Essentials of Sociology 4th Edition

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CHAPTER 7: Stratification, Class, and Inequality

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Sociologists study ________ when they are looking at the structured inequalities in a society.
a. social stratification
b. social disapproval
c. social inequity
d. strategic sociality
e. socialism
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 200 TOP: Systems of Stratification (I)
MSC: Factual

2. In all systems of stratification, people are ranked by:

a. personality
b. social categories
c. intelligence
d. social capital
e. social identity
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Page 200 TOP: Systems of Stratification (I)
MSC: Factual

3. Which of the following is NOT true of all systems of social stratification?

a. People are ranked according to social categories such as race and gender.
b. A person’s life chances are significantly influenced by his or her social category.
c. Ranks of social categories tend to change slowly over time.
d. If a person no longer identifies with the other members of his or her category, he or she is
no longer classified at that level.
e. Social rankings reflect social inequality.
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 200 TOP: Systems of Stratification (I)
MSC: Factual

4. According to the textbook, what is the main reason that slavery does not exist in most societies around
the world today?
a. because it is an inefficient economic system
b. because slaves are too expensive to buy
c. because human rights became an important concept in industrial societies
d. because a postindustrial society required a different economic system
e. because machines displaced slaves
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 201 TOP: Slavery (I.A)
MSC: Factual

5. Today people are taken against their will and forced to work as bricklayers in Pakistan or sex workers
in Thailand. These are examples of:
a. modern-day slavery
b. a caste system based on occupation
c. cheap labor in a capitalist system
d. the worst occupations in a class system
 e. a caste system based on gender
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 201 TOP: Slavery (I.A)
MSC: Factual

6. A stratification system in which certain people are owned as property is known as:
a. capitalism
b. caste
c. estates
d. socialism
e. slavery
ANS: E DIF: Easy REF: Page 201 TOP: Slavery (I.A)
MSC: Factual

7. Which of the following is NOT an example of a caste system?

a. forcing rural women in Thailand into sex work
b. giving political and economic rights in South Africa only to people who were genetically
completely white
c. forcing children to accept their parents’ status as their own in India
d. denying all civil rights to blacks in the United States
e. none of the above; all are examples of caste systems
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 202 TOP: Caste Systems (I.B)
MSC: Applied

8. The caste system of stratification can be best classified as:

a. an open system in which a person’s intelligence and hard work determine social position
b. an open system in which individuals can move out of the social position in which they are
born
c. a closed system in which all individuals stay within the social position they are born into
d. a closed system in which people are able to own other individuals as property
e. nonexistent in the modern world
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 201 TOP: Caste Systems (I.B)
MSC: Factual

9. Which country has a caste system based on occupation groupings?

a. India
b. the United States
c. South Africa
d. a and b only
e. b and c only
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 201 TOP: Caste Systems (I.B)
MSC: Factual

10. Caste systems require that individuals marry within their social group. This is referred to as:
a. caste marriage
b. endogamy
c. social marriage
d. endomarriage
e. equal marriage
 ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 202 TOP: Caste Systems (I.B)
MSC: Factual

11. Scholars believe that __________ has encouraged a shift to class-based systems in countries such as
India that have been traditionally caste-based systems.
a. morality
b. globalization
c. the Internet
d. high divorce rate
e. spread
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 202 TOP: Caste Systems (I.B)
MSC: Factual

12. In an industrialized society, which term is most often used to analyze stratification?
a. occupation
b. slavery
c. class
d. caste
e. status
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 202 TOP: Class (I.C)
MSC: Factual

13. What do sociologists call a large group of people who occupy a similar economic position in society?
a. workers
b. laborers
c. caste
d. class
e. owners
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 202 TOP: Class (I.C)
MSC: Factual

14. In class systems, the boundaries between classes are:

a. stable and very clear-cut
b. fluid and not very clear-cut
c. determined and set at birth
d. based on religion and tradition
e. mandated by the government
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 202 TOP: Class (I.C)
MSC: Factual

15. Oprah Winfrey was born into poverty and raised by a single mother, yet today she is one of the richest
women in America. Her life story demonstrates that in a class system, the social position we are born
into affects our life chances, but our class position is also:
a. based on luck
b. based on looks
c. in some part achieved
d. determined in part by affirmative action for women and racial minorities
e. unpredictable
 ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 202 TOP: Life Chances (I.C.i)
MSC: Factual

16. Which of the following concepts introduced by Max Weber says the idea that your probability of
economic success is largely dependent on the social position you are born into?
a. caste
b. life course
c. life chances
d. status
e. relations of production
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Page 202 TOP: Life Chances (I.C.i)
MSC: Factual

17. According to Karl Marx, the working class in industrialized countries would remain poor and live near
subsistence level. Marx was right that there would be economic inequality, but he was wrong because
today:
a. in most industrialized countries there are very few poor
b. most people own the means of production collectively in Western countries
c. most people in Western countries are better off than they were in Marx’s time
d. most industrialized countries distribute wealth through social programs
e. none of the above
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 204 TOP: Karl Marx (II.A)
MSC: Factual

18. According to Karl Marx, a class is made up of people who have the same relationship to the:
a. means of production
b. means of employment
c. means of consumption
d. government
e. status system
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 204 TOP: Means of Production (II.A.i)
MSC: Factual

19. Karl Marx called those who own the means of production __________ and those who make their
living by selling their own labor power for a wage __________.
a. capitalists; the working class
b. producers; consumers
c. merchants; consumers
d. the working class; capitalists
e. employers; employees
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 205 TOP: Capitalists (II.A.ii)
MSC: Factual

20. Workers picking strawberries can pick 100 baskets an hour, but it only costs the employer a value of
20 baskets to pay them their hourly wages. The income the employer collects from the extra baskets is
__________, according to Karl Marx.
a. extra wages
b. surplus value
 c. wage theft
d. surplus income
e. the means of production
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 205 TOP: Surplus Value (II.A.iii)
MSC: Applied

21. According to Karl Marx, because workers produce more than is actually needed to pay them, the
relationship between workers and capitalists in an industrial society is:
a. motivational
b. easy to negotiate
c. equal
d. exploitative
e. hard to analyze
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 205 TOP: Surplus Value (II.A.iii)
MSC: Factual

22. Max Weber argued that class divisions derive from resources such as people’s:
a. surplus value
b. gender
c. qualifications
d. last name
e. income
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 205 TOP: Max Weber (II.B)
MSC: Factual

23. Max Weber believed that __________ are equally as important as class distinctions in understanding
social stratification.
a. status distinctions
b. power distinctions
c. ethnic distinctions
d. gender distinctions
e. none of the above; according to Weber, class distinctions are the only important factor
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 205 TOP: Status (II.B.i)
MSC: Factual

24. The social honor or prestige that is accorded to individuals by other members of society is referred to
as:
a. status
b. reputation
c. social class
d. fame
e. pariah
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 205 TOP: Status (II.B.i)
MSC: Factual

25. Paris Hilton is a rich and famous celebrity, but she has little higher education or professional
qualification. Max Weber most likely see Paris Hilton as a member of a(n):
a. capitalist group
 b. uneducated class
c. contradictory class
d. deviant group
e. pariah group
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 205 TOP: Pariah Groups (II.B.ii)
MSC: Applied

26. Which of the following theorists would be most likely to argue that a medical doctor achieved the
position solely based on his or her own talent and efforts?
a. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore
b. Max Weber
c. Karl Marx
d. Liz Murray
e. Max Weber and Karl Marx
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 206
TOP: Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (II.C) MSC: Applied

27. __________ argued that social stratification is functional and ensures that the most talented people fill
the roles they are best suited for by rewarding them accordingly.
a. Karl Marx
b. Max Weber
c. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore
d. Émile Durkheim
e. Erik Olin Wright
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 206
TOP: Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (II.C) MSC: Factual

