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CHAPTER 10
Elections and Campaigns

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe various kinds of elections in the United States.
• Explain the distinctiveness of presidential and congressional elections.
• Analyze how the mechanics of voting may affect turnout and outcomes.
• Summarize the reasons for electoral success and failure.
• Discuss the basics of how candidates finance and run their campaigns.
• Appraise the ways in which the current electoral process may foster or hinder
deliberation and active citizenship.

 SUMMARY OVERVIEW
The United States has a complex election system because of federalism, bicameralism, and the
separation of powers. Officials are elected at the national, state, and local levels with rules that
vary from location to location. This decentralized system has proven to be controversial, as states
have experimented with election procedure and technology.
Elections take a variety of forms: ballot measures allow citizens to vote directly on state policy;
partisan and nonpartisan primaries help to determine the nominees who will later compete for
office; and district and at-large races often determines who—and how many—officials are
chosen. Americans tend to pay closest attention to presidential elections, which have rules of their
own. Through primaries or caucuses, each state chooses delegates to national party conventions.
In November, nominees face off in the general election, whose outcome depends on the electoral
college. Although the winner of the popular vote usually gets a majority in the electoral college,
the 2000 election served as a reminder that the results can diverge.
Campaigns are expensive, and candidates are required to follow intricate federal rules regarding
contributions. The necessity of fundraising and the difficulty of rule compliance may leave
candidates with little time to focus on the issues, and they may hinder citizen involvement in
some ways. Nevertheless, technology has opened a new door to participation and deliberation.
Elections educate candidates and voters alike, and they allow the electorate both to empower
officials and to check them. The importance of elections lies not just in the identity of the winners
but in the ways that they win. Additionally, elections are an important occasion for policy
deliberation; moreover, campaigns provide many opportunities for active citizenship.

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194 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

 CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. INTRODUCTION
• Elections provide a way for people to check and control their government.
• Elections help to select lawmakers that have political knowledge and experience.
• Elections foster active citizenship.
o Elections create opportunities to participate in a political campaign.
o They provide opportunities to run for office at local, state, or
federal level.
• Election campaigns stimulate public deliberation.

II. VARIETIES OF AMERICAN ELECTIONS

A. Referendum, Recall, and Initiative
• Types of direct democracy
o The initiative (24 states): A procedure that allows citizens to
draft their own legislation and get it on the ballot through
a petition.
o The popular referendum (24 states): A process whereby people
may gather signatures to enable the voters to accept or reject
measures that the legislature has passed.
o Legislative referendum (50 states): A vote that takes place
when a state legislature sends measures to the people for
their approval.
o Recall elections (19 states): Special elections in which voters
may oust officeholders before their regular terms expire.
• Arguments in support of direct democracy
o Professional politicians lack transparency and accountability.
➢ Decisions are often made behind close doors without
public knowledge.
➢ Lack of party competition means that lawmaker is not
likely to lose his or her job for bad decisions.
➢ Influence by special interest lobbyists are often more
important than majority opinion or broader public good.
o Decisions of voters are as defensible as those of legislators.
o Direct democracy can encourage citizen participation in politics.
• Arguments against direct democracy
o It undermines the deliberative advantages of representative
government.
➢ Lawmakers must consider a variety of interests in order
to build majorities.
➢ Lawmakers must defend their votes in public.
o It no longer reflects the popular will or public good.
➢ Ballot campaigns are expensive, thus direct democracy
caters to the interests of wealthy interest groups
and politicians.
➢ Signature-gathering process is done by paid collectors
who are uninterested in educating voters.

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 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns 195

B. Candidate Elections
• Types of elections
o Partisan election: A contest in which each candidate’s party
affiliation appears on the ballot.
o Nonpartisan election: An election in which the candidates’
party affiliation does not appear on the ballot.
o Each type of elections has advantages.
➢ Nonpartisan elections foster voter deliberation by
forcing voters to weigh candidates’ merits instead
of labels.
➢ Partisan elections get people to the polls on
Election Day.
• Election phases
o Primary: An election that determines who runs in the final or
general election.
➢ For nonpartisan offices, all candidates appear on the
same ballot and voters can vote for any candidate.
➢ In a partisan primary, candidates from different parties
appear on different ballots.
➢ Runoff primary: A primary used in some states in
which the top finishers face off if no one wins a majority
(or some designated percentage).
➢ Instant-runoff voting: Voters rank candidates in order
of preference. If a candidate gets a majority of first-
choice votes, then he or she wins the office. If nobody
has a majority, the candidate with fewest first place
votes drops off and voters who chose the eliminated
candidate will have their ballots added to the totals of
their second choice. This process continues until a
candidate earns a majority of votes.
o General election: An election for final selection of a variety of
offices. The general election for federal office is the first
Monday in November of even-numbered years.

C. Districts
• Types of districts
o At state and local levels, executive officials run in at-large
elections: Races in which candidates run not in districts, but in
an entire state, county, city, or town.
o U.S. House members are elected from single-member districts:
Constituencies that elect only one member to a legislative body.
• The size of legislature determines size of districts.
o For state legislatures, the number of representatives and the size
of districts varies by state.
o Membership for the U.S. House of Representatives was
permanently set in 1929 at 435, but district size has more than
doubled from 283,000 in 1930 to 710,000 in 2010.
➢ Large districts mean less voter contact with lawmakers.

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196 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

➢ Representing constituents becomes more complex

for lawmakers.
• Requirements for districts
o One person, one vote: A judicial principle holding that
everyone should have equal voting power in district elections.
o After each census comes reapportionment: A process that
reallocates House seats to states in line with population changes.
➢ Distribution is often unequal between states.
➢ Apportionment is based on total population, not
voting population.
• Redistricting: The drawing of boundaries for legislative districts, which
usually takes place after the federal census.
o State governments are responsible for redistricting.
o Lawmakers engage in gerrymandering: The drawing of district
lines, often in odd shapes, to benefit a party or
constituency group.
o Various ways the dominant side can undermine the losing side:
➢ “pack” the vote into a few districts where lopsided
elections waste its voting strength;
➢ “crack,” or fragment, the remaining vote among districts
where the dominant side will win;
➢ “merge” the districts of its lawmakers so as to pit them
against each other in primaries; and
➢ “isolate” its lawmakers from their bases of support by
putting them in new districts with few voters from their
old ones.
o Redistricting makes elections less competitive, but increased
competition increases campaign costs, which causes candidates
to court special interests.
o Racial gerrymandering—drawing district lines to help or hinder
minority groups—is banned by laws and court decisions.
➢ After the 1990 census, the U.S. Justice Department made
states maximize the number of majority-minority
districts, where majority groups would dominate.
➢ 1995: U.S. Supreme Court ruled that race cannot be the
“overriding and predominant” element in determining
district boundaries.

D. Long and Short Ballots

• Long ballots are elections in which voters elect many state officials.
• In long ballot elections, voters know less about lower-profile offices.
o Voters may skip races.
o Voters may rely on familiar names or partisan cues.
o Long ballots create more opportunities for citizen activism.
o Long ballots present challenges for citizen deliberation.
 MYTHS AND MISINFORMATION: Campaign Legends

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 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns 197

III. PRESIDENTIAL AND CONGRESSIONAL RACES

A. Nominations
• Presidential nominees are selected to run in general election by
delegates: People entitled to vote at a party convention for the
nomination of candidates.
o Until the early twentieth century, state party leaders
picked delegates.
o Delegates are now selected by rank-and-file party voters.
o Some states hold caucuses to select delegates.
• Some aspects of the post-1960s system have prompted concern.
o Candidates must raise huge sums of money before
primaries begin.
o Candidates are less deliberative today.
➢ In the past, party leaders carefully weighed
candidates’ qualities.
➢ Ordinary voters tend to know less about the candidates.

B. The Electoral College

• Number of electors is 538, which corresponds to 435 House members,
100 senators, plus the 3 electors that the Twenty-third Amendment
provides to the District of Columbia.
• Framers intended for the Electoral College to be a deliberative body, but
by the 1830s nearly all states selected electors through popular vote.
o In each state, each candidate has a different slate of electors.
o In 48 states, candidates that win the popular vote win all
electors, too.
o Maine and Nebraska use the District system for the Electoral
College: Process currently in place whereby the statewide
presidential winner gets two at-large electors, and the choice of
the other electors depends on the popular vote within each
congressional district.
o Candidates concentrate campaign efforts to win “battleground”
states, which are states that could go either way.
• Electors meet on the first Monday after the second Wednesday
in December.
o Votes are cast from their own state (or District of Columbia).
o Votes are formally counted by Congress in January.
• Majority of votes (i.e., 270) needed to win.
o If no majority, the House of Representatives selects president.
o If no majority, the Senate selects vice president.
• Electoral college winner may not be popular vote winner.
o 1824: House chose John Quincy Adams even though Andrew
Jackson had more popular votes.
o 1876 and 1888: Popular vote winner lost in Electoral College.
o 1960: Some contend that JFK lost popular vote.
o 2000: George W. Bush lost popular vote.
• Reasons to keep the Electoral College
o Less populated states believe that it increases their influence.
o The Electoral College supports federal system by drawing
attention to statewide issues.

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198 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

o Two-party structure supports winner-take-all system: The

system by which the presidential candidate who wins a plurality
of a state’s popular votes will win all of its electoral votes.
• Reasons to abolish the Electoral College
o Candidates overlook large portions of the country.
o Participation is strong in battleground states, but
weak elsewhere.
C. Congressional Elections
• Under original Constitution, senators were selected by state legislatures,
but after Seventeenth Amendment, this was changed so that senators are
now elected directly by people.
• Differences between House and Senate elections
o House elections are not as competitive.
➢ District may favor one party over the other.
➢ House members are elected every two years, thus
campaign skills are honed with frequent use.
o Senate elections are more competitive.
➢ Senatorial elections represent a variety of voters across
the states.
➢ They attract more prominent challengers.
➢ Elections, which are held every six years, allow
campaign skills to get rusty.
• Outcomes depend in part on national conditions.
o In a presidential election year, winning candidate may have
coattail effect: The tendency for a popular candidate for higher
office to draw votes for other candidates of the same party.
o President’s party tends to lose Congressional seats in midterm
elections: Elections that take place in even numbered years
when there is no presidential election.
➢ Economic conditions or declining presidential popularity
may affect Congressional vote.
➢ Absence of presidential coattails may leave some
candidates vulnerable.
➢ There may be an attempt by voters to check
presidential power.

IV. THE AMERICAN ELECTORAL PROCESS

A. Ballot Design
• Hand-counted paper ballots (nineteenth century): Once common, but are
slow, error-prone, and open to fraud
• Mechanical lever machines (early twentieth century): Large number of
moving parts increases risk of malfunction.
• Punch cards (1960s through today): Voters may fail to punch all the way
through, leading to undercounted votes.
• Optically scanned paper ballots (since 2000 election): Voters fill in
circles, but light or stray marks can spoil ballots.
• Electronic voting (most recent)
o Some jurisdictions have reported unpredictable machine failures.
o Process may be manipulated by computer hackers.

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 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns 199

B. Convenience and Inconvenience

• Inconveniences
o Most states require voters to register in advance.
o General elections are scheduled on Tuesday, which creates
problem for people who have long work days.
• Conveniences
o Early voting is available in some states.
o Absentee or mail-in ballots are available for many voters,
including members of armed forces and citizens living abroad.
o There are concerns that convenience voting
undercuts deliberation.
➢ Last minute campaign changes may affect context
of election.
➢ It may compromise citizenship by undermining role as
part of a collective society.
o Others believe that giving voters time to vote at home promotes
deliberation and reflection over choices.

V. WHAT WINS ELECTIONS?

A. Party
• Party identification offers very strong clues about voting.
o In 2010 midterm election, 91 percent of self-identified
Democrats voted for Democratic House candidates.
o In 2010 midterm election, 94 percent of Republicans voted GOP.
Partisan voters often support all party candidates.
• Ticket-splitting is in decline.

B. Demographics
• Gender and ethnicity affects partisan choice.
o In 2008, Obama had advantage with women and
ethnic minorities.
o In 2008, McCain had advantage with men, whites,
and churchgoers.
• Knowing demographic patterns, campaigns engage in mobilization:
Efforts to motivate supportive voter groups to turn out in
higher numbers.
o Microtargeting allows campaigns to tailor communication to
reflect household interests.
o Microtargeting may be responsible for increasing participation.

C. Geography
• Geography is linked to distinct political cultures and traditions that affect
voting patterns.
o Social liberalism in Connecticut helps Democrats.
o Social conservatism in Mississippi helps Republicans.
• It affects voters’ opinions on the issues, especially issues that can hurt or
help residents in that area.
• It also influences campaign strategies.

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200 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

D. Good Times, Bad Times

• War and international crises hurt presidential party when no end is
in sight.
• Economic downturn also hurts presidential party.

E. The Power of Incumbency

• Congressional incumbents usually win reelection.
• High reelection rates may be attributed to incumbency advantage: The
electoral benefits that come with holding office, such as visibility
and staff.
o Staffs assist with fundraising.
o Services provided by staff members help to win support
from constituents.
F. Message
• Incumbents emphasize their record of accomplishment whereas
nonincumbents emphasize their qualifications.
• Candidates craft issue positions that match voters’ concerns and beliefs.
• Opportunities for deliberation
o Television ads can communicate much about the candidate
or position.
o Debates can promote public deliberation.
o Technology has increased the volume of issue information.

G. Attacks
• Negative campaigns have impact, but there are differences of opinion
about their value.
o Some argue that it turns people away from politics, thus
depressing turnout.
o Others argue that it stimulates voter interest and increases
turnout among partisans.
• Negative ads are more specific about issues than positive ads.
• Attacks today are tame in comparison with those of the past.
o Past rhetoric was more inflammatory.
o Today’s code of ethics tries to keep attacks from getting out
of control.

VI. CAMPAIGN FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT

A. Where Campaign Financing Comes From
• Early federal regulation
o 1971: Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) requires full
disclosure of federal campaign contributions and expenditures.
o 1974: FECA was amended to limit contributions to all federal
candidates and political committees influencing
federal elections.
➢ Hard money: Contributions to congressional and
presidential candidates that fall under the limits of
federal campaign finance law.

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 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns 201

➢ The law established the Federal Election Commission

(FEC): The agency that administers federal campaign
finance law.
o 1976: Supreme Court upheld contribution limits in general, but
ruled against limits on independent expenditures: The use of
“hard money” to support or oppose a federal candidate but
coming from an organization that does not directly coordinate its
efforts with any of the candidates.
o FECA established guidelines for political action committees
(PACs).
o Loopholes were found in regulatory system, including:
➢ Soft money: Some contributions to political parties were
not subject to the limits of federal campaign finance law.
➢ Issue-advocacy advertisements: Advertisements that
urge the public to take action on an issue.
• Recent action
o 2002: In response to corporate scandals, Congress enacted the
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA).
➢ It banned soft-money contributions to political parties.
➢ It increased federal contribution limits and indexed them
for inflation.
➢ It forbade corporations and unions from using their
treasury funds to air issue-advocacy ads referencing
federal candidates within 60 days of a general election
and 30 days of a primary election or caucus.
o 2010: In Citizens United v. FEC, the U.S. Supreme Court struck
down two components of the BCRA because they banned speech
in violation of the First Amendment.
➢ It struck down the “black out” on funding for issue-
advocacy advertisements.
➢ It struck down the longstanding on independent
campaign expenditures by corporations.
o In response to the Citizens United decision, the FEC allowed the
formation of independent expenditure-only committees or
Super PACs.
➢ Unions, corporations, and individuals may make
unlimited contributions to Super PACs, which can, in
turn, make unlimited expenditures in federal elections.
➢ Super PACs may not directly coordinate their activities
with candidates or parties.
➢ Other tax exempt groups can run campaign ads,
provided that the cost does not exceed 50 percent of their
total budgets.
• Ongoing issues
o Government may not limit candidates from spending personal
funds, thus rich candidates can run self-financed campaigns.
o Availability of matching funds: Money that the federal
government provides presidential candidates to match the money
they have raised on their own. Acceptance is voluntary and
entails restrictions on fundraising.
o State and local campaign finance rules vary widely

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202 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

B. Where the Money Goes

• Television ads
o Television ads are heavily used in presidential campaigns.
o They are used more sparingly in Senate campaigns; may not be
used much in House campaigns.
• Direct mail: Campaign appeals, often asking for contributions, which go
directly to voters via postal mail.
• Campaign consultants: Professionals who contract with political
campaigns to provide management and other services, such as:
o media production and placement;
o “new media,” covering Web design, social networking, and
YouTube;
o polling;
o direct mail and telephone voter contact;
o press;
o fundraising;
o field operations;
o get out the vote (GOTV); and
o research.
 IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA AND COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY: Online Fundraising

VII. ELECTIONS, CAMPAIGNS, AND DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY

A. What Elections Do for Candidates and Voters
• They help to create opportunities for deliberative appraisal of
government performance.
• They increase level of interest and knowledge about policies.
• They educate candidates as they prepare for campaign appearances.
• They provide opportunities for citizens to serve as office-holders.

B. Mandates and Checks

• Mandate: An election victory that indicates strong voter approval of the
winner’s plans and policies.
o Mandates give winners moral authority to put policies
into practice.
o Some question whether mandates are real.
o Mandates are questionable when winners are vague on
key issues.
o Mandates are reversible; people can vote out incumbent in
next election.
• Constitutional system enables institutions to check one another.

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 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns 203

 CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

CONSEQUENCES OF CITIZENS UNITED

After the 2010 Citizens United U.S. Supreme Court decision paved the way for corporations and
unions to make unlimited campaign-related expenditures, many scholars and political observers
predicted that the change would incur negative consequences for candidates, voters, and the
integrity of our campaigns and elections. Others argued that the overall effect would be neutral or
benign, since each “faction” would be opposed by a competing “faction,” as predicted by
Alexander Hamilton in Federalist 10.
1. Discuss the philosophical and practical considerations that make this a
controversial topic.
2. What are the theoretical consequences of allowing unlimited expenditures?
3. As federal law prevents corporations or unions from coordinating with political parties or
candidates, will voters tune out their ads as “background noise?”
4. What are some possible benefits of allowing unions or corporations from contributing to
the political discourse?

PROBLEMS WITH A “BATTLEGROUND” OR “SWING”

STATE FOCUS
In recent presidential elections, candidates have focused their political campaign almost
exclusively on winning a handful of states known as “battleground” or “swing” states. In these
states—there were eleven in the 2012 election—the electorate is closely divided, and, thus, the
states’ Electoral College votes are considered up for grabs. Voters in “safe” states, or states in
which the electorate leans decidedly Democratic or decidedly Republican receive little attention
from presidential contenders. Tired of being ignored, some state lawmakers have considered
changing the way their state allocates its Electoral College votes. Some have suggested awarding
them by Congressional district, whereas others have suggested awarding them to the winner of
the nationwide popular vote.
1. How might the near-exclusive focus on “battleground” or “swing” states affect voters’
sense of efficacy or influence in a presidential election?
2. How would awarding Electoral College votes by district change the dynamics of the
presidential election?
3. Would state lawmakers’ suggestions for reform make the situation better or worse?

 LECTURE LAUNCHERS

BLAME THE POLITICAL CONSULTANTS

Most political observers agree that state and national campaigns grow more expensive with each
election cycle. But are corporations, unions, or candidates to blame? In June 2012, longtime
political consultants Doug Bailey and Les Francis published an opinion-editorial article that laid a
portion of the blame at the feet of political consultants. They lamented the lack of integrity with
today’s consultants, declaring that the consulting profession today is the “very embodiment of
‘following the money.’ It has become an industry without a conscience.” According to Bailey and
Francis, current consultants are nothing more than hired guns who exploit candidates for their

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204 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

own financial gain. Moreover, many eschew the candidates’ interests in favor of their own,
carrying more about the lobbying opportunities or networking contacts that they can make during
the course of a campaign than whether the candidate wins or loses. With such activities becoming
commonplace, voters lose confidence and trust in candidates and the electoral process, which
undermines the system as a whole. In order to reverse this trend, Bailey and Francis argue that the
profession needs to love the country enough “to clean up its act.”

COLORADO AND THE VOTE FOR MARIJUANA

In November 2012, Colorado voters will have the opportunity to vote on a state ballot initiative to
legalize marijuana so it can be taxed and regulated in a fashion similar to alcohol. The Obama
Administration has taken a tough stand on state-approved marijuana dispensaries, but political
observers believe that the ballot initiative is strongly favored among younger voters, who are also
likely to support the Democrat ticket.
In 2008, Obama won the popular vote Colorado by nine percentage points, due, in part, to strong
turnout among college-aged voters. However, in 2012 Colorado was considered by most to be a
“swing state,” that could go for either Obama or Romney. As college students, do you believe
that if enough young supporters for legalization of marijuana could tilt the scales in a swing state?

 IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES
Activity #1: Positive or Negative?
This activity is designed to help students understand the various strategies that candidates may
employ in a typical campaign. This exercise may be completed in 20–30 minutes.
In 2008, Obama pledged to run only positive campaign messages in order to usher in a new era of
“Hope” and “Change.” By mid-2012, with poll numbers tightening, Obama began to launch a
barrage of negative ads against challenger Mitt Romney in critically-important “swing states.”
Although some Democrats complained that Obama was breaking his previous positive-only
pledge, supporters were quick to point out that the negative ads seemed to work. To assess the
effectiveness of past campaign ads, divide the class into groups of four and assign each group a
presidential campaign year between 1952 and 2008 featured on the “Living Room Candidate”
website (www.livingroomcandidate.org). Then, ask students to watch an equal number of
commercials for each of the two major party candidates. (If students do not routinely bring
laptops to class, then this activity may be done together using the classroom computer.) Ask
students to identify the topic of the commercial, the tone of the commercial (positive or negative),
and the overall effectiveness of the commercial. At the conclusion of the activity, ask students to
identify for whom they would have voted if they had been eligible to vote in that election and,
using information from the advertisements, ask them to identify the reasons for their support.

Activity #2: Deliberating a Ballot Initiative

Using information from the state election Web sites listed in the Web Sources section below, this
exercise will give students the opportunity to review past or present ballot initiatives and explore
some of the challenges presented by initiative politics. This activity could be tailored to fit within
a single class period (45–60 minutes), or expanded to create a service-learning project.
Divide students into groups of three or four and have them select a ballot initiative to review. For
a short in-class activity, have the students share with each other the main points of the initiative
and ask them to identify the advantages and disadvantages of the initiative for the rest of the
class. To expand this activity into a service-learning project, ask students to research the

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 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns 205

background of the initiative, detail the positions of the interest groups supporting and opposing
the initiative, and the response of lawmakers (if any) to the ballot proposition. Then, have
students in each group create a piece of campaign literature (e.g., Web site, brochure, flyer,
poster, YouTube video, and so on) encouraging their classmates and members of the community
to support (or oppose) this particular initiative. (Tip: Be sure to remind students to feature
arguments supported by research.)

 KEY TERMS
At-large election Race in which candidates run not in districts, but in an entire state, county,
city, or town.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) A 2002 federal law that banned soft-money
contributions to political parties. It also increased federal contribution limits and indexed
them for inflation.
Campaign consultants Professionals who contract with political campaigns to provide
management and other services.
Coattail effect The tendency for a popular candidate for higher office to draw votes for other
candidates of the same party.
Delegate A person entitled to vote at a party convention for the nomination of candidates.
Direct mail Campaign appeals, often asking for contributions, which go directly to voters via
postal mail.
District system for the Electoral College A process currently in place in Maine and Nebraska,
whereby the statewide presidential winner gets two at-large electors, and the choice of the
other electors depends on the popular vote within each congressional district.
Early voting A procedure by which people may cast ballots at designated stations before
Election Day.
Elector A person entitled to vote in the Electoral College (below).
Electoral college The mechanism for formal election of the president and vice president. The
Electoral College consists of 538 members, or electors. Each state has a number of
electors equal to the number of its U.S. senators and House members. The District of
Columbia has a number of electors equal to those of the smallest state. The electors meet
in their own states and vote for president and vice president. To win, a candidate must
have a majority of electoral votes (at least 270).
Federal Election Commission (FEC) The agency that administers federal campaign
finance law.
General election An election for final selection of a variety of offices. The general election for
federal office is “on the first Tuesday after the first Monday” in November of even-
numbered years.
Gerrymandering The drawing of district lines, often in odd shapes, to benefit a party or
constituency group.
Incumbency advantage The electoral benefits that come with holding office, such as visibility
and staff.
Incumbent One who currently holds an elected office.

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206 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

Independent expenditures The use of funds to support or oppose a federal candidate but
coming from a source that does not directly coordinate its efforts with any of the parties
or candidates.
Initiative A procedure that allows citizens to draft their own legislation and get it on the ballot
through a petition.
Instant-runoff voting A system in which voters rank candidates in order of preference. If no
candidate gets more than 50% of first-preference votes, the candidate with the fewest
first-preference votes drops off and the votes for that candidate are redistributed
according to the voters’ next preference. The process repeats until a candidate wins
a majority.
Issue-advocacy advertisement Advertisements that urge the public to take action on an issue.
Although they may mention federal candidates in a favorable or unfavorable light, they
do not directly urge the candidates’ election or defeat.
Legislative referendum A vote that takes place when a state legislature sends measures to the
people for their approval.
Majority-minority district An election district in which members of an ethnic or racial minority
constitute a majority of votes.
Mandate An election victory that indicates strong voter approval of the winner’s plans
and policies.
Matching funds Money that the federal government provides to presidential candidates to match
the money they have raised on their own. Acceptance is voluntary and entails
restrictions on fundraising. Presidential candidates have increasingly decided to forgo
matching funds.
Midterm election Elections that take place in even numbered years when there is no presidential
election. In a midterm election, the offices up for contest include all U.S. House seats,
about one-third of U.S. Senate seats, as well as most governorships and state
legislative seats.
Mobilization Efforts to motivate supportive voter groups to turn out in higher numbers.
Nonpartisan election An election in which the candidates’ party affiliation does not appear on
the ballot.
One person, one vote A judicial principle holding that everyone should have equal voting power
in district elections.
Partisan election A contest in which each candidate’s party affiliation appears on the ballot.
Partisan primary A primary in which voters nominate party candidates for the general election.
Popular referendum A process whereby people may gather signatures to enable the voters to
accept or reject measures that the legislature has passed.
Primary An election that determines who runs in the final or general election.
Reapportionment A process that reallocates House seats to states in line with population
changes. People often confuse this term with redistricting, which refers to the drawing
of the district lines.
Recall elections Special elections in which voters in some states may oust officeholders before
their regular terms expire.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns 207

Redistricting The drawing of boundaries for legislative districts, which usually takes place after
the federal census.
Runoff primary A primary used in some states in which the top finishers face off if no one wins
a majority (or some designated percentage) in the first-round partisan primary.
Single-member district Constituencies that elect only one member to a legislative body.
Super PAC An independent expenditure-only political action committee that may raise
unlimited funds from individual, corporations, and unions. A Super PAC may make
unlimited expenditures in federal election campaigns, provided that it does not directly
coordinate its activity with the candidates or political parties it supports.
Ticket-splitting The practice of voting for candidates of different parties for different offices in
the same election.
Winner-take-all system The system by which the presidential candidate who wins a plurality of
a state’s popular votes will win all of its electoral votes.

 WEB LINKS
Some students may find the topics covered in this chapter to be complex or challenging.
However, there are now a number of interactive Web sites that can help students more fully
understand this material. Additionally, educators can use these Web sites to spark interest in
campaigns and elections by incorporating them into classroom discussion or student research
projects.
Web sites related to federal election topics
270towin.com: (http://270towin.com). 270towin is an interactive Electoral College map with
detailed information about past presidential elections.
Factcheck.org: (http://www.factcheck.org/). Factcheck features analysis of statements by
candidates and officials.
Federal Election Commission: (http://www.fec.gov). This Web site provides data and disclosure
on federal campaign finance.
David Leip’s Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections: (http://uselectionatlas.org). The site provides
maps and historical data.
The Living Room Candidate: (http://www.livingroomcandidate.org). The Living Room
Candidate features presidential campaign commercials 1952–2008.
OpenSecrets.org: (http://www.opensecrets.org). This Web site provides data and analysis of
campaign finance.
Public Campaign: (http://www.publicampaign.org). This is an advocacy site dedicated to
reducing the influence of special interest group funding in state and federal elections.
Voting America: (http://americanpast.richmond.edu/voting). Voting America provides
“cinematic” maps of electoral history.
Web sites related to state and local elections
Initiative and Referendum Institute: (http://www.iandrinstitute.org). This site provides
information on past and present ballot initiatives.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

208 Chapter 10: Elections and Campaigns

National Conference of State Legislatures: (http://www.ncsl.org). This Web site provides news
and data on state election issues.
National Institute on Money in State Politics: (http://www.followthemoney.org). This Web site
provides information on state political donations.
Stateline.org: (http://stateline.org/live). This site features daily news updates on state politics and
policies.

 INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
Burton, Michael John, and Daniel M. Shea. Campaign Craft: The Strategies, Tactics, and Art of
Political Campaign Management, 4th ed. Santa Barbara: Praeger. 2010. Print.
Ceaser, James W., Andrew E. Busch, and John J. Pitney Jr. Epic Journey: The 2008 Elections
and American Politics. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. 2009. Print.
Ellis, Richard J. Democratic Delusions: The Initiative Process in America. Lawrence: UP of
Kansas. 2002. Print.
Herrnson, Paul S. Congressional Elections: Campaigning at Home and in Washington. 6th ed.
Washington, DC: CQ Press. 2012. Print.
Niemi Richard G., and Paul S. Herrnson. “Beyond the Butterfly: The Complexity of U.S.
Ballots.” Perspectives on Political Science 1 (June 2003): 317–26.
Popkin, Samuel L. The Candidate: What It Takes to Win – and Hold – The White House. New
York: Oxford UP. 2012. Print.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

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