets.

b. Message factors—complexity and uniqueness of the message, length of time the campaign
has run, image versus product sell, message variation, wearout and advertising units.

c. Media factors—clutter, editorial environment, attentiveness, scheduling number of media

used, and repeat exposures.

C. Discuss how you would explain to a small business owner why he or she needs to budget a larger
amount to advertising and promotion. Base your argument of the S-shaped response function.

As noted in the previous question, the S-shaped response function argues that advertising will
have little or not effect until a certain level of expenditures is reached. The small business owner
would, therefore, have little success if the budget was not adequate enough to reach this point.
For example, one might ask how much sales might be generated in an area with an ad budget of a
few hundred dollars? This amount would small that only a few people would be reached, and no
noticeable impact on sales would be achieved. Only when this budget is increased to the point
where enough people could be exposed to the message would any impact be felt. High tech
companies illustrate this point quite well since they typically spend s much on research and
development, not enough money is left over to make an impact on the marketplace. (They also
often tend to be very product oriented, placing all of their faith in the fact that the product will sell
itself.) The small amount that is typically spent might just as well as been saved.

D. Some advertisers believe that economies of scale are accrued in the advertising process. Discuss
their reasons for taking this position. Does research evidence support it?

The argument of economies of scale is that companies with a large share of the market have an
advantage over smaller companies, and thus can spend less money on advertising and realize a
better return. Factors such as better ad rates, declining costs of production, and more favorable
time and space locations are cited to support this position.

A variety of studies cited in the text suggest that there are no true economies of scale to e
accrued—at least in respect to advertising cost per dollar of sales. These studies note that the
evidence just does not support this contention.

Jones’ article concludes otherwise, however. According to Jones, when “share of voice” is
considered there is clearly an economy of scale that is accrued, as the advertising dollar works
harder for leading brands.

As can be seen, studies regarding the economies of scale in advertising often provide mixed
evidence. The studies seem to conclude that when share of voice is the dependent variable, this
relationship may hold true. When ad/sales effects are the dependent variable, no economies of
scale seem to be present.
E. Describe the three methods of promotional scheduling. Give examples of products and/or services
that might employ each method.

The text discusses the three scheduling options available to the marketer. Given the fact that there
are always budgetary constraints, and that some products/services do not need to be marketed
year round, scheduling allows for more efficient allocation of advertising and promotional
dollars. The scheduling options available are:

Continuity—A continuous schedule refers to constant advertising throughout the year, either
daily, weekly or monthly. Products that would be most likely to employ this scheduling method
include products that would be used consistently throughout the year with no seasonal variations.
For example, toothpaste, mouthwash, laundry detergent, etc.

Flighting—This schedule has intermittent periods of advertising, with times when there is
advertising and others when there is none. The “on” advertising time is referred to as flights.
Seasonal products (snow skis), swim wear and other products primarily consumed at some times
of the year but not all year round would employ this method. Banks have used flighting,
recognizing that consumers are much less involved in making banking decisions around the
holiday season in November and December. One of the advantages of flighting is the ability to
extend the limited ad budget.
Pulsing—A combination of the previous two methods, pulsing employs a continuous schedule
with periods of increased advertising to take advantage of intermittent opportunities. A good
example of this is beer advertising, which takes place continuously, but increases at holiday
times.

F. What level of frequency is necessary to achieve an impact on the receiver?

While most advertisers agree that one exposure to an ad may not be enough to have an impact,
there is less agreement as to what number of exposures is necessary. A number of researchers
have joined the debate over the number of exposures required.

While three exposures has been accepted as the optimal frequency level for years (Figure 10-12),
a number of researchers have challenged this number. Abbott Wool, for example, contends that
one exposure may be enough if the exposure takes place very close to the actual purchase. Jack
Myers, on the other hand argues that Krugman's work may have been valid twenty years ago
when consumers were exposed to only 1,000 ads per day. Now that we are exposed to 3,000-
5,000 per day, and throw in the fact that changes in media have taken place, Myers estimates that
a minimum of 12 exposures may be required. He suggests that as media continue to fragment and
advertising continue to proliferate; this number may continue to increase. What is the right
number? No one really knows!

G. Figure 10-27 shows that advertising spending and effects may differ in different competitive
environments. Explain each of the four scenarios presented and give examples of brands in each
of these cells.

