POWERLOGIC

Volume 2 Issue 2 Solutions

In This Issue
we introduce and
POWERLOGIC System Terminology
discuss terms that
relate to harmonics. The Problem Contrast the sinusoidal waveforms in figure 1
A better understand- with those in figure 2. These are typical
ing of these terms Some POWERLOGIC system users— distorted voltage and current waveforms for
gives you greater unfamiliar with terminology or uncertain a pulse-width modulated (PWM) variable
ability to solve about the practical application of a quantity— frequency drive.
your harmonics have asked questions about certain power
problems. quality quantities. This issue of POWERLOGIC
Solutions describes a case study, related to power
factor, and defines additional terms that
commonly trigger inquiries.
We received a call from a customer who was Voltage
concerned about different power factors he Current
measured on two motors driving identical fan
loads. One was a two-speed induction motor, Figure 2: Pulse-width modulated (PWM) drive
voltage and current.
the other was an induction motor controlled
by an adjustable speed drive. Circuit monitors
connected to each load correctly measured the Figure 3 shows the fundamental (60 Hz)
same real power (kW), but measured strikingly component of the drive current compared to
different power factors. the total current:

Key Concepts and Terms

Traditionally, power factor represents the
degree to which voltage and current to a load
are out of phase. Calculating power factor Fundamental Current
from this perspective involves taking the cosine Total Current
of the angle (Θ) by which current lags voltage.
The waveforms in figure 1 are typical of Figure 3: PWM drive current including harmonics
current and voltage to an induction motor. (total current) and with harmonics removed
(fundamental current).

Θ PF = cos Θ Comparing the phase relation-

ships in figures 2 and 3, one
can see that the voltage and
fundamental current are
almost in phase; therefore,
Voltage
cos Θ ≈ 1, and you would also
Current
expect power factor to be 1.
Reading power factor from
Time (msec) the front panel of a circuit
monitor, however, indicates a
Figure 1: Θ represents the cosine of the angle by which current
lags voltage.
POWERLOGIC
Solutions
power factor of 80%. Does this mean the that capacitors may actually reduce total power
circuit monitor is incorrectly reporting power factor when harmonics are present.
factor? After all, PWM drives are touted as
having high input power factor. The truth is,
PWM drives do have high input power Waveform Terminology
factor — input displacement power factor.
System Manager Software can acquire a four-
The general definition for power factor is the cycle waveform capture from any circuit
ratio of real power to apparent power: monitor model 2250 or above. Double-click
the title bar of any waveform, and a data block,
PF = kW shown in figure 4, displays.
kVA
The values listed in the data block provide
This formula is equivalent to cos Θ only under valuable information about its associated
purely sinusoidal conditions, that is, no waveform. Terms in the data block are
harmonics are present. When power factor is described in the following paragraphs.
calculated using total (including harmonics)
real and apparent power, the result is the total
power factor (PF),
which is displayed on Title bar Data block
the front panel of
circuit monitors.
2 When only the
fundamental
component of real
and apparent power
are considered, the
result is displacement
power factor (dPF).
Like inductive
current, which
produces lagging
power factor,
harmonics reduce the
capacity of the power
system. The reduced
POWERLOGIC capacity is partly due
Solutions is a bimonthly to an increase in the Figure 4: Screen capture from System ManagerTM Software showing the current
effective value of the of a switch-mode power supply (typically found in most single-phase electronic
publication produced by loads). Double-click the title (“Phase A Current”) to display the data block.
current when
Square D Company’s
harmonics are present.
Power Management Another reason is increased thermal stress, due Fundamental value of voltage or current
Operation. Each issue to resistive skin effect, that harmonics impose corresponds to the portion of the signal at the
presents a problem that on transformer windings and conductors. power frequency. Usually the power frequency
might occur in typical is 60 Hz, but may be 50 Hz (Europe) or
Note that capacitors alone cannot improve the
power systems, and
component of total power factor caused by 400 Hz (aviation).
offers guidance on how harmonics. In fact, you may recall, from RMS value is the effective value, or equivalent
to solve it. POWERLOGIC Solutions Volume 1, Issue 4, dc value, of the voltage or current. Circuit