28. Wealth and income are both important determinants of social class. Which of the following best
characterizes the relationship between wealth and income in the United States?
a. Income disparities between rich and poor have increased in the past three decades,
whereas wealth disparities have decreased during the same time.
b. Wealthy people almost always inherited their money, thus there is no relationship between
wealth and income.
c. The same factors that limit people’s incomes also limit their ability to accumulate wealth.
d. While income is influenced by race, education, and age, wealth is independent of these
variables.
e. Neither wealth nor income is influenced by race, education, and age.
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 206 TOP: Income (III.A)
MSC: Conceptual

29. Income inequality grew dramatically in the 1970s as the income of the richest 20 percent saw its
incomes rise __________, while the poorest 20 percent saw its incomes rise by __________.
a. 60 percent; 15 percent
b. 15 percent; 60 percent
c. 100 percent; 5 percent
d. 75 percent; 25 percent
e. none of the above; both groups saw their incomes decline
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 206 TOP: Income (III.A)
 MSC: Factual

30. The money a person gets from a wage or salary or from investments is __________; the assets an
individual owns are __________.
a. wealth; property
b. income; wealth
c. wealth; income
d. income; income
e. property; property
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Page 206
TOP: Income (III.A) | Wealth (III.B) MSC: Factual

31. Some scholars argue that __________, not __________, is the main determinant of class position.
a. income; wealth
b. education; wealth
c. wealth; income
d. home ownership; income
e. education; not income
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Pages 208 TOP: Wealth (III.B)
MSC: Factual

32. Wealth refers to:

a. the value of one’s home
b. all the assets an individual owns
c. how much money one makes in a year
d. the estimated earnings over one’s life
e. annual income minus annual debt
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 208 TOP: Wealth (III.B)
MSC: Factual

33. Which of the following is a strong predictor of one’s occupation, income, and wealth in later life?
a. one’s willingness to work hard
b. the religious background of one’s parents
c. the performance of the stock market
d. one’s access to technology, such as the Internet
e. one’s educational attainment
ANS: E DIF: Easy REF: Page 208 TOP: Education (III.C)
MSC: Factual

34. An economy based on computer and information technology has had what effect on social
stratification in recent years?
a. It has made a college education more expensive.
b. It has made a college education more accessible.
c. It has increased the importance and value of a college education in the job market.
d. It has made it more difficult to attend college.
e. It has made a college education less expensive.
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 208 TOP: Education (III.C)
MSC: Factual
35. In 2009, which group had the lowest percentage for achievement of a high school diploma at 62
percent?
a. Latinos
b. African Americans
c. whites
d. Asian Americans
e. women
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 208 TOP: Education (III.C)
MSC: Factual

36. In studies where individuals were asked to rank the “prestige” of an occupation, they rank jobs that
required __________ as having the highest prestige.
a. the most professional clothing
b. the most work hours
c. the most education
d. the most titles
e. the most employees
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 210
TOP: Education (III.C) | Occupation (III.D) MSC: Applied

37. Although sociologists agree that there are no clear divisions between classes in the United States, they
generally identify __________ classes.
a. six
b. four
c. two
d. five
e. three
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 210 TOP: U.S. Class Structure (IV)
MSC: Factual

38. According to the text, the upper class in the United States:
a. is made up of the wealthiest 20 percent of the population
b. has a distinctive lifestyle and is politically influential
c. does not include people who get their wealth from investments
d. is accessible to all Americans with a college education
e. is racially and ethnically diverse
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 210 TOP: Upper Class (IV.A)
MSC: Factual

39. The “super-rich” in the United States were able to accumulate vast amounts of wealth partly because
globalization enabled them to:
a. use low-wage labor in other countries
b. sell products to consumers in other countries
c. make investments globally
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 210 TOP: Upper Class (IV.A)
 MSC: Factual

40. When people are asked to identify which class they belong to, most respond that they are:
a. underclass
b. poor
c. upper class
d. middle class
e. working class
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Page 213 TOP: Middle Class (IV.B)
MSC: Factual

41. Members of the lower middle class today:

a. work at primarily white-collar jobs
b. make up about 50 percent of American households
c. are racially and ethnically diverse
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 213 TOP: Middle Class (IV.B)
MSC: Factual

42. Which of the following occupations is LEAST likely to be held by a lower-middle-class individual?
a. police officer
b. nurse
c. school teacher
d. upper-level manager
e. sales person
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 213 TOP: Middle Class (IV.B)
MSC: Factual

43. A farmer with a high school diploma who makes $115,000 a year, lives in a large home, and drives an
expensive car is most likely to be in which class category?
a. upper middle class
b. lower middle class
c. upper class
d. middle class
e. working class
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 213 TOP: Middle Class (IV.B)
MSC: Applied

44. Eddie is a factory worker who makes about $32,000 a year. Eddie’s wife, Joan, works part-time as a
dental assistant and makes about $15,000. Their combined income is just enough to pay their mortgage
and make ends meet. Eddie and Joan are considered to be:
a. lower middle class
b. upper middle class
c. old middle class
d. new middle class
e. working class
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 216 TOP: Working Class (IV.C)
 MSC: Applied

45. People in blue-collar occupations, such as plumbers and hotel workers, make up the:
a. lower middle class
b. working class
c. old middle class
d. new middle class
e. upper middle class
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 216 TOP: Working Class (IV.C)
MSC: Factual

46. Working-class children are most likely to do which of the following after graduating from high
school?
a. travel around Europe
b. attend a four-year college
c. attend a two-year college
d. immediately start working
e. take the summer off to relax
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 216 TOP: Working Class (IV.C)
MSC: Factual

47. The lower class has a higher percentage of __________ than any other class in the United States.
a. bilingual speakers
b. educators
c. men
d. nonwhites
e. children
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 216 TOP: Lower Class (IV.D)
MSC: Factual

48. Workers in dead-end jobs that pay low wages are most likely found in the:
a. lower class
b. working class
c. lower middle class
d. upper middle class
e. any class, since there are many jobs like this in the United States
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 216 TOP: Lower Class (IV.D)
MSC: Factual

49. In the U.S. class system, the “poorest of the poor,” who are structurally disadvantaged and are least
likely to move out of their class position, are called the:
a. poor class
b. lower class
c. left-behind class
d. inner-city class
e. underclass
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 217 TOP: Underclass (IV.E)
MSC: Factual
50. Today, the gap between rich and poor in the United States is the largest it has been since:
a. 1929 after the stock market crash
b. 1970 when the United States started to outsource jobs
c. 1947 when the United States started to measure the gap
d. Never; the gap has been getting smaller
e. 1990 when technology become an important part of the economy
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 218
TOP: Growing Gap between Rich and Poor (V.A) MSC: Factual

51. Inequality and the gap between rich and poor have been steadily growing in the United States. The
richest 20 percent has __________ of the total income, while the poorest 20 percent has __________
of the total income.
a. 50 percent; 3 percent
b. 3 percent; 50 percent
c. 25 percent; 25 percent
d. 30 percent; 30 percent
e. 20 percent; 20 percent
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 218
TOP: Growing Gap between Rich and Poor (V.A) MSC: Factual

52. Which of the following best explains why Latino household income has stagnated and fallen far
behind that of white households?
a. a culture of poverty among Latinos that discourages achievement and saving money
b. the large number of immigrants from Mexico and Latin America that are in low-wage jobs
c. high unemployment among Latinos
d. high divorce rate among Latinos
e. none of the above; there is no income gap
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 218
TOP: Ethnic Minorities versus White Americans (V.B) MSC: Factual

53. What factor accounts for racial disparities in wealth and income?
a. lower social and cultural capital
b. education
c. discrimination
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 218
TOP: Ethnic Minorities versus White Americans (V.B) MSC: Applied