Advertiser’s Advantage—In this case, one’s brand is stronger than that of the competition. Given
the competitive advantage, the brand should focus on advertising versus other promotional tools.
The reason for this is that advertising serves as a reminder as well as an introduction to the brand.
Given the brand’s strength, incentives—some of which may be costly—are not required. Rather,
keeping the brand in front of the consumer, and maintaining a brand image may be most
 important. An example may be the Apple iPod versus other MP3 players. Apple is clearly the
dominant brand, and should focus on communicating its brand image and benefits. There is no
need to offer discounts.

Symbiotic competition—Brands competing in a growing market that complement each other

should still focus on advertising. The adoption of satellite radio by auto manufacturers offers
consumers an attractive option to enhance their driving experience, and a competitive advantage
to competitors not offering such an option. For both the automobile and the satellite radio
company (i.e., BMW and Sirius), continued advertising of the brand is likely to benefit both.

Zero-Sum Competition—In a mature market, one of the ways to gain market share is by taking it
from the competition. Thus, increases in advertising may lead to gaining share, and may have to
be matched to ward off the competition by others. Consider the competition between Energizer
and Duracell, while the market for batteries is growing very slowly or may even be flat, both
companies will continue to advertise in attempts to gain share and defend against the other as
well.

Competitor’s Advantage—In a market situation in which a company’s brand is inferior to the

competition, head to head advertising may not be the best strategy. By gaining a niche position,
and focusing on promotional tools as opposed to advertising, some share may be gained. Using
batteries as an example, again, consider the smaller share brands such as Panasonic, EverReady,
etc. Head to head advertising battles are not likely to be effective. On the other hand, offering
coupons, sweepstakes, etc. may entice the consumer to try the brand, and sales may increase.

H. The text states that flexibility is required in a media plan due to changes that may take place in
the marketing environment. Describe some of these changes and how they might affect the media
plan.

A number of environmental factors may lead require flexibility in the media plan. These include:

• market opportunities—an event that takes place that provides an unforeseen opportunity. For
example, a winter snowstorm may provide the opportunity to announce a sale on shovels.

• market threats—internal or external factors that may lead to problems resulting in sales
losses, etc. For example, a direct competitor increases its advertising budget, and the
company is required to respond.

• availability of media-a medium sought may not be available. For example, all media space
may be sold out.

• changes in media or media vehicles—for example, the recent changes in television (500
channels) or the fact that the Internet has now become available to commercial advertisers.

A much broader list can be developed. This question makes for good class discussion as students
can be encouraged to generate their own lists.

I. Critics of the percentage of sales method of budget setting contend that this method “reverses the
advertising and sales relationship” and that it “treats advertising as an expense rather than an
investment” Explain what these arguments mean, and discuss their merits.
 The percentage of sales method, while a commonly employed method of budget setting, has its
disadvantages. Perhaps the major disadvantage is the fact that the advertising budget is based on
the amount of sales generated, not as a basis for achieving sales; and thus reverses the advertising
and sales relationship.

By establishing the advertising budget based on the level of sales, sales is dictating what the ad
budget will be. Advertising is not considered a tool for generating sales, but is considered more of
a cost of doing business. If sales fall, the ad budget is cut. So what happens is that in periods of
declining sales, rather than considering advertising as a tool for reversing the trend, it is seen as a
way to cut costs to improve profits. In periods of increasing sales, the advertising budget may be
raised accordingly (remember it’s a % of sales), in many cases not because it has been shown to
have an effect so much as just a rule of thumb.

The argument that % of sales reverses the advertising→ sales relationship is a valid one. If one
treats advertising as an investment, then the ad budget should actually increase during down turns
in the market, in an attempt to turn around the declining sales. By slashing the ad budget based on
a % of sales, management is saying that they do not believe that investing in advertising is a
viable strategy for improving sales.

J. Discuss the two sales response models described in the text. Explain the differences between the
two models. Provide examples of type of products that might follow each of these response
curves.

The s-shaped response curve makes the assumption that certain levels of advertising expenditures
must be reached before any noticeable impact on sales will occur. According to this model, initial
outlays will have little or no noticeable impact on sales, then additional outlays will have a very
noticeable effect to a point at which sales will level off and additional expenditures will again
have little or no impact.

The concave-downward model follows the economic model of the law of diminishing returns.
That is, as the amount of advertising increases, its incremental value decreases. Thus, the effects
of advertising would be felt almost immediately then begin to decrease.

As can be seen, the models differ substantially in respect to the impact of advertising
expenditures In the former model, the impact of advertising will not even begin to be felt until a
certain level of expenditures has been reached. Those who believe that advertising spending has a
cumulative effect would adhere to this model. In the concave downward model, the impact takes
place almost immediately, with incremental expenditures having less and less value.

The models would also differ in respect to the types of products being advertised. For example,
the S-shaped response curve would seem to indicate an ability of the advertising to stimulate
sales, both through the provision of information and throughout persuasive capabilities. As noted,
it would support the fact that ads have a cumulative effect, and the additional ad spending may
lead to additional sales. The concave-downward model, on the other hand, would argue that
consumers are already in a mind set to buy or not buy, and the value of the advertising is
primarily to inform not to persuade. Additional levels of ad spending will not be effective in
changing one’s mind, or motivating them to purchase. If these assumptions are true, it would
seem that for high-involvement products, the concave downward model would be more likely to
be operating, while the S-shaped response might better explain products for which the consumers’
mind has not already been made up. In other words, the concave model assumes there will be
little or no search, or that this search has been concluded. the ads primary impact is on the
 decision to buy. (Otherwise, additional expenditures would be likely to be effective at the search
stage). The S-shaped model would seem to be more effective when the decision hasn’t yet been
made, and the consumer can still be impacted by the ads.

IMC Comprehensive Project

At this stage, present the specific media objectives. Without specifically naming media (this will be done
in following chapters) develop a broad media schedule. Also explain what creative aspects and mood
must be taken into consideration. In addition, determination and allocation of the budget is now required.
Another random document with
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shoes, stockings, and underclothes are comparatively unknown.
Only upon dress-up occasions does a man or woman put on
slippers.
The cooking and housekeeping are done entirely by the women.
The chief food is a coarse bread made of corn or millet baked in
thick cakes. This is broken up and dipped into a kind of a bean stew
seasoned with salt, pepper, and onions. The ordinary peasant
seldom has meat, for it is only the rich who can afford mutton or
beef. At a big feast on the occasion of a wedding, a farming nabob
sometimes brings in a sheep which has been cooked whole. It is
eaten without forks, and is torn limb from limb, pieces being cut out
by the guests with their knives.
 Next to the market where sugar cane is sold is the “Superb Mosque,” built by
Sultan Hassan nearly 600 years ago. Besides being a centre for religious
activities, it is also a gathering place for popular demonstrations and political
agitation.
 Cairo is the largest city on the African continent, and one of the capitals of the
Mohammedan world. Its flat-roofed buildings are a yellowish-white, with the towers
and domes of hundreds of mosques rising above them.

Of late Egypt has begun to raise vegetables for Europe. The fast
boats from Alexandria to Italy carry green stuff, especially onions, of
which the Nile valley is now exporting several million dollars’ worth
per annum. Some of these are sent to England, and others to Austria
and Germany.
As for tobacco, Egypt is both an exporter and importer. “Egyptian”
cigarettes are sold all over the world, but Egypt does not raise the
tobacco of which they are made. Its cultivation has been forbidden
for many years, and all that is used is imported from Turkey, Greece,
and Bosnia. About four fifths of it comes from Turkey.
Everyone in Egypt who can afford it smokes. The men have pipes
of various kinds, and of late many cigarettes have been coming into
use. A favourite smoke is with a water pipe, the vapour from the
burning tobacco being drawn by means of a long tube through a
bowl of water upon which the pipe sits, so that it comes cool into the
mouth.
The chicken industry of Egypt is worth investigation by our
Department of Agriculture. Since the youth of the Pyramids, these
people have been famous egg merchants and the helpful hen is still
an important part of their stock. She brings in hundreds of thousands
of dollars a year, for her eggs form one of the items of national
export. During the last twelve months enough Egyptian eggs have
been shipped across the Mediterranean to England and other parts
of Europe to have given one to every man, woman, and child in the
United States. Most of them went to Great Britain.
The Egyptians, moreover, had incubators long before artificial egg
hatching was known to the rest of the world. There is a hatchery
near the Pyramids where the farmers trade fresh eggs for young
chicks at two eggs per chick, and there is another, farther down the
Nile valley, which produces a half million little chickens every
season. It is estimated that the oven crop of chickens amounts to
thirty or forty millions a year, that number of little fowls being sold by
the incubator owners when the baby chicks are about able to walk.
Most of our incubators are of metal and many are kept warm by oil
lamps. Those used here are one-story buildings made of sun-dried
bricks. They contain ovens which are fired during the hatching
seasons. The eggs are laid upon cut straw in racks near the oven,
and the firing is so carefully done that the temperature is kept just
right from week to week. The heat is not gauged by the thermometer,
but by the judgment and experience of the man who runs the
establishment. A fire is started eight or ten days before the eggs are
put in, and from that time on it is not allowed to go out until the
hatching season is over. The eggs are turned four times a day while
hatching. Such establishments are cheaply built, and so arranged
that it costs almost nothing to run them. One that will hatch two
hundred thousand chickens a year can be built for less than fifty
dollars, while for about a dollar and a half per day an experienced
man can be hired to tend the fires, turn the eggs, and sell the
chickens.
 CHAPTER VI
THE PROPHET’S BIRTHDAY