monitors are true rms sensing devices. Many
hand-held meters are peak sensing or averaging
meters that are calibrated to report in rms.
These meters are very inaccurate when
measuring highly distorted signals. A peak
sensing meter will report an error on the order
of 200% when measuring load current such as
that shown in figure 4.
RMS-H is the effective value of the harmonic
portion of voltage or current. This quantity
provides information about the actual level
(in volts or amps) of voltage or current
harmonics.
Peak value of voltage or current is the
maximum, or minimum, crest value of the
waveform. Equipment damage is possible if the
peak value becomes too great, even if the rms
value is within allowable limits.
CF (crest factor) of voltage or current is the
ratio of peak to rms values. Crest factor is equal
to 1.414 for a purely sinusoidal signal. The
load current of a desktop computer can have a
crest factor exceeding three (illustrated in figure
4), while some adjustable speed drives have
crest factors less than 1.4. Some manufac-
turers rate equipment, particularly power
conditioners, at a maximum crest factor
of current.
ASUM is the arithmetic sum of the magnitudes
of the fundamental and individual harmonics
as opposed to the vectorial sum.
THD (total harmonic distortion) is defined for
both voltage and current. It is the ratio of
harmonic content to the fundamental:
XRMS-H
THD =
X1
where X is voltage or current.
The above equation is the value displayed on
the front panel of the circuit monitor. Another
variation of total harmonic distortion (thd),
used widely in Europe, normalizes the total
harmonic current to the total rms current
POWERLOGIC
Solutions
rather than fundamental current:
XRMS-H
thd =
XRMS
The European thd value can be logged in the
circuit monitor on-board data logs, viewed on
the circuit monitor front panel using a
diagnostic register read, or viewed using
System Manager software.
Total harmonic distortion indicates the degree
to which a voltage or current signal is distorted.
For example, the THD of the PWM drive
current in figure 2 is 57%. IEEE Standard 519-
1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical
Power Systems, recommends limits of harmonic
distortion in power systems. The standard
recommends a limit of 5% total harmonic
distortion of voltage for general systems. Limits
on current distortion are based on demand
current—usually the average current for 3
demand billing from the previous 12-month
period. Depending on the relative size of the
load, current distortion limits vary from 5–
20%. Distortion is measured at the electrical
interface between the utility and customer,
referred to as the point of common coupling
(PCC). IEEE standards are now being written
to recommend limits for single-phase
electronic devices.
TIF/IT is the telephone influence factor and
IT product (which equals the TIF of the
current times the rms magnitude of the
current). Both terms are used to assess the
interference of power distribution circuits with
audio communications circuits. The value for
voltage waveforms is TIF, a variation of THD
that weighs each harmonic according to its
audible effect on the human ear. For current
waveforms, the value given is the IT product.
The Harmonics (RMS) window lists the rms
magnitude of individual harmonics from the
fundamental to the 31st. Distorted voltages
and currents can be represented by a series of

sinusoidal signals whose frequencies are
multiples of some fundamental frequency
(usually 60 Hz). For example, the 5th
harmonic represents the 300 Hz (five times
60 Hz) component of the distorted signal.
These values are added vectorially (square root
of the sum of the squares) to calculate RMS-H
and RMS.
Power Terminology
Harmonic power is determined by the circuit
monitor and can be useful for evaluating the
source of harmonics flowing in a power system.
Harmonic power is the difference between
total power and fundamental (60 Hz) power. A
negative value indicates harmonic power flow
out of the load, a positive value indicates
harmonic power flow into the load.
Harmonic power flow out of the load indicates
the load is a source of harmonics. The load
could be a variable frequency drive or battery
charging station. Harmonic power flow into
the load indicates a sink for harmonics.
Capacitors and motors are examples of
harmonic sinks, which appear as a low
impedance at harmonic frequencies.
K-factor relates the heating effect of a distorted
current in a transformer to a sinusoidal current
with the same rms magnitude. The term
K-factor was coined by Underwriters
Laboratories to describe a transformer’s ability
to serve nonlinear loads without exceeding
rated temperature rise limits.
Standard K-factor ratings for dry-type
transformers are 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40, and 50.
Greater K-factor indicates increased harmonic
current capability. The use of K-factor rated
transformers has become increasingly popular
as the number of electronic loads continues
to increase.
While the K-factor of a given load is easily
measured, determining the required K-rating of
a transformer is not as simple. Transformer
K-factor is defined only at rated load. Because
harmonics from multiple sources are not 100%
additive (diversity and attenuation reduce the
POWERLOGIC
Solutions
harmonic content of multiple loads on a
common premise wiring system), a transformer
must be fully loaded to accurately measure the
required K-factor rating.
Compared with a derated transformer, a
properly chosen K-factor transformer can
significantly reduce load-generated harmonics.
In fact, a transformer with 3%–5% impedance
will self-limit the K-factor at full load to
between 4 and 6. See POWERLOGIC Solutions
Volume 2, Issue 1 for more detail.
Other Misunderstood Terms
Apparent current is a unique value, related to
crest factor, that is reported by the circuit
monitor. Apparent current is defined as
Ipeak
Iapp =
√2
This quantity reflects the value that would be 4
reported by a peak-sensing rms-calibrated
ammeter or solid-state trip unit. Trip units that
measure peak current may operate prematurely
when serving non-linear loads. Comparing rms
current with apparent current indicates the
level of error involved with this type of
protective device.
Since the introduction of the circuit monitor,
harmonic factor has become synonymous with
THD. Some definitions express harmonic factor
as a percentage, like THD, while others express it
in per unit. The circuit monitor defines harmonic
factor as total power factor divided by
displacement power factor:
PF
HF =
dPF
If no harmonics are present, this value will be 1.
However, as voltage and current become more
distorted, the harmonic factor decreases.
Voltage unbalance is not related to harmonics as
are the previous terms, but it does manifest
itself in a similar fashion. Like harmonics,
voltage unbalance causes excessive motor
heating. Circuit monitors calculate voltage
 POWERLOGIC
Solutions
unbalance for each phase, using the following
formula: About the Power Management
Vφ – VAVG Services Group
VUMB =
VAVG
From hardware and software, to
Total unbalance is reported as the maximum systems and solutions, the Power
phase unbalance. For example, phase voltages Management Services Group
to an induction motor measured VAB = 459V,
provides full service power
VBC = 466V, and VCA = 462V. The average
monitoring and control.
voltage is 462V. Therefore phase voltage
unbalance equals –0.7%, 0.9%, and 0%; and Systems — Experienced applica-
total unbalance is 0.9%. tion engineers integrate hardware,
software, communications, and
When voltage is unbalanced, a large negative
reports that allow customers to
sequence current flows in the stator windings
monitor important power parameters
of a motor. The resulting flux rotates opposite
the rotor, inducing a voltage that produces a from a central workstation.
120 Hz current in the rotor. Resistive skin Solutions — Power Management
effect increases the rotor resistance, producing Services will also monitor and
excessive heat. A 3% voltage unbalance can analyze system data to solve power
cause a motor to run 25% hotter, shortening quality problems, recommend ways
the expected 20-year life. to manage energy costs, or train 5
Current unbalance is computed in the same way customers on power quality and
as voltage unbalance. Current unbalance, energy management issues.
which produces voltage unbalance, may For additional information about
indicate a need to rebalance single-phase loads Power Management Services, contact
or a problem within a three-phase load. Donna Oakley in LaVergne,
Tennessee at (615) 287-3332.
Conclusions
As in the case of power factor under non-
sinusoidal conditions, you must know the
correct terminology when assessing or
discussing the quality of power within your
facility. The solution for low total power factor
of a PWM variable frequency drive is quite
different than for the low displacement power
factor of an induction motor.
In this issue, we discussed some of the
commonly used terms associated with power
quality. Future issues of POWERLOGIC
Solutions will discuss these and other power
quality related issues. If you need help
correcting power factor, investigating
harmonics or other power quality phenomena,
or managing energy usage, Power Management
Services engineers can provide the solutions.
POWERLOGIC
Solutions
Test Your Power Quotient
The following true-or-false questions will test
your understanding of the information in
Volume 2, Issues 1 and 2 of this newsletter. The
first three questions cover information from the
first issue. If you haven’t received a copy of this
issue, call (615) 287-3332. The answers are in the
right-hand column.
1) Neutrals sized to the same ampacity as phase
conductors are typically overloaded.
2) A transformer with a K-factor rating greater
than 13 is seldom required.
3) Balancing phases always reduces neutral
current on three-phase systems with a
shared neutral.
4) When power factor is calculated using
6 only the fundamental components of
real and apparent power, the result is
displacement power factor.
5) If fundamental voltage and current are in
phase, the total power factor is always 1.
6) 3% voltage unbalance causes ac motors to
run 25% hotter.
life expectancy.
efficiency and shortening the
ing temperature of ac motors, reducing
6) True. Voltage unbalance increases the operat-
placement power factor will be 1.
factor will be less than 1, although the dis-
5) False. If harmonics are present, the total power
4) True (page 2).
causes an increase in neutral current.
(above 32% THD), balancing loads actually
3) False. For highly distorted load currents
exceed 13.
ments at the transformer terminals will rarely
2) True. When fully loaded, K-factor measure-
of the cases described.
NEC found overloaded neutrals in only 5%
1) False. An ad hoc committee formed by the

SQUARE D, , and POWERLOGIC are Registered Trademarks of Square D Company.

System Manager is a Trademark of Square D Company.

 1996 Square D All Rights Reserved

Order No. 3000HO9602 June 1996 7M DL 6/96