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Algebra and Functions
Algebra and Functions
YOUR NOTES
A Level Maths CIE
CONTENTS
1.1 Quadratics
1.1.1 Expanding Brackets
1.1.2 Quadratic Graphs
1.1.3 Discriminants
1.1.4 Completing the square
1.1.5 Solving Quadratic Equations
1.1.6 Further Solving Quadratic Equations (Hidden Quadratics)
1.2 Inequalities & Simultaneous Equations
1.2.1 Linear Simultaneous Equations - Elimination
1.2.2 Linear Simultaneous Equations - Substitution
1.2.3 Quadratic Simultaneous Equations
1.2.4 Linear Inequalities
1.2.5 Quadratic Inequalities
1.2.6 Inequalities on Graphs
1.3 Functions
1.3.1 Language of Functions
1.3.2 Composite Functions
1.3.3 Inverse Functions
1.4 Graphs of Functions
1.4.1 Sketching Polynomials
1.4.2 Reciprocal Graphs - Sketching
1.4.3 Solving Equations Graphically
1.4.4 Proportional Relationships
1.5 Transformations of Functions
1.5.1 Translations
1.5.2 Stretches
1.5.3 Reflections
1.6 Combinations of Transformations
1.6.1 Combinations of Transformations
1.7 Modelling with Functions
1.7.1 Modelling with Functions
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Exam Tip
Be extra careful with negatives!
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'FOIL' is a special case of this, when each set of brackets contains two terms
If you are trying to expand something like (a + b)n for powers of n greater than 2
or 3, use the binomial expansion
If you have to expand more than two sets of brackets, just expand them two at a
time:
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Worked Example
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You may have to rearrange the equation before you can find some of these things YOUR NOTES
ExamYourTipcalculator may tell you the roots of a quadratic function and the
coordinates of the turning point
But don't rely on it – think about how many marks the question is worth
and how much method/working you should show
Remember sometimes you'll need to rearrange an equation into the
form y = ax 2 + bx + c
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YOUR NOTES
ExamWhen
Tip
questions just mention “real roots”, the roots could be distinct or
repeated (i.e. they arent talking about complex numbers!)
In these cases, you only need to worry about solving b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0
When solving using inequalities always sketch the quadratic and decide
whether you're looking above or below zero to help write your solutions
correctly
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When a ≠ 1
You first need to take a out as a factor of the x2 and x terms
Then continue as above
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It can also be used to prove and/or show results using the fact that a squared
term will always be greater than or equal to 0
ExamSometimes
Tip
the question will explicitly ask you to complete the square
Sometimes it will even remind you of the form to write it in
But sometimes it will expect you to spot that completing the square is
what you need to do to help with other parts of the question... like
finding turning points!
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Remember this will help with questions involving turning points too YOUR NOTES
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YOUR NOTES
Solving a quadratic equation by using a calculator
ExamA calculator
Tip
can be super-efficient but be aware some marks are for
method
There will never be many marks for solving a quadratic at AS/A level
Use your judgement:
is it a “show that” or “prove” question?
how many marks?
how long is the question?
Remember the quadratic formula with a song... there are loads of fun
ones on YouTube
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ExamDon't
Tip
skip the checking step (it only takes a few seconds) – there are
many places to go wrong when solving simultaneous equations!
Mishandling minus signs is probably the single biggest cause of student
error in simultaneous equations questions
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ExamAlthough
Tip
elimination will always work to solve simultaneous linear
equations, sometimes substitution can be easier and quicker.
Knowing both methods can help you a lot in the exam (plus you will
need substitution to solve quadratic simultaneous equations).
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Step 1: Rearrange the linear equation so that one of the unknowns becomes the YOUR NOTES
subject (if the linear equation is already in this form, you can skip to Step 2)
Step 2: Substitute the expression found in Step 1 into the quadratic equation
Step 3: Solve the new quadratic equation from Step 2 to find the values of the unknown
(there will usually be two of these)
Step 4: Substitute the values from Step 3 into the rearranged equation from Step 1 to
find the values of the other unknown
Step 5: Check your solutions by substituting the values for the two unknowns (one pair
at a time!) into the original quadratic equation
ExamYouTip
have to use substitution to solve quadratic simultaneous equations
– the elimination method won't work.
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Interval notation
Use of square [] and round () brackets
[ or ] mean included
( or ) mean excluded
(4,8] means 4 < x < 8
Note ∞ always uses ( or )
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Worked Example
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Worked Example
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YOUR NOTES
ExamA calculator
Tip
can be super-efficient but some marks are for method.
Use your judgement:
is it a “show that” or “prove” question?
how many marks?
how long is the question?
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For example: (0,0) satisfies the inequality y < x2 + 1 so you want the side YOUR NOTES
of the curve that contains the origin
ExamRecognise
Tip
this type of inequality by the use of two variables
You may have to deduce the inequalities from a given graph
Pay careful attention to which region you are asked to shade
Sometimes the exam could ask you to shade the region that satisfies
the inequalities this means you should shade the region that is wanted .
If you're unsure, you could …
… draw the (dotted and/or solid) lines in on the answer diagram
and use a rough sketch to find the region required …
… and/or …
… write clearly you have “shaded the unwanted area”
As long as your final answer is clear you should get the marks!
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Mappings can be
‘many-to-one’ (many ‘input’ values go to one ‘output’ value)
‘one-to-many’
‘many-to-many’
‘one-to-one’
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Notation
Functions are denoted by the notation f(x), g(x), etc
eg. f(x) = x2 - 3x + 2
Of the alternative notation
eg. f : x ↦ x2 – 3x + 2
Sets of numbers
Functions often involve domains and ranges for specific sets of numbers
All numbers can be organised into different sets ℕ, ℤ, ℚ, ℝ
So ℕ is a subset of ℤ etc
ℤ- would be the set of negative integers only
Domain
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The domain of a function is the set of values that are allowed to be the ‘input’ YOUR NOTES
A function is only fully defined once its domain has been stated
Restrictions on a domain can turn many-to-one functions into one-to-
one functions
Range
The range of a function is the set of values of all possible ‘outputs’
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The ‘output’ of one function will be the ‘input’ of the next one
Sometimes called function-of-a-function
A composite function can be denoted
fg (x )
f (g (x ))
f ⎡⎢⎣ g (x ) ⎤⎥⎦
( f ∘ g ) (x )
All of these mean “ f of g (x ) ”
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fg(x) and gf(x) are generally different but can sometimes be the same
ff(x) is written as f2(x)
Inverse functions ff-1(x) = f-1f(x) = x
ExamDomain
Tip
and range are important.In fg(x), the ‘output’ (range) of g must
be in the domain of f(x), so fg(x) could exist, but gf(x) may not (or not
for some values of x).
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When asked to sketch a polynomial you'll need to think about the following
y-axis intercept
x-axis intercepts (roots)
turning points (maximum and/or minimum)
a smooth curve (this takes practice!)
How do I sketch a graph of a polynomial?
STEP 1 Find the y-axis intercept by setting x = 0
STEP 2 Find the x-axis intercepts (roots) by setting y = 0
STEP 3 Consider the shape and “start”/”end” of the graph
eg. a positive cubic graph starts in third quadrant (“bottom left”) and “ends” in
first quadrant (“top right”)
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The sign of a shows which part of the graph the curves are located
The size of a shows how steep the curves are
The closer a is to 0 the more L-shaped the curves are
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horizontal, y = 0 (x-axis)
vertical, x = 0 (y-axis)All have two asymptotes
How do I sketch a reciprocal graph?
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STEP 1 Use the sign of “a” to locate the curves YOUR NOTES
and use the size of “a” to gauge the steepness of the curve
Worked Example
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It can be difficult to tell from a sketch if graphs intersect once, more, or not at all
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Inverse proportion
1 1
y∝ means y is proportional to or y is inversely proportional to x
x x
y decreases as x increases and vice versa, k determines the rate
k
by changing this to the equation y =
x
we can substitute in given values and
solve to find k
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Note that this means the product of x and y is constant k = xy YOUR NOTES
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The graph of y = f(ax) is a horizontal stretch of the graph y = f(x) by a scale factor
1
of , centred on the y
a
1
The y coordinates of points stay the same; x coordinates are multiplied by a
Points on the y axis stay where they are
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All other points move parallel to the x axis, away from (0 < a < 1) or towards YOUR NOTES
(a > 1) the y axis
Any asymptotes of f(x) are also affected by the stretch (stretch them as you would
stretch the function of a straight line)
If an asymptote is one of the coordinate axes, or is parallel to the direction of the
stretch, however, it will not be affected
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ExamWhen
Tip
you sketch a stretched graph, be sure to indicate the new
coordinates of any points that are marked on the original graph.
Try to indicate the coordinates of points where the stretched graph
intersects the coordinate axes (if you don't have the equation of the
original function this may not be possible).
If the graph has asymptotes, don't forget to sketch the asymptotes of the
stretched graph as well.
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Any asymptotes of f(x) are also affected by the reflection (reflect them as you
would reflect the function of a straight line)
If an asymptote is one of the coordinate axes, or is perpendicular to the coordinate
axis in which the graph is reflected, it will not be affected
What do I need to know about graph reflections?
The graph of y = -f(x) is a reflection in the x axis
The x coordinates of points stay the same; y coordinates have their signs
flipped (positive to negative, negative to positive)
Points on the x axis stay where they are
All other points are reflected to the other side of the x axis
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Any asymptotes of f(x) are also affected by the reflection (reflect them as you
would reflect the function of a straight line)
If an asymptote is one of the coordinate axes, or is perpendicular to the coordinate
axis in which the graph is reflected, it will not be affected
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Then apply any vertical transformations outside the brackets (if you have YOUR NOTES
more than one transformation outside the brackets, stretches and reflections
must be applied before translations)
y = kf(ax)+ c or y = kf(x + b)+ c
Any asymptotes of the function are also affected by the combined transformation
(perform the transformations one at a time in the same order as above)
ExamBe Tip
sure to apply transformations in the correct order – applying them in
the wrong order can produce an incorrect transformation.
When you sketch a transformed graph, indicate the new coordinates of
any points that are marked on the original graph.
Try to indicate the coordinates of points where the transformed graph
intersects the coordinate axes (although if you don't have the equation
of the original function this may not be possible).
If the graph has asymptotes, don't forget to sketch the asymptotes of the
transformed graph as well.
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YOUR NOTES
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Exam Tip
Reciprocal graphs generally have two parts/curves
Only one – usually the positive – may be relevant to the model
Think about why x/t/θ can only take positive values?
YOUR NOTES