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Earth Science 1st Edition Marshak Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF
Earth Science 1st Edition Marshak Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF
Solutions Manual
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Cimbex she finds a similar arrangement, but there are ten chambers,
and no aorta.
The dorsal vessel is connected with the roof of the body by some
short muscles, and is usually much surrounded by fat-body into
which tracheae penetrate; by these various means it is kept in
position, though only loosely attached; beneath it there is a delicate,
incomplete or fenestrate, membrane, delimiting a sort of space
called the pericardial chamber or sinus; connected with this
membrane are some very delicate muscles, the alary muscles,
extending inwards from the body wall (b, Fig. 72): the curtain formed
by these muscles and the fenestrate membrane is called the
pericardial diaphragm or septum. The alary muscles are not directly
connected with the heart.
Fig. 72.—Dorsal vessel (c), and alary muscles (b), of Gryllotalpa (after
Graber); a, aorta. N.B.—The ventral aspect is here dorsal, and
nearly the whole of the body is removed to show these parts.
It has been thought by some that delicate vessels exist beyond the
aorta through which the fluid is distributed in definite channels, but
this does not appear to be really the case, although the fluid may
frequently be seen to move in definite lines at some distance from
the heart.
Fat-Body.
The matter extracted from the food taken into the stomach of the
Insect, after undergoing some elaboration—on which point very little
is known—finds its way into the body-cavity of the creature, and as it
is not confined in any special vessels the fat-body has as unlimited a
supply of the nutritive fluid as the other organs: if nutriment be
present in much greater quantity than is required for the purposes of
immediate activity, metamorphosis or reproduction, it is no doubt
taken up by the fat-body which thus maintains, as it were, an
independent feeble life, subject to the demands of the higher parts of
the organisation. It undoubtedly is very important in metamorphosis,
indeed it is possible that one of the advantages of the larval state
may be found in the fact that it facilitates, by means of the fat-body,
the storage in the organisation of large quantities of material in a
comparatively short period of time.
Organs of Sex.
There are in different Insects more than one kind of diverticula and
accessory glands in connexion with the oviducts or uterus; a
receptaculum seminis, also called spermatheca, is common. In the
Lepidoptera there is added a remarkable structure, the bursa
copulatrix, which is a pouch connected by a tubular isthmus with the
common portion of the oviduct, but having at the same time a
separate external orifice, so that there are two sexual orifices, the
opening of the bursa copulatrix being the lower or more anterior. The
organ called by Dufour in his various contributions glande sébifique,
is now considered to be, in some cases at any rate, a spermatheca.
The special functions of the accessory glands are still very obscure.
Although the internal sexual organs are only fully developed in the
imago or terminal stage of the individual life, yet in reality their
rudiments appear very early, and may be detected from the embryo
state onwards through the other preparatory stages.
Parthenogenesis.
Glands.
CHAPTER V
DEVELOPMENT
EMBRYOLOGY–EGGS–MICROPYLES–FORMATION OF EMBRYO–VENTRAL
PLATE–ECTODERM AND ENDODERM–SEGMENTATION–LATER STAGES–
DIRECT OBSERVATION OF EMBRYO–METAMORPHOSIS–COMPLETE AND
INCOMPLETE–INSTAR–HYPERMETAMORPHOSIS–METAMORPHOSIS OF
INTERNAL ORGANS–INTEGUMENT–METAMORPHOSIS OF BLOWFLY–
HISTOLYSIS–IMAGINAL DISCS–PHYSIOLOGY OF METAMORPHOSIS–
ECDYSIS.
The processes for the maintenance of the life of the individual are in
Insects of less proportional importance in comparison with those for
the maintenance of the species than they are in Vertebrates. The
generations of Insects are numerous, and the individuals produced
in each generation are still more profuse. The individuals have as a
rule only a short life; several successive generations may indeed
make their appearances and disappear in the course of a single
year.
Although eggs are laid by the great majority of Insects, a few species
nevertheless increase their numbers by the production of living
young, in a shape more or less closely similar to that of the parent.
This is well known to take place in the Aphididae or green-fly Insects,
whose rapid increase in numbers is such a plague to the farmer and
gardener. These and some other cases are, however, exceptional,
and only emphasise the fact that Insects are pre-eminently
oviparous. Leydig, indeed, has found in the same Aphis, and even in
the same ovary, an egg-tube producing eggs while a neighbouring
tube is producing viviparous individuals.[69] In the Diptera pupipara
the young are produced one at a time, and are born in the pupal
stage of their development, the earlier larval state being undergone
in the body of the parent: thus a single large egg is laid, which is
really a pupa.
The eggs are usually of rather large size in comparison with the
parent, and are produced in numbers varying according to the
species from a few—15 or even less in some fossorial Hymenoptera
—to many thousands in the social Insects: somewhere between 50
and 100 may perhaps be taken as an average number for one
female to produce. The whole number is frequently deposited with
rapidity, and the parent then dies at once. Some of the migratory
locusts are known to deposit batches of eggs after considerable
intervals of time and change of locality. The social Insects present
extraordinary anomalies as to the production of the eggs and the
prolongation of the life of the female parent, who is in such cases
called a queen.
Formation of Embryo.
The mature, but unfertilised, egg is filled with matter that should
ultimately become the future individual, and in the process of
attaining this end is the seat of a most remarkable series of changes,
which in some Insects are passed through with extreme rapidity. The
egg-contents consist of a comparatively structureless matrix of a
protoplasmic nature and of yolk, both of which are distributed
throughout the egg in an approximately even manner. The yolk,
however, is by no means of a simple nature, but consists, even in a
single egg, of two or three kinds of spherular or granular
constituents; and these vary much in their appearance and
arrangement in the early stages of the development of an egg, the
yolk of the same egg being either of a homogeneously granular
nature, or consisting of granules and larger masses, as well as of
particles of fatty matter; these latter when seen through the
microscope looking sometimes like shining, nearly colourless,
globules.
Fig. 79.—Showing the two extruded polar bodies P1, P2 now nearly
fused and reincluded, and the formation of the spindle by junction
of the male and female pronuclei. (After Henking.)