54. While the average income of __________ households has been increasing, that of __________
households has been declining in the last decade.
a. black and Latino; white
b. lower class; middle class
c. white; black and Latino
d. Latino; black
e. black; Latino
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 218
 TOP: Ethnic Minorities versus White Americans (V.B) MSC: Factual

55. Social mobility refers to:

a. the movement of individuals and groups between class positions
b. the migration of people from the countryside to town
c. the movement of people between caste positions
d. the change in racial/ethnic identification when individuals intermarry
e. the transportation system of a society
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 219 TOP: Social Mobility (VI)
MSC: Factual

56. According to sociological studies, the biggest determinant of a person’s social mobility is:
a. personality
b. intelligence
c. wealth
d. education
e. income
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Page 219 TOP: Social Mobility (VI)
MSC: Factual

57. Intergenerational mobility is best described as when:

a. a person achieves a different class position than the one he or she was born into
b. a person maintains the same class position as his or her parents or grandparents
c. a person has a different class position from that of his or her parents or grandparents
d. a person achieves a different class position than his or her siblings
e. none of the above
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Page 219
TOP: Intergenerational Mobility (VI.A) MSC: Factual

58. Who among the following is most likely to experience intergenerational mobility?
a. the child of a high school teacher
b. the child of two university professors
c. the child of the CEO of a large corporation
d. the child of a school janitor
e. the child of a university groundskeeper
ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Page 219
TOP: Intergenerational Mobility (VI.A) MSC: Applied

59. When sociologists examine how far an individual moves up or down the socioeconomic scale in his or
her lifetime, they are studying:
a. optimal mobility
b. intergenerational mobility
c. life change
d. intragenerational mobility
e. pangenerational mobility
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Page 219
TOP: Intragenerational Mobility (VI.B) MSC: Factual
60. Researchers of social mobility, including Peter Blau and Otis Dudley Duncan in the 1960s and
William Sewell and Robert Hauser in the 1980s, have shown that:
a. educational attainment has a great deal to do with ultimate social status
b. the family’s social status has little to do with social mobility
c. social position is not inherited, but solely achieved
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 220
TOP: Opportunities for Mobility (VI.C) MSC: Factual

61. Which of the following is an example of what Pierre Bourdieu refers to as cultural capital?
a. the ability to pay for cultural events such as art museums, opera companies, and symphony
orchestras that charge for admission
b. parents paying for school tutoring
c. parents reading to their children and encouraging them to do well in school
d. learning more than one language
e. none of the above
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 220
TOP: Opportunities for Mobility (VI.C) MSC: Applied

62. According to Pierre Bourdieu, working-class parents are just as interested in their children’s education
as middle- and upper-class parents, but they lack the __________ to help their children experience
social mobility.
a. social capital
b. cultural capital
c. tuition capital
d. educational capital
e. language capital
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 220
TOP: Opportunities for Mobility (VI.C) MSC: Applied

63. Downward mobility is when:

a. retired people stop receiving Social Security
b. the whole economy declines and all people see a decline in their income
c. when a person chooses a lower occupation than they are qualified for
d. when a person’s income, wealth, or status is lower than his or her parents
e. all of the above
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Page 221 TOP: Downward Mobility (VI.D)
MSC: Factual

64. When a person moves from one position in a class structure to a nearly identical position, the person is
said to experience:
a. short-range downward mobility
b. long-range downward mobility
c. declining mobility
d. across-position mobility
e. bi-position mobility
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 221
 TOP: Short-Range Downward Mobility (VI.D.i) MSC: Factual

65. In which of the following countries is the poverty rate the highest?
a. Germany
b. Norway
c. United States
d. Sweden
e. Japan
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Page 220 TOP: Measuring Poverty (VII.A)
MSC: Factual

66. In the United States, the largest concentrations of poverty are found in:
a. rural areas
b. inner cities
c. the South and Southwest
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 220 TOP: Measuring Poverty (VII.A)
MSC: Factual

67. How does the government determine the poverty line?

a. It multiplies the cost of an adequate, nutritious diet by three.
b. It multiplies the cost of an average household’s rent by three.
c. It calculates the average cost of living in each of four regions of the United States and
divides that number by the average cost of rent in those places.
d. Since the cost of living varies across the country, it calculates the cost of living in each
region and determines a poverty line for each U.S. region.
e. It is based on how much a person would make per year if the person made the federal
minimum wage.
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 222 TOP: Measuring Poverty (VII.A)
MSC: Factual

68. At the beginning of her sophomore year of high school, Janis’s family cannot afford to buy her new
clothes and shoes or enough supplies for school. Janis feels poor compared to her classmates who can
afford these things. Janis experiences:
a. absolute poverty
b. relative poverty
c. downward mobility
d. exchange mobility
e. upward mobility
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Page 222 TOP: Measuring Poverty (VII.A)
MSC: Applied

69. When a person does not have adequate resources to maintain his or her health, such as enough food to
eat, the person is said to be in:
a. absolute poverty
b. relative poverty
c. downward mobility
d. exchange mobility
 e. the poverty line
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 222 TOP: Absolute Poverty (VII.A.i)
MSC: Factual

70. Of those who are currently in poverty in the United States, how many are working?
a. 50 percent
b. 25 percent
c. 90 percent
d. none
e. 5 percent
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Page 224 TOP: Working Poor (VII.B)
MSC: Factual

71. What is meant by the phrase “feminization of poverty”?

a. the fact that women are more likely to not marry until they find a rich man
b. the fact that a majority of the poor are women
c. the notion that women are not as likely to pursue education or other skill development and
end up in lower paying jobs
d. the idea that women do not work as hard as men and are therefore more likely to be poor
e. none of the above
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 225
TOP: Feminization of Poverty (VII.C) MSC: Applied

72. Child poverty rates in the United States are:

a. relative to the poverty rates of men
b. the highest in the world
c. the lowest in the industrialized world
d. the highest in the industrialized world
e. almost nonexistent
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 226 TOP: Children in Poverty (VII.D)
MSC: Factual

73. About one-third of children in poverty live in:

a. households headed by single fathers
b. households headed by single mothers
c. rural areas
d. urban areas
e. households with three or more children
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 226 TOP: Children in Poverty (VII.D)
MSC: Factual

74. Although official estimates show that relatively few elderly people live in poverty, these statistics may
not be accurate because:
a. they do not consider the large number of elderly people who go hungry
b. they do not consider the large number of elderly people who live alone
c. they do not consider the high cost of medical care
d. they do not consider the high cost of rent
e. they do not consider the high number of social services used by the elderly
 ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 227 TOP: Elderly in Poverty (VII.E)
MSC: Factual

75. The income of most elderly people is dependent on:

a. their part-time jobs
b. money from their children
c. pensions
d. Social Security
e. none of the above
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 227 TOP: Social Security (VII.E.i)
MSC: Factual

76. In addition to Social Security, __________ has/have helped to lift many of the elderly out of poverty.
a. food banks
b. Meals on Wheels
c. unemployment
d. Medicare
e. none of the above
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 227 TOP: Medicare (VII.E.ii)
MSC: Factual

77. Those who believe that poverty results from structural factors beyond the control of individuals would
see which of the following as a source of poverty?
a. unequal distribution of educational resources
b. lack of universal healthcare
c. growing income inequality
d. all of the above
e. none of the above.
ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: Page 227 TOP: Explaining Poverty (VIII)
MSC: Applied

78. If a person believes that people are poor because they have been socialized into a set of values, beliefs,
and norms that result in behavior that leads to poverty, then that person is said to believe which of the
following theories of poverty?
a. culture of poverty
b. structural poverty
c. value poverty
d. dependency poverty
e. poverty of the mind
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 227 TOP: Culture of Poverty (VIII.A)
MSC: Applied