Stand with me on the Hill of the Citadel and take a look over Cairo.
We are away up over the river Nile, and far above the minarets of
the mosques that rise out of the vast plain of houses below. We are
at a height as great as the tops of the Pyramids, which stand out
upon the yellow desert off to the left. The sun is blazing and there is
a smoky haze over the Nile valley, but it is not dense enough to hide
Cairo. The city lying beneath us is the largest on the African
continent and one of the mightiest of the world. It now contains about
eight hundred thousand inhabitants; and in size is rapidly
approximating Heliopolis and Memphis in the height of their ancient
glory.
Of all the Mohammedan cities of the globe, Cairo is growing the
fastest. It is more than three times as big as Damascus and twenty
times the size of Medina, where the Prophet Mohammed died. The
town covers an area equal to fifty quarter-section farms; and its
buildings are so close together that they form an almost continuous
structure. The only trees to be seen are those in the French quarter,
which lies on the outskirts.
The larger part of the city is of Arabian architecture. It is made up
of flat-roofed, yellowish-white buildings so crowded along narrow
streets that they can hardly be seen at this distance. Here and there,
out of the field of white, rise tall, round stone towers with galleries
about them. They dominate the whole city, and under each is a
mosque, or Mohammedan church. There are hundreds of them in
Cairo. Every one has its worshippers, and from every tower, five
times a day, a shrill-voiced priest calls the people to prayers. There
is a man now calling from the Mosque of Sultan Hasan, just under
us. The mosque itself covers more than two acres, and the minaret
is about half as high as the Washington Monument. So delighted
was Hasan with the loveliness of this structure that when it was
finished he cut off the right hand of the architect so that it would be
impossible for him to design another and perhaps more beautiful
building. Next it is another mosque, and all about us we can see
evidences that Mohammedanism is by no means dead, and that
these people worship God with their pockets as well as with their
tongues.
In the Alabaster Mosque, which stands at my back, fifty men are
now praying, while in the courtyard a score of others are washing
themselves before they go in to make their vows of repentance to
God and the Prophet. Not far below me I can see the Mosque El-
Azhar, which has been a Moslem university for more than a
thousand years, and where something like ten thousand students
are now learning the Koran and Koranic law.
Here at Cairo I have seen the people preparing to take their
pilgrimage to Mecca, rich and poor starting out on that long journey
into the Arabian desert. Many go part of the way by water. The ships
leaving Alexandria and Suez are crowded with pilgrims and there is
a regular exodus from Port Sudan and other places on this side of
the Red Sea. They go across to Jidda and there lay off their costly
clothing before they make their way inland, each clad only in an
apron with a piece of cloth over the left shoulder. Rich and poor
dress alike. Many of the former carry gifts and other offerings for the
sacred city. Such presents cost the Egyptian government alone a
quarter of a million dollars a year; for not only the Khedive but the
Mohammedan rulers of the Sudan send donations. The railroad
running from far up the Nile to the Red Sea makes special rates to
pilgrimage parties.
Yet I wonder whether this Mohammedanism is not a religion of the
lips rather than of the heart. These people are so accustomed to
uttering prayers that they forget the sense. The word God is heard
everywhere in the bazaars. The water carrier, who goes about with a
pigskin upon his back, jingling his brass cups to announce his
business, cries out: “May God recompense me!” and his customer
replies, as he drinks, by giving him a copper in the name of the Lord.
The lemonade peddler, who carries a glass bottle as big as a four-
gallon crock, does the same, and I venture to say that the name of
the Deity is uttered here more frequently than in any other part of the
world. It is through this custom of empty religious formulas that I am
able to free myself of the beggars of the city. I have learned two Arab
words: “Allah yatik,” which mean: “May God give thee enough and to
spare.” When a beggar pesters me I say these words gently. He
looks upon me in astonishment, then touches his forehead in a polite
Mohammedan salute and goes away.
On my second visit to Egypt I was fortunate in being in Cairo on
the birthday of the Prophet. It was a feast day among the
Mohammedans, and at night there was a grand religious celebration
at the Alabaster Mosque which Mehemet Ali, that Napoleon of Egypt,
built on the Citadel above Cairo. Its minarets, overlooking the Nile
valley, the great deserts and the vast city of Cairo, blazed with light,
and from them the cry of the muezzins sounded shrill on the dusky
air: “Allah is great! There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is the
Prophet of Allah! Come to worship! Allah is great! There is no God
