LESSON 4

NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE

Gregor Mendel’s principles form the base for the understanding of heredity and variation.
Although Mendel’s work failed to discuss thoroughly the ‘factors’ or genes he mentioned in his
law of inheritance, his findings prompted other scientists to probe further in the mystery of
heredity. Several researches were conducted after the rediscovery of Mendel’s work. Walter
Sutton and Theodore Boveri became popular because they found the best evidence that an
inherited trait is determined by chromosomes. Chromosome Theory of Inheritance explained
that genes are in the chromosomes.

A. PUNNETT SQUARE
A Punnett square is a graphical representation for predicting all possible resulting genotype
combination of a specific cross or breeding experiment.
To predict the resulting genotype combination, follow the steps below.

Draw a Punnett square by setting up a grid of perpendicular lines.

1. The genotype of one parent (Male) is then placed on the top.
2. The genotype of the other parent (Female) is placed down the left side.
3. The spaces at the center are filled by copying the letters on the row and column heading across
or down into the empty squares.

B. Non-Mendelian Patterns of Heredity

1. Incomplete Dominance
In incomplete dominance, a heterozygote shows a phenotype that is intermediate between
the two homozygous phenotypes. Neither allele is dominant over the other.
In incomplete dominance, it is only the phenotype that is intermediate. The red and white
alleles remain separate and distinct. Half the gametes of the pink four o’clock carry the
allele for red and half carry the allele for white. Therefore, the genotypic ratio also becomes
the phenotypic ratio
An example of incomplete dominance is flower color in four o’clock plant, like those shown
in Figure 1. When a pure red-flowered four o’clock plant is crossed with a pure white-
flowered four o’clock plant, the offspring will produce neither red nor white flowers.
Instead, all flowers will be pink.
 Figure 1. A Punnett Square
showing the cross between
red and white four o’clock
flowers

2. Codominance
Another pattern of inheritance is codominance. This results when one allele is not dominant
over the other. The resulting heterozygotes exhibit the traits of both parents.
Codominance is a non-Mendelian type of dominance where the alleles of a gene pair in a
heterozygote are fully expressed.
It will result in an offspring with a phenotype that is neither dominant nor recessive. Dogs
that have spots and checkered chickens are some examples of animals with traits under
codominance.
Another example of codominance is the MN blood typing in humans. On the surface of our
red blood cells are proteins bound to sugar molecules, forming complexes called antigens.
One group of antigens are controlled by a pair of alleles, LM and LN. The pairing of these
alleles will determine the blood type of an individual, and there are three: M, MN and N.
Table 1 summarizes the genotypes and phenotypes of the MN blood typing in humans.
Table 1. Human MN Blood Types and their genotypes
Blood Types Genotypes
M LM LM
MN LM LN
N LN LN

Note that in the heterozygote condition, both LM and LN alleles are expressed in that the
red blood cells will have the M and N antigens. Just like in incomplete dominance, the
genotypic ratio in codominance also becomes the phenotypic ratio.
Another good example of codominance is roan fur in cattle as shown in Figure 2.
Cattle can be red (RR = all red hairs), white (WW = all white hairs), or roan (RW = red &
white hairs together).

Figure 2. Codominance in Cattle

 In codominance, both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote.
For example, red cows crossed with white cows will have offspring that are roan cows.
Roan refers to cows with red hair and white blotches.

3. Multiple Alleles
 In some traits, a certain gene can have more than a pair alleles that controls the
expression of traits.
 This is evident in the patterns of inheritance in human blood type.
 The ABO blood type has three alleles (IA, IB and i) governing this characteristic. The
ABO blood type is determined by the presence or absence of two antigens, A and B.
Allele i does not code for an antigen. There are four possible blood types as shown in
Table 2.
Table 2. Human Blood Types and Their Phenotypes and Genotypes
Blood Types Phenotypes Genotypes
A A
A I I Homozygous dominant (AA)
IA i Heterozygous dominant (AO)
B IB IB Homozygous dominant (BB)
IB i Heterozygous dominant (BO)
AB IA IB Homozygous dominant (AB)
O ii Homozygous recessive (OO)

The IA and IB alleles are dominant over the i allele, which is always recessive. However,
when the IA and IB alleles are inherited together, both alleles are expressed equally. This also
makes IA and IB codominants of each other.

4. Sex-Linked Traits
 In humans, sex determination is dependent on the presence or absence of the Y
chromosome.
 Females have the XX chromosome while males have the XY chromosome.
 The X and Y not only carry the genes that determine sex but also those for some other
characteristics as well.
 These genes that go along with either sex chromosome is said to be sex-linked.
 An example of a recessive sex-linked trait in humans is hemophilia.

To illustrate the inheritance of an X-linked trait, use the gene for colorblindness as shown in
Table 3. The X chromosome with the gene for color blindness is represented as X c while the
one without is represented as X.

Table 3. Phenotypes and Genotypes of color blindness in Humans

Genotype Phenotype
XX Normal female
c
XX Normal female, carrier of the gene
Xc Xc Color-blind female
XY Normal Male
Xc Y Color-blind male

Notice that for a female to become color-blind, she must be homozygous (XC XC) for the
color-blind genes. The trait is, therefore, recessive in females. If a female has only one X
chromosome with the allele for color blindness, she becomes normal but can pass on the
trait to her offspring. She is therefore a carrier of the trait. Since males have only one X
chromosome, the gene for color blindness when present in the male, will always be
expressed because it does not have an allele to hide or prevent its expression. Thus, the male
will be color- blind. This is the reason why color blindness is more common in males than in
females.