79. Those who believe that the culture of poverty theory explains why most people are in poverty would
favor which of the following anti-poverty programs?
a. subsidized housing
b. universal healthcare
c. welfare-to-work programs
d. food stamps
 e. direct cash aid
ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: Page 227 TOP: Culture of Poverty (VIII.A)
MSC: Conceptual

80. According to the sociologist Charles Murray, there are groups among the poor that do not enter the
labor market and rely on government interventions, which undermines self-help and personal
ambition. He says that these poor are part of:
a. the unambitious culture
b. the dependency culture
c. the least-motivated poor
d. the poverty problem
e. the structural poor
ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Page 228
TOP: Dependency Culture (VIII.A.i) MSC: Factual

81. Individuals living in rural communities cut off from resources and opportunities and individuals living
in inner cities with high crime rates are both likely to experience what sociologists call:
a. social exclusion
b. social deprivation
c. unequal education
d. economic exclusion
e. apathy
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 228 TOP: Social Exclusion (VIII.B)
MSC: Applied

82. One of the most distressing signs of the growing stratification in the United States is the growth in the
number of:
a. substance abusers
b. the mentally ill
c. women with college degrees
d. homeless people
e. people on food stamps
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 229 TOP: Homeless (VIII.C)
MSC: Factual

ESSAY

1. Compare and contrast slavery, caste, and class as systems of stratification. What is the basis of
inequality in each? How much social mobility exists in each? What system of stratification best
describes the United States?

ANS:
 To answer this question, students should know how to describe each type of system of stratification.
Slavery is an extreme form of inequality, in which certain people are owned as property by others.
There is very limited social mobility in slave systems, but how slaves are treated varies and depends
on the type of slave system. A caste system is a social system in which one’s social status—based on
race, parental religion, or caste—is given for life, and all individuals must remain at the social level of
their birth throughout life. In caste systems, there is no social mobility since intermarriage among
castes is generally forbidden and caste are segregated from each other in social, economic, and
political spheres. Class systems are fluid, and unlike the other types of strata, classes are not
established by legal or religious provisions. Class positions are in part achieved, although race and
gender matter, and are often economically based. There is a much greater chance for social mobility in
class societies, but factors that individuals do not have control over such as race and gender can often
impede their social mobility. The class system best describes the United States since there is social
mobility within the United States. However, factors out of the control of individuals such as race and
class often determine their access to economic resources, which are the foundation of social mobility
in a class system.

DIF: Moderate REF: Pages 200–203 TOP: Systems of Stratification (I)

MSC: Applied

2. According to the textbook, what three main characteristics do social systems of stratification share?
Provide an example of each.

ANS:
To answer this question, students should know the characteristics common to all systems of social
stratification. One is that the rankings apply to social categories of people who share a common
characteristic, such as gender or ethnicity. An example of this is that women may be ranked differently
from men, white people differently from black, and wealthy people differently from the poor. The
categories are what are meaningful in the ranking. Another characteristic is that people’s life
experiences and opportunities depend heavily on how their social category is ranked. For example,
being male or female, black or white, upper class or working class makes a big difference in terms of
your life chances—often as big a difference as personal effort or good fortune. The third characteristic
is that the ranks of different social categories tend to change very slowly over time. In U.S. society, for
example, only in the last forty years have women begun to achieve economic equality with men.
Similarly, only since the 1970s have significant numbers of African Americans begun to obtain
economic and political equality with whites—even though slavery was abolished nearly a century and
a half ago and discrimination was declared illegal in the 1950s and 1960s. Specific examples for each
characteristic can vary.

DIF: Moderate REF: Page 203 TOP: Systems of Stratification (I)

MSC: Factual

3. Compare and contrast Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore’s
explanations for the basis of social stratification in society. Which explanation do you think best
describes social stratification in the United States today?

ANS:
 To answer this question, students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the three
explanations and the primary ways they differ. For Marx, the term class refers to people who stand in a
common relationship to the means of production—the means by which they gain a livelihood. Marx
believed there were two main classes: capitalists, or those who own the means of production, and those
who earn their living by selling their labor to them, or the working class. The relationship between
classes, according to Marx, is an exploitative one. Marx saw the economic system as the basis for
stratification in society. Weber agreed that the economic system was important, but he felt that it was
not only how people were related to the means of production that mattered, but also the skills they had
to market themselves. Weber also believed that noneconomic factors such as status and prestige
mattered and could be positive or negative for a person. In other words, someone such as a movie
actress could have a high economic class position but low social status. Both Marx and Weber
recognized that the system of stratification is based on power relationships whether it was derived
from economic or social status. Davis and Moore differ from Marx and Weber in that they argued that
stratification has benefits for society. They claimed that certain positions or roles in society, such as
brain surgeons, are functionally more important than others, and these positions require special skills
for their performance. However, only a limited number of individuals in any society have the talents or
experience appropriate to these positions. To attract the most qualified people, rewards need to be
offered, such as money, power, and prestige. Davis and Moore determined that since the benefits of
different positions in any society must be unequal, then all societies must be stratified. To conclude,
the student must provide a convincing argument for why the United States fits into one of these
models.

DIF: Moderate REF: Pages 204–6

TOP: Systems of Stratification (I) | Theories of Stratification in Modern Societies (II)
MSC: Applied

4. What is the difference between income and wealth? How are income and wealth related? Which is
more important in determining one’s position in the system of stratification in the United States? Why?

ANS:
To answer this question, students must begin by defining the terms income and wealth. Income refers
to wages and salaries earned from paid occupations, plus unearned money (or interest) from
investments. Wealth refers to all assets individuals own: cash; savings and checking accounts;
investments in stocks, bonds, and real estate properties; and so on. While most people earn their
income from their work, the wealthy often derive the bulk of theirs from interest on their investments,
some of them inherited. Some scholars argue that wealth—not income—is the real indicator of social
class. Income can be based on one’s earnings from work but also from wealth. Sociologists argue that
wealth is more important than income in determining one’s social position because wealth accumulates
over generations and can become the starting point for the next generation. In fact, economists
estimate that more than half of the wealth that a person accumulates in a lifetime can be traced to that
person’s progenitors.

DIF: Moderate REF: Pages 206–8 TOP: Income (III.A) | Wealth (III.B)
MSC: Factual

5. How has the distribution of income in the United States changed over the past thirty years? Apply one
of the stratification theories discussed in the chapter to explain the reason for this change.

ANS:
 Students should begin by explaining that income inequality reveals a clear case of the “haves” and
“have nots.” In 2009, the top 5 percent of households in the United States received 21.7 percent of
total income; the top 20 percent obtained 50.3 percent; and the bottom 20 percent received only 3.4
percent. Between 1977 and 2009, income inequality increased dramatically. The average household
earnings, meaning the combined incomes of all persons living in a single household, of the bottom 20
percent of people in the United States rose by almost 15 percent, but during the same period, the
richest 20 percent saw incomes grow by 60 percent. And for the richest 5 percent of the population,
income rose by more than 85 percent. This unequal growth in income happened despite the growth of
the economy and millions of new jobs, as these trends continued throughout the 1990s and into the
new century. Some observers see the United States as a “two-tiered society.” However, recent
estimates indicate that income inequality has been declining or at least not increasing. Income
inequality decreased between 2007 and 2009, as measured by shares of aggregate household income
by quintiles. In fact, the share of all quintiles declined—the lowest by 3.3 percent, the middle three by
4 percent, and the highest by 2 percent. The larger decline in the share of the middle three quintiles is
indicative, albeit weakly, of a decline in inequality. Students can apply any of the theories in the
chapter to explain the inequality in income: Karl Marx, Max Weber, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E.
Moore, culture of poverty, or structural explanations.

DIF: Difficult REF: Page 218 TOP: Growing Gap between Rich and Poor (V.A)
MSC: Applied

6. What are the differences in average income and wealth between whites, African Americans, and
Latinos? What are the sociological explanations for why these gaps exist?