but Allah!”
As this call reverberated through the city, Mohammedans of all
classes started for the Citadel. Some came in magnificent turnouts,
bare-legged, gaudily dressed syces with wands in their hands
running in front of them to clear the way. Some came upon donkeys.
Some moved along in groups of three or four on foot. The Khedive
came with the rest, soldiers with drawn swords going in front of his
carriage and a retinue of cavalry following behind.
The Alabaster Mosque covers many acres. It has a paved marble
court, as big as a good-sized field, around which are cloisters. This is
roofed with the sky, and in the midst of it is a great marble fountain
where the worshippers bathe their feet and hands before they go in
to pray. The mosque is at the back of this court, facing Mecca. Its
many domes rise to a great height and its minarets seem to pierce
the sky. It is built of alabaster, but its exterior has become worn and
pitted by the sands of the desert, which have been blown against its
walls until it has nothing of the grandeur which it must have shown
when its founder worshipped within it.
 The interior, however, was wonderfully beautiful that night, when
its gorgeous decorations were shown off by the thousands of lights
of this great service. Under the gaslight and lamplight the tinsel
which during the day shocks the taste was softened and beautified.
The alabaster of the walls became as pure as Mexican onyx, and the
rare Persian rugs that lay upon the floor took on a more velvety tint.
See it all again with me. In the eye of your mind cover an acre field
with the richest of oriental rugs; erect about it walls of pure white
alabaster with veins as delicate as those of the moss agate; let these
walls run up for hundreds of feet; build galleries around them and
roof the whole with great domes in which are windows of stained
glass; hang lamps by the thousands from the ceiling, place here and
there an alabaster column. Now you have some idea of this mosque
as it looked on the night of Mohammed’s birthday.
You must, however, add the worshippers to the picture. Thousands
of oriental costumes; turbans of white, black, and green; rich gowns
and sober, long-bearded, dark faces, shine out under the lights in
every part of the building. Add likewise the mass of Egyptian soldiers
in gold lace and modern uniforms, with red fezzes on their heads,
and the hundreds of noble Egyptians in European clothes. There are
no shoes in the assemblage, and the crowd moves about on the
rugs in bare feet or stockings.
What a babel of sounds goes up from the different parts of the
building, and how strange are the sights! Here a dozen old men
squat on their haunches, facing each other, and rock back and forth
as they recite passages of the Koran. Here is a man worshipping all
alone; there is a crowd of long-haired, wild-eyed ascetics with faces
of all shades of black, yellow, and white. They are so dirty and
emaciated they make one think of the hermits of fiction. They stand
in a ring and go through the queerest of antics to the weird music of
three great tambourines and two drums played by worshippers quite
as wild looking as themselves. It is a religious gymnastic show, the
horrible nature of which cannot be described upon paper.
When I first entered the mosque, these Howling Dervishes were
squatted on the floor, moving their bodies up and down in unison,
and grunting and gasping as though the whole band had been
attacked with the colic. A moment later they arose and began to bob
their heads from one side to the other until I thought their necks
would be dislocated by the jerks they gave them. They swung their
ears nearly down to their shoulders. The leader stood in the centre,
setting the time to the music. Now he bent over so that his head was
almost level with his knees, then snapped his body back to an erect
position. The whole band did likewise, keeping up this back-breaking
motion for fifteen minutes. All the time they howled out “Allah, Allah!”
Their motions increased in wildness. With every stoop the music
grew louder and faster. They threw off their turbans, and their long
hair, half matted, now brushed the floor as they bent down in front,
now cut the air like whips as they threw themselves back. Their eyes
began to protrude, one man frothed at the mouth. At last they
reached such a state of fanatical ecstasy that not for several minutes
after the leader ordered them to stop, were they able to do so. The
Howling Dervishes used to cut themselves in their rites and often
they fall down in fits in their frenzy. They believe that such actions
are passports to heaven.
 A great occasion in Cairo is the sending of a new gold-embroidered carpet to the
sanctuary in Mecca, there to absorb holiness at the shrine of the Prophet. The old
carpet is brought back each year, and its shreds are distributed among the
Faithful.
 The mosque of the Citadel in Cairo was built of alabaster by Mehemet Ali, the
“Napoleon of Egypt.” When Mohammed’s birthday is celebrated, its halls and
courts are choked with thousands of Moslem worshippers and are the scene of
fanatical religious exercises.

In another part of the room was a band of Whirling Dervishes,

who, dressed in high sugar-loaf hats and long white gowns, whirled
about in a ring, with their arms outstretched, going faster and faster,
until their skirts stood out from their waists like those of a circus
performer mounted on a bareback steed, as she dances over the
banners and through the hoops.
There were Mohammedans of all sects in the mosque, each going
through his own pious performances without paying any attention to
the crowds that surrounded him. In his religious life the Mussulman
is a much braver man than the Christian. At the hours for prayer he
will flop down on his knees and touch his head on the ground in the
direction of Mecca, no matter who are his companions or what his
surroundings. He must take off his shoes before praying, and I saw
yesterday in the bazaars of Cairo a man clad in European clothes
who was praying in his little box-like shop with his stocking feet
turned out toward the street, which was just then full of people. In the
heel of each stocking there was a hole as big as a dollar, and the
bare skin looked out at the crowds.
The Moslems of Egypt, like those elsewhere, have their fast days,
during which, from sunrise to sunset, they do not allow a bit of food
nor a drop of water to touch their lips. Some of them carry the fast to
such an extent that they will not even swallow their saliva, and in this
dry climate their thirst must be terrible. The moment the cannon
booms out the hour of sunset, however, they dash for water and
food, and often gorge themselves half the night. You may see a man
with a cigarette in his hand waiting until the sun goes down in order
that he may light it, or another holding a cup of water ready while he
listens for the sound of the cannon. This fasting is very severe upon
the poor people of Egypt, who have to work all day without eating.
The rich often stay up for the whole night preceding a fast day, and
by going to bed toward morning they are able to sleep the day
through and get up in time for a big meal after sunset.
The poor are the best Mohammedans, and many of the more
faithful are much alarmed at the laxity in religious duty that comes
through contact with Europeans. A missionary friend told me of a
Moslem sheik who was offered a glass of cognac by a brother
believer on a fast day. Shortly after this he met my friend and spoke
of the incident, saying: “I don’t know what we are coming to. Good
Mohammedans think they can drink without sinning, and this man
laughed when I told him it was fast day and said that fasts were for
common people, and that religion was not of much account, anyhow.
We have many infidels among us, and it seems to me that the world
is in a very bad way.”
The Moslems have many doctrines worthy of admiration and the
morals of the towns of Egypt which have not been affected by
European civilization are, I am told, far better than those of Cairo or
Alexandria. A traveller to a town on the Red Sea, which is purely
Mohammedan, says that the place has had no litigation for years,
and there is no drunkenness or disorder. The people move on in a
quiet, simple way, with their sheik settling all their troubles.
Mohammedan Cairo is quite as orderly as the part in which the
nobility and the Europeans live. It contains the bazaars and the old
buildings of the Arabian part of the city, and is by all odds the most
interesting section.
 CHAPTER VII
IN THE BAZAARS OF CAIRO

Cairo is the biggest city in Africa. It is larger than St. Louis and one
of the most cosmopolitan cities in the Orient. The Christians and the
Mohammedans here come together, and the civilizations of the East
and the West touch each other. The modern part of Cairo has put on
the airs of European capitals. It has as wide streets as Paris, and a
park, full of beautiful flowers and all varieties of shrubs and trees, lies
in its very centre. Here every night the military bands play European
and American airs, and veiled Mohammedan women walk about with
white-faced French or Italian babies, of which they are the nurses.
People from every part of the world listen to the music. The
American jostles the Englishman while the German and the
Frenchman scowl at each other; the Greek and the Italian move
along side by side, as they did in the days when this country was
ruled by Rome, and now and then you see an old Turk in his turban
and gown, or a Bedouin Arab, or a white-robed, fair-faced heathen
from Tunis.
The European section of Cairo now has magnificent hotels. It is
many a year since the foreign traveller in Egypt has had to eat with
his fingers, or has seen a whole sheep served up to him by his
Egyptian host as used to be the case. To-day the food is the same
as that you get in Paris, and is served in the same way. One can buy
anything he wants in European Cairo, from a gas-range to a glove-
buttoner, and from a set of diamond earrings to a pair of shoestrings.
Yesterday I had a suit of clothes made by an English tailor, and I
drive about every day in an American motor car. There are, perhaps,
fifty thousand Europeans living in the city, and many American
visitors have learned the way to this great winter resort. The bulk of
the Europeans are French and Italian, and the Mouski, one of the
main business streets, is lined for a mile with French and Italian
shops. There are thousands of Greeks, and hundreds of Jews from
Palestine, the states of southern Europe, and Asia Minor. One sees
every type of Caucasian moving about under dark red fezzes and
dressed in black clothes with coats buttoned to the chin.
The foreign part of Cairo is one of great wealth. There are
mansions and palaces here that would be called handsome in the
suburbs of New York, and property has greatly risen in value. Many
of the finest houses are owned by Greeks, whose shrewd brains are
working now as in the classic days. The Greeks look not unlike us
and most of them talk both English and French. They constitute the
money aristocracy of Alexandria, and many of the rich Greek
merchants of that city have palatial winter homes here. As I have
said, they are famed as bankers and are the note-shavers of Egypt.
They lend money at high rates of interest, and I am told that perhaps
one fifth of the lands of the country belong to them. They have
bought them in under mortgages to save their notes. The lower
classes of the Greeks are the most turbulent of Egypt’s population.
 FROM CAIRO TO KISUMU

Embraces the right shoulder of Africa which for centuries withstood the attempts
of rulers and traders to establish their dominion over the continent

The tourist who passes through Cairo and stays at one of the big
hotels is apt to think that the city is rapidly becoming a Christian one.
As he drives over asphalt streets lined with the fine buildings of the
European quarter, it seems altogether English and French. If he is
acquainted with many foreigners he finds them living in beautiful
villas, or in apartment houses like those of our own cities. He does
his shopping in modern stores and comes to the conclusion that the
Arab element is passing away.
 This is not so. Cairo is a city of the Egyptians. Not one tenth of its
inhabitants are Christians and it is the hundreds of thousands of
natives who make up the life blood of this metropolis. They are
people of a different world from ours, as we can see if we go down
for a stroll through their quarters. They do business in different ways
and trade much as they have been trading for generations. Their
stores are crowded along narrow streets that wind this way and that
until one may lose himself in them. Nearly every store is a factory,
and most of the goods offered are made in the shop where they are
sold.
Although the foreigner and his innovations are in evidence, native
Cairo is much the same now in characters, customs, and dress as it
was in the days of Haroun Al Raschid. Here the visionary Alnaschar
squats in his narrow, cell-like store, with his basket of glass before
him. He holds the tube of a long water pipe in his mouth and is
musing on the profits he will make from peddling his glass, growing
richer and richer, until his sovereign will be glad to offer him his
daughter in marriage and he will spurn her as she kneels before him.
We almost expect to see the glass turned over as it is in the story,
and his castles in the air shattered with his kick. Next to him is a
turbaned Mohammedan who reminds us of Sinbad the Sailor, and a
little farther on is a Barmecide washing his hands with invisible soap
in invisible water, and apparently inviting his friends to come and
have a great feast with him. Here two long-gowned, gray-bearded
men are sitting on a bench drinking coffee together; and there a
straight, tall maiden, robed in a gown which falls from her head to
her feet, with a long black veil covering all of her face but her eyes,
looks over the wares of a handsome young Syrian, reminding us of
how the houris shopped in the days of the “Thousand and One
Nights.”
Oriental Cairo is a city of donkeys and camels. In the French
quarter you may have a ride on an electric street car for a few cents,
or you may hire an automobile to carry you over the asphalt. The
streets of the native city are too narrow for such things, and again
and again we are crowded to the wall for fear that the spongy feet of
the great camels may tread upon us. We are grazed by loaded
donkeys, carrying grain, bricks, or bags on their backs, and the
donkey boy trotting behind an animal ridden by some rich Egyptian
or his wife calls upon us to get out of the way.
The donkeys of Egypt are small, rugged animals. One sees them
everywhere with all sorts of odd figures mounted on them. Here is an
Egyptian woman sitting astride of one, her legs bent up like a spring
and her black feet sticking out in the stirrups. She is dressed in
black, in a gown which makes her look like a balloon. There is a long
veil over her face with a slit at the eyes, where a brass spool
separates it from the head-dress and you see nothing but strips of
bare skin an inch wide above and below. Here is a sheik with a great
turban and a long gown; his legs, ending in big yellow slippers, reach
almost to the ground on each side of his donkey. He has no bridle,
but guides the beast with a stick. A donkey-boy in bare feet, whose
sole clothing consists of a blue cotton nightgown and a brown
skullcap, runs behind poking up the donkey with a stick. Now he
gives it a cut, and the donkey jerks its hinder part from one side to
the other as it scallops the road in attempting to get out of the way of
the rod. Here is a drove of donkeys laden with bags for the market.
They are not harnessed, and the bags are balanced upon their
backs without ropes or saddles.
The ordinary donkey of Egypt is very cheap indeed, but the
country has some of the finest asses and mules I have ever seen,
and there are royal white jackasses ridden by wealthy
Mohammedans which are worth from five hundred to a thousand
dollars per beast. The best of these come from Mecca. They are
pacers, fourteen hands high, and very swift. The pedigrees of some
of them are nearly as long as those of Arabian horses. It is said that
the Arabs who raise them will never sell a female of this breed.
But to return to the characters of the bazaar. They are of the
oddest, and one must have an educated eye to know who they are.
Take that man in a green turban, who is looked up to by his fellows.
The dragoman tells us that he has a sure passport to Heaven, and
that the green turban is a sign that he has made the pilgrimage to
Mecca and thus earned the right to the colours of the Prophet.
Behind him comes a fine-featured, yellow-faced man in a blue gown
wearing a turban of blue. We ask our guide who he may be and are
told, with a sneer, that he is a Copt. He is one of the Christians of
modern Egypt, descended from the fanatical band described by
Charles Kingsley in his novel “Hypatia.” Like all his class he is
intelligent, and like most of them well dressed. The Copts are among
the shrewdest of the business Egyptians, and with prosperity they
have grown in wealth. They are money lenders and land speculators.
Many of them have offices under the government, and not a few
have amassed fortunes. Some of them are very religious and some
can recite the Bible by heart. They differ from their neighbours in that
they believe in having only one wife.
The crowd in these streets is by no means all men, however.
There are women scattered through it, and such women! We look at
them, and as their large soulful eyes, fringed with dark lashes, smile
back at us, we wish that the veils would drop from their faces. The
complexions which can be seen in the slit in the veils are of all
colours from black to brunette, and from brown to the creamy white
of the fairest Circassian. We are not particularly pleased with their
costume, but our dragoman tells us that they dress better at home.
The better classes wear black bombazine garments made so full that
they hide every outline of the figure. Some of them have their cloaks
tied in at the waist so that they look like black bed ticks on legs.
Here, as one raises her skirt, we see that she wears bloomers falling
to her ankles, which make us think of the fourteen-yard breeches
worn by the girls of Algiers. The poorer women wear gowns of blue
cotton, a single garment and the veil making up a whole costume.
Astride their shoulders or their hips some of them carry babies, many
of whom are as naked as when they were born.