ANS:
To answer this question, students should begin by explaining the differences and then a few of the
reasons that these differences exist. According to the textbook, there are substantial differences in
income based on race and ethnicity. Black and Latino household income, for example, averages
between two-thirds and three-quarters that of whites. The situation has, however, worsened over the
last decade. While the average income of whites has been rising consistently, that of blacks and
Latinos has been declining. One of the main reasons for the inequality is because minorities in the
United States are more likely to hold the lowest-paying jobs. For Latinos, however, the inequality has
worsened, as recent immigrants from rural areas in Mexico and Central America find themselves
working at low-wage jobs. For blacks, there is a slight improvement over previous years as a growing
number of blacks have gone to college and moved into middle-class occupations. However, the
“wealth gap” between blacks and whites is even greater than the income gap. While blacks on average
earned two-thirds as much as whites, their net worth was only one-tenth as much, and when blacks
attained educational or occupational levels comparable to that of whites, the wealth gap still did not
disappear. One explanation for this is that blacks in the United States have encountered many barriers
to acquiring wealth throughout history. After the Civil War ended slavery in 1865, legal discrimination
(such as mandatory segregation in the South and separate schools) tied the majority of blacks to the
lowest rungs of the economic ladder. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made racial discrimination illegal;
nonetheless, discrimination has remained, and although some blacks have moved into middle-class
occupations, many have remained poor or in low-wage jobs where the opportunities for accumulating
wealth are nonexistent. Student’s answers will vary but should include a discussion of occupational
segregation and discrimination.

DIF: Difficult REF: Page 227 TOP: Ethnic Minorities versus White Americans (V.B)
MSC: Factual
7. What is social mobility, and what is the difference between intergenerational and intragenerational
mobility? Do you think you will experience intragenerational mobility in your lifetime? Explain why
or why not.

ANS:
To answer the questions, students must start with defining the concepts. Social mobility refers to the
upward or downward movement of individuals and groups between different class positions as a result
of changes in occupation, wealth, or income. Intergenerational mobility describes how far people
move up or down the socioeconomic scale in the course of their working lives. Mobility across the
generations is called intergenerational mobility, and it allows us to analyze where children are on the
scale compared with their parents or grandparents. Students should then explain if they believe they
will experience intragenerational social mobility. To do so, they should mention the two studies on the
relationship between parents’ background and an individual’s social mobility. The first one by Peter
Blau and Otis Dudley Duncan argues that a child’s educational attainment is influenced by family
social status and this, in turn, affects the child’s social position later in life. Second, Pierre Bourdieu’s
study emphasizes the importance of family background to social status, but his emphasis is on the
cultural advantages that parents can provide to their children. Bourdieu argued that among the factors
responsible for social status, the most important is the transmission of cultural capital, or the cultural
advantages that coming from a “good home” confer. Wealthier families are able to afford to send their
children to better schools, an economic advantage that benefits the children’s social status as adults.
Parents from the upper and middle classes are mostly highly educated themselves and tend to be more
involved in their children’s education—reading to them, helping with homework, purchasing books
and learning materials, and encouraging their progress. Bourdieu noted that working-class parents are
concerned about their children’s education, but they lack the economic and cultural capital to make a
difference. After explaining these studies, students should explain how they think their own parents’
educational backgrounds will affect their social mobility.

DIF: Difficult REF: Page 219 TOP: Social Mobility (VI)

MSC: Conceptual

8. Explain how the official definition of poverty is calculated. According to critics, what are some of the
problems with this way of calculating poverty today? What factors do you believe should be
considered in the calculation of poverty and why?

ANS:
To answer this question, the student must start with how the U.S. government calculates the poverty
line: an income equal to three times the cost of a nutritionally adequate diet for a family of four. This
strict, no-frills budget assumed a nutritionally adequate diet could be purchased in 1999 for only $3.86
per day for each member, along with about $7.72 on all other items. For a family of four in 2011, that
works out to an annual cash income of $22,350. Some critics believe it overestimates the amount of
poverty. They point out that the current standard fails to take into account noncash forms of income
available to the poor, such as food stamps, Medicare, Medicaid, and public housing subsidies, as well
as “under the table” pay that is obtained from work at odd jobs and is concealed from the government.
Other critics counter that the government’s formula greatly underestimates the amount of poverty,
because it overemphasizes the proportion of a family budget spent on food and severely
underestimates the share spent on housing. According to some estimates, poor families today may
spend as much as three-quarters of their income on housing alone. Still others observe that this formula
dramatically underestimates the proportion of older adults (age 65 and older) who live in poverty,
because they spend a relatively small proportion of their income on food yet are faced with high
healthcare costs. To conclude, the student should discuss which of the factors they believe should be
considered and explain why. These factors can be from those mentioned above or other factors the
student believes are important.
 DIF: Moderate REF: Page 222 TOP: Measuring Poverty (VII.A)
MSC: Applied

9. Who are the working poor? What are the explanations for why those who are working are still in
poverty?

ANS:
To answer this question, students must start by explaining who the working poor are. The working
poor are people who work but whose earnings are not high enough to lift them above poverty. About
one-fourth of those officially living in poverty are actually working. In 2009, there were an estimated
10.4 million working poor. Of those working poor, 5.6 million usually worked full-time and another 5
million usually worked part-time. Most poor people, contrary to popular belief, do not receive welfare
payments, because they earn too much to qualify for welfare. Only 5 percent of all low-income
families with a full-time, full-year worker receive welfare benefits, and over half rely on public health
insurance rather than employer-sponsored insurance. The working poor are disproportionately
nonwhite and immigrant. One of the explanations for why those who are working may still remain in
poverty is the federal minimum wage. As of July 24, 2011, the minimum wage was $7.25 per hour
although individual states can set higher minimum wages than the federal standard. Although the
federal minimum wage has increased over the years since it was created in 1965, it has failed to keep
up with inflation. This means that people who work may not earn enough to take care of their basic
needs.

DIF: Difficult REF: Page 224 TOP: Working Poor (VII.B)

MSC: Factual

10. Why do sociologists say we are seeing “the feminization of poverty”? Which social groups are most
likely to be represented among poor women? How has this affected the number and percentage of
children living in poverty in the United States?

ANS:
To answer the question, students must start by defining the feminization of poverty, which describes an
increase in the proportion of the poor who are female. Growing rates of divorce, separation, and
single-parent families have placed women at a particular disadvantage since it is extremely difficult for
unskilled or semi-skilled, low-income, poorly educated women to raise children by themselves while
they also hold down jobs that could raise them out of poverty. As a result, in 2009, 29.3 percent of all
single-parent families headed by women were poor, compared to only 5.8 percent of married couples
with children. The feminization of poverty is particularly acute among families headed by Latino
women. Although the rate declined by almost 30 percent since its peak in the mid-1980s (64 percent in
1985), 35.2 percent of all female-headed Latino families lived in poverty in 2009. An almost identical
percentage (36.2 percent) of female-headed African American families also lived in poverty in 2009.
Both numbers were considerably higher than either white (26.3 percent) or Asian (15.5 percent)
female-headed households. Given the high rates of poverty among families headed by single women, it
follows that children are the principal victims of poverty in the United States. Child poverty rates in
the United States are by far the highest in the industrial world. One of the reasons that there is a high
rate of poverty among single mothers is that a single woman attempting to raise children alone is
caught in a vicious circle. If she has a job, she must find someone to take care of her children since she
cannot afford to hire a babysitter or pay for day care. From her standpoint, she will take in more
money if she accepts welfare payments from the government and tries to find illegal part-time jobs that
pay cash not reported to the government rather than find a regular full-time job paying minimum wage.
Even though welfare will not get her out of poverty, a regular job means she will lose her welfare
altogether, and she and her family may be even worse off economically.
 DIF: Moderate REF: Page 225 TOP: Feminization of Poverty (VII.C)
MSC: Factual

11. Compare the “blame the victim” explanation of poverty with the “blame the system” explanation.
Which explanation do you think best explains poverty in the United States today?

ANS:
To answer this question, students must start with the comparison. The “blame the victim” explanation,
also known as the culture of poverty theory, sees poor individuals as responsible for their status. The
“blame the system” explanation views poverty as produced and reproduced by structural forces in
society. “Blame the victim” theories hold the poor responsible for their own disadvantaged positions.
The poor are seen as those who are unable—due to lack of skills, moral or physical weakness, absence
of motivation, or below-average ability—to succeed in society. Social standing is taken as a reflection
of a person’s talent and effort; those who deserve to succeed do so, and others less capable are doomed
to fail. The existence of winners and losers is regarded as a fact of life. The “blame the system”
explanations for poverty focus on the lifestyles or “culture” of poor people. Poverty is not a result of
individual inadequacies but is a result of a larger social and cultural milieu into which poor children
are socialized. The culture of poverty is transmitted across generations because young people from an
early age see little point in aspiring to something more. Instead, they resign themselves fatalistically to
a life of impoverishment. The “blame the system” theories emphasize larger social processes that
produce conditions of poverty that are difficult for individuals to overcome. According to such a view,
structural forces within society—factors like class, gender, ethnicity, occupational position, education
attainment, and so forth—shape the way in which resources are distributed. Those who advocate
structural explanations for poverty argue that reducing poverty is not a matter of changing individual
outlooks. Instead it requires policy measures aimed at distributing income and resources more equally
throughout society. The students must conclude with specific examples supporting why they believe
the “blame the victim” explanation or the “blame the system” explanation best explains poverty in the
United States today. Specific examples that can be used are racial and ethnic income/wealth
inequalities, feminization of poverty, and the homeless.

DIF: Difficult REF: Pages 218–19 TOP: Culture of Poverty (VIII.A)

MSC: Conceptual
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Die Frage der alten Steinkreuze, die uns hier an dem Buch allein
interessiert, ist durchaus einseitig vom kirchlich-legendären
Standpunkt aus behandelt. Wie fast alle übrigen Altertümer im
slawischen Sprachgebiet, so bringt der Verfasser auch sämtliche
Steinkreuze, die er auf seinen Reisen antraf oder sonstwie in
Erfahrung brachte, ohne weiteres mit den beiden Slawenaposteln in
Verbindung. Selbst der Name »Heilige Quelle, Heiliges Wasser,
Heiliger See, Heiliger Hain«, der allerorten einmal wiederkehrt,
genügt ihm als Beweis, daß Cyrill und Methodius dort die Heiden
getauft und das Christentum verkündet haben. Weder hier noch bei
Kirchen- und Klosterbauten aus älterer Zeit wird auch nur der
geringste Versuch gemacht, einen geschichtlichen Nachweis
irgendwelcher Art zu erbringen. Ohne weitere allgemeine oder
einzelne Begründung behandelt er infolgedessen auch jedes alte
Steinkreuz als Zeugnis dafür, daß einer der Heiligen an der Stelle
geweilt und gepredigt oder wenigstens auf Missionsreisen
vorübergekommen sei. Bei dieser vorgefaßten Meinung erwähnt er
nicht einmal die nächstliegende und offenkundige Tatsache, daß
jene Kreuzsteine nur in gewissen Gegenden vom Volksmunde als
Cyrill- und Methodiuskreuze bezeichnet werden.
 Phot. K. Sippel, Plauen i. V.
Abb. 99 Kemnitzbachtal bei Plauen i. V.
Anderseits gibt er aber ebensowenig die erforderlichen
Erklärungen dafür, daß genau die gleichen Steinkreuze weit über
den geschilderten Wirkungskreis der Slawenapostel in ganz Europa
von Spanien bis zum Kaukasus, von Norditalien bis in den hohen
Norden, ja vielleicht sogar auf brasilianischem Boden in Südamerika
zu finden sind; er gibt auch keine Deutung für ihre Mannigfaltigkeit
an Größe, Alter, Form, Inschrift und Waffenschmuck, die einen
gemeinsamen kirchlichen Ursprung um 800 nach Christi völlig in
Frage stellt. Das Vorhandensein von mehreren hundert deutscher
und slawischer Urkunden aus dem zwölften bis siebzehnten
Jahrhundert läßt dagegen mindestens für einen erheblichen Teil
dieser vermeintlichen »Cyrill- und Methodiussteine« einen weit
späteren und viel weltlicheren Ursprung vermuten.

Abb. 100 Mügeln bei Oschatz

Der orthodoxe Prälat Dr. Přicryl verfällt bei seiner Behandlung der
Steinkreuzfrage also in denselben Fehler, wie der sächsische
evangelische Pfarrer Helbig, der 1906 auf Grund einer
engbegrenzten Kenntnis von etwa hundert sächsischen
Steinkreuzen, die Theorie verfocht, sie als Grenzzeichen kirchlicher
Hoheitsgebiete hinzustellen. Er schwieg sich bis heute über
dieselben Fragen aus, an denen die slawische Heiligenlegende
scheitert. Nachdem die Zahl der bekannten sächsischen Steinkreuze
aber durch weitere Forschungen mehr als verdreifacht ist und noch
viele Tausend gleichartiger Denkmäler in Europa verzeichnet worden
sind, ist es mit der einst heißumstrittenen Grenzzeichentheorie von
selber zu Ende gegangen. In ähnlicher Weise fällt also die Annahme
Dr. Přicryls, daß seine fünfzig Kreuze in Mähren, Böhmen und
Sachsen samt und sonders auf Cyrill und Methodius hinweisen
sollen, auch in sich zusammen, falls sich der Verfasser nicht mit den
übrigen europäischen und überseeischen Funden und mit den
widersprechenden urkundlichen Belegen in wissenschaftlich
einwandfreier Weise auseinandersetzt.
 Abb. 101 Liebstadt

Daß die übrige Behandlung der Steinkreuzfunde bei so unsicherer

Grundlage keinen allzugroßen geschichtlichen Wert beanspruchen
kann, mag nach einigen Beispielen beurteilt werden, die ich aus
bekannten sächsischen Gegenden wähle, die aber natürlich auch
anderwärts zu ergänzen wären. So ist folgendes zu lesen, S. 118:
»Nach den Denkmalen zu urteilen, begab sich das heilige
Bruderpaar um den Cernoboh über Löbau nach Bautzen.« – S. 122:
»Zwischen Flins bei Bautzen und dem Heiligen See (Baselitzer
Teich) bei Kamenz fand ich zehn Steinkreuze, die von der liebevollen
Aufnahme der heiligen Slawenapostel Zeugnis ablegen.« – S. 126:
»Mit dem Steinkreuz in Arnsdorf und dem Steinkreuz vor Zittau ist
die Rückreise der heiligen Slawenapostel nach Welejrad
angedeutet.« – S. 130: »Steinkreuze bezeichnen den apostolischen
Weg des heiligen Methodius von Lebus nach Dresden.« – Auf diese
Weise würden sich auf der sächsischen Steinkreuzkarte, die meinen
ersten Veröffentlichungen in Heft 6 von 1914 beilag, die
verschiedensten Missionsreisen im Zickzackkurs einzeichnen
lassen.
Auch hinter viele Einzelschilderungen von Steinkreuzen muß man
bei näherer Prüfung ein großes Fragezeichen machen, denn neben
erweislich unrichtigen Angaben wird manche Sage als geschichtliche
Wahrheit aufgetischt, wenn sie sich dazu eignet, die »beiden Zierden
der Menschheit« als Heidenbekehrer zu verherrlichen oder den
Ruhm des Slawentums im allgemeinen zu mehren.
Nach alledem möchte ich mein Urteil über das Přicrylsche Buch,
soweit es die Steinkreuzforschung betrifft, dahin zusammenfassen,
daß es uns mit einigen Dutzend neuer mährischer Standorte – ohne
nähere Beschreibung der Kreuze – flüchtig bekannt macht, an der
Lösung des Steinkreuzproblems aber genau in dem Maße
irreführend und verwirrend beteiligt ist, wie seinerzeit die
Helbigschen Aufsätze.
Wenn man diese literarischen Veröffentlichungen des letzten
Jahrzehntes also nochmals überblickt, so läßt sich zwar
erfreulicherweise eine wachsende Tätigkeit bei der örtlichen
Aufsuchung der Steinkreuze feststellen, von nennenswerten
Fortschritten bei der wissenschaftlichen Forschung und Deutung, ist
mir aber nichts zur Kenntnis gekommen.
Für die allgemeinere volkstümliche Ausbreitung des Interesses an
der alten germanischen Sitte, erschien es mir schließlich schon
früher bemerkenswert, daß das Steinkreuz in der darstellenden
Kunst und der Literatur vielfach als charakteristisches Begleitstück
deutscher Landschaft in phantasievoller Weise erwähnt oder
abgebildet wird. Zu den damals erwähnten Proben (vgl. Bd. VI,
Heft 11, Seite 299 und Abb. 77 aus Kaulbachs Reineke Fuchs) ließe
sich eine lange Reihe weiterer Beispiele bis herauf zu Liliencron und
Löns anführen.
Wichtiger als die einzelne Aufzählung solch dichterischer oder
künstlerischer Verwertung aus neuer Zeit, erscheint mir aber die
dauernde Ergänzung der alten Urkundsverzeichnisse, soweit sie
sächsische Ortschaften betreffen. Neben den von Meiche
wiedergegebenen, aus Leipzig usw., seien deshalb zwei unbekannte
aus dem westlichen Erzgebirge genannt, die 1487 in Zwickau und
1490 in Schneeberg das Setzen eines Steinkreuzes als
Totschlagsühne verlangen und in Herzogs Chronik von Zwickau
1845, II. Teil, S. 149, sowie in Christian Meltzers Stadt- und
Bergchronik von Schneeberg, 1716, S. 1166, abgedruckt sind. Im
weiteren Verlauf der Forschung wird sich auch für solche
Sühneverträge oder Wahrsprüche, die von mir bereits 1914
aufgezählt wurden, eine Fortsetzung der listenmäßigen
Zusammenstellung nützlich erweisen, damit die urkundliche Seite
der Sache zu den Funden an Ort und Stelle in bestimmte Beziehung
gebracht werden kann. Wenn der Sühnegedanke wohl auch nicht
der Ursprung und der alleinige Zweck der gesamten Steinkreuzsitte
gewesen ist, so dürfte er doch fast ein halbes Jahrtausend lang und
bis zum Ausgang der Sache am Anfang des achtzehnten
Jahrhunderts den Hauptgrund für die Errichtung der überwiegenden
Mehrzahl abgegeben haben. Ich bitte also bei archivalischen Studien
nebenbei auf solche Gerichtsurteile weltlicher oder geistlicher
Stühle, auf Wahrsprüche städtischer oder fürstlicher Machthaber,
Sühneverträge und Vergleichsurkunden aller Art zu achten und mich
durch Quellenangabe und Auszüge freundlichst auch auf diese
papiernen Fundstätten aufmerksam zu machen.
Damit schließe ich die textliche Darstellung meiner bisherigen
Forschungen zur sächsischen Steinkreuzkunde; neben weiteren
Nachträgen hoffe ich, meine nach Tausenden zählenden
Steinkreuzfeststellungen im übrigen Europa auch einmal in
schriftstellerischer Weise veröffentlichen zu können.
 I. Vorhandene Steinkreuze
a) Nachträge zu früher genannten Kreuzen

Gesteinsart
Nr. Standort Maße
Ergänzungen
3 Auerbach i. V.: Zwei Kreuze aus
der Ufermauer
herausgenommen und gleich
den anderen beiden (Nr. 4) im
Stadtpark 1921 aufgestellt.
Beide standen auf oder neben
der alten Göltzschbrücke, die
1883 abgebrochen wurde.
34 Crostwitz bei Kamenz: Am
selben Platz im Dorfe beim
zugeschütteten Teich 1922
wieder aufgestellt.
45 Großer Garten, Dresden: Im
August 1920 böswilligerweise
in Stücke zerschlagen. Mit
Zement ausgebessert und
flach auf den Boden gelegt.
63 Gorknitz bei Pirna: Ausgegraben
und am selben Orte 1920 neu
aufgestellt. Mitteilungen X,
Heft 4/6, S. 85.
70 Gröbern bei Meißen: Aus der 78 : 56 : 15 Sandstein
Scheunenmauer im Gutshofe
herausgenommen und am
Dorfplatz aufgestellt.
128 Liebstadt: Das stehende Kreuz 88 : 48 : 23
 war zerbrochen und wurde
auf Stadtkosten 1919 neu
aufgestellt. – Das liegende an
der Wegweisersäule nach
Bertelsdorf wurde gehoben
und neu aufgestellt.
141 Mügeln bei Oschatz: In der
Südostecke des Friedhofes
bei der Totengräberwohnung
neu aufgestellt.
153 Oberau bei Meißen a. E.:
Ausgegraben und am selben
Orte neu aufgestellt.
187a Rochlitz: Im Museum. Drei
Kreuze aus der Rochlitzer
Gegend.
222 Weißig bei Dresden: Am Bahnhof
weggenommen und nördlich
der Straße unter alten
Bäumen in der Wiese neu
aufgestellt.

b) Neuentdeckte Kreuze

Nr. Standort Maße Gesteinsart

232 Bockwen bei Meißen: An der 122 : 84 : 35 Sandstein
Straße Bockwen–Reichenbach
(alter Bischofsweg Meißen–
Briesnitz–Stolpen). 1922
ausgegraben und neu
aufgestellt.
233 Böhla bei Großenhain: Beim 120 : 42 : 20 Sandstein
Birkenwald an der Straße nach
 Ortrand, etwa 800 m westlich
von Böhla. Krummer Säbel.
234 Dippoldiswalder Haide: In 72 : 56 : 22 Sandstein
Forstabteilung 54 mitten in
jungem Bestand, etwa 180 m
nördlich der Straße Malter–
Wendischcarsdorf. Erhabenes
symmetrisches Kreuz auf der
Vorderseite.
235 Fischheim bei Wechselburg a. 64 : 55 : 19 Porphyr
M.: Im Herbst 1923 wieder
ausgegraben und am
schmalen Fußweg, der vor der
Steudtener Schänke von der
Dorfstraße abzweigt und
östlich an den Fischheimer
Gütern entlang führt, neu
aufgestellt. Messer auf der
Vorderseite.
236 Fürstenwalde bei Lauenstein: 87 : 69 : 21 Sandstein
Östlich der alten Teplitzer
Straße und 600 m südlich des
Harthewaldes an einem
Feldwege. Inschrift: 1622 G. S.
und Bild einer Schere.
»Leichenstein«.
[8]
237 Geyersdorf bei Annaberg: Ein
Kreuz und ein Bruchstück am
Dorfplatz neben der
ehemaligen Schule.
238 Gospersgrün bei Treuen i. V.: 50 : 42 : 22 Granit
Zwei Kreuze am sogenannten 40 : 85 : 24 Granit
oberen Teich beim
Straßenkreuz.
239 Grillenburger Wald: Auf 98 : 57 : 2 Sandstein
Forstabteilung 48 im
Nordwestteil. Längere
verwitterte Inschrift von 1592.
240 Haberfeldwald bei Lauenstein: 120 hoch Gneis
Auf Forstabteilung 56 nahe der
Grenze. Inschrift: E. T. 16...
241 Kemnitzbachtal bei Plauen i. V.: 54 : 58 : 20 Granit
Auf der Bachbrücke im Zuge
der Straße Geilsdorf–
Staatsstraße Plauen–Hof bei
Zöbern. Im Jahre 1915 nach
der
Frühjahrsüberschwemmung im
Bach gefunden. Inschriften:
1862, 1870.
242 Kürbitz bei Plauen i. V.: In der 92 : 60 : ? Granit
Außenwand der
Friedhofsmauer südwestlich
der Kirche eingemauert. Zwei
senkrechte Striche. 1923 beim
Wegebau verschüttet.
[8]
243 Limbach bei Reichenbach:
Oberhalb der Pfarre.
(Mitteilung der
Straßenbaubehörde von
1916.)
244 Löbau: Bei Ausschachtungen an 105 : 85 : 28 Sandstein
der Kittlitzer Landstraße in 3 m
Tiefe gefunden und am
Schnittpunkt der
Mücklichstraße mit der
Ziegelstraße aufgestellt.
Runde Aushöhlung in der Mitte
des Kreuzes.
245 Markranstädt: Im Vorgarten an 105 : 54 : 16 Sandstein
dem von der Lützener Straße
abzweigenden Weg nach
Schkeitbar. Spieß oder
Schwert.
246 Markranstädt: An der Weggabel
der Zwenkauer Straße und
des Lausaner Wegs.
Antoniuskreuz.
247 Meißen a. E.: Seit etwa dreißig 165 : 102 : 31 Sandstein
Jahren aufgestellt im Hofe des
Franziskaner-Klosters
(Museum) am Heinrichplatz.
Früher am Schweizerhaus
beim Eingange des
Rauhentales im Triebischtal.
248 Pirna a. E.: Westlich der 145 : 105 : 30 Sandstein
Malzfabrik auf dem Gelände
der alten Dresdner Landstraße
1922 im Acker ausgegraben.
Unterteil ergänzt. Fünf
achtfach geteilte Kreuze im
Kreis.
249 Porschdorf bei Bad Schandau: 59 : 53 : 26 Sandstein
Im obersten Ortsteil vor Haus
32.
250 Röhrsdorf bei Meißen: Vor dem 87 : 56 : 21 Sandstein
nordöstlichen
Friedhofspförtchen als
Kriegerdenkmal aufgestellt.
1896 bei Aufgrabungen in 3 m
Tiefe unter der Dorfstraße
gefunden.
251 Schönau bei Borna, Bez. Leipzig: 50 : 30 : 25 Porphyr
 Bruchstück. Vorderseite Beil;
Rückseite: Schwert ohne Griff.
[8]
252 Schönau bei Bergen östlich
Plauen: Im Dorfe. (Mitteilung
der Straßenbaubehörde.)
253 Schrebitz bei Mügeln, Bez. 66 : 52 : 21 Granit
Leipzig: Antoniuskreuz. Vor
dem Gute Nr. 63 am Gasthof.
254 Thümmlitzwald bei Leisnig: Im 72 : 63 : 24 Sandstein
Forstort 29 einige Schritte
nordwestlich vom Griesenweg.
»Beatenkreuz«.
255 Stadt Wehlen a. E.: Um 1900 70 : 39 : 12 Sandstein
beim Umpflastern des
Pfarrhofs neben der alten
abgebrochenen Kirche
gefunden. Im Pfarrgarten
vorläufig aufgestellt. Inschrift
1750.
[8]
256 Wiesa bei Annaberg: In der
Grundmauer des Hauses Nr.
65 auf der nach der Dorfstraße
gelegenen Seite eingemauert.
[8]
257 Zaulsdorf bei Oelsnitz i. V.: Beim
Dorfe. (Mitteilung der
Straßenbaubehörde von
1916.)

II. Verschwundene Steinkreuze

Zahl
Nr. Ort der Erwähnung
Kreuze
19 Falkenstein i. V. – Das Kreuz war mit der Zeichnung
eines ungespannten Bogens und
eines Pfeils versehen. (Mitteilung
von Lehrer L. Viehweg in Bad
Elster von 1919.)
28 Helmsdorf – Abgebildet in »Über Berg und Tal«,
1904, S. 300.
33 Königsbrück 1 Das fünfte der dortigen Kreuze (Nr.
109–111) ist 1908 beim Bau
eines Schuppens am
Krankenhaus mit in die Erde
geworfen worden.
68 Falkenstein i. V. 1 Bis zum großen Brand der achtziger
Jahre in einer engen Gasse nach
Grünbach zu. Mitteilung von
Fräulein E. v. Cotta.
69 Gottleuba, am 1 Nach einer Aktennotiz vom Jahre
Hellendorfer 1500 an einen Bauer als
Weg Schleifstein verkauft worden.
70 Kamenz 1 Vgl. Störzner: Was die Heimat
erzählt. S. 252 und 285.
71 Nieder- 1 Beim Aufgang zum Schloß auf dem
Reinsberg b. Mühlgrundstück in der Nähe des
Nossen Mühlgrabens. Mitteilung von W.
Krumbiegel, Klotzsche.
72 Schöneck i. V. 3 Bis 1882 auf einer Wiese vor der
Stadt. Mitteilung von Fräulein E.
v. Cotta.
73 Trieb bei 1 Früher an der Falkensteiner Straße.
Falkenstein i. Beim Bau eines Bauernhauses
V. als Mauerstein verwendet.
Heimatschutzakten betr.
Kulturdenkmale, S. 39.
74 Unterlauterbach 1 Beim Dungerschen Gute. Beim
Straßenbau zerschlagen worden.
Heimatschutzakten betr.
Kulturdenkmale, S. 39.

III. Literaturverzeichnis
Charles Darwin, Journal of Researches into the Natural History
and Geology of the Countries visited during the voyage of H. M.
S. Beagle: Round the world. London. Verlag John Murray 1860.
Seite 26 enthält eine Notiz vom 19. April 1832 über einen
Ausflug von Rio de Janeiro: »The road is often marked by
crosses in the place of milestones, to signify where human
blood has been spilled«.
Vogtländischer Anzeiger und Tageblatt vom 13. August 1916,
S. 14. Beschreibung der Kreuze von Kürbitz und
Kemnitzbachtal.
Neues Archiv für Sächsische Geschichte und
Alterstumskunde. XL, Heft 1/2, S. 189. Zur
Steinkreuzforschung. Von Alfred Meiche. Besprechung der
Arbeit von Dr. Kuhfahl, in Mitteilungen 1914 bis 1916, mit
Angabe neuer Sühneurkunden usw.
Dresdner Anzeiger vom 20. April 1919. Dr. Kuhfahl: Zur
Steinkreuzforschung. Ebenda vom 6. Mai 1914, Dr. Kuhfahl:
Aus dem Sagenkreis der alten Steinkreuze. Ebenda vom 11.
Mai 1924 mit illustrierter Beilage: Alte Steinkreuze im Dresdner
Weichbild, von Dr. Kuhfahl.
Monatsschrift für Photographie, März 1919, Berlin. Dr. Kuhfahl.
Photographische Steinkreuzforschung.
Emil Obst, Über Mord- und Sühnekreuze in den Muldenkreisen
Bitterfeld und Delitzsch. 2. Auflage. Selbstverlag. Bitterfeld
1921.
Dr. Franz Přicryl, Denkmale der Heiligen Konstantin und
Methodius in Europa. Wien 1920. Verlag von Heinrich Kirsch.
Max Walter, Ernsttal, Baden. Steinkreuze des hinteren Odenwalds
in »Vom Bodensee zum Main«, Heimatblätter Nr. 25. 1923.
Wilhelm Lange, Über Steinkreuze in Touristische Mitteilungen aus
beiden Hessen usw. 1909 Nr. 2 und 3, 1910 Nr. 5.
(Besprechung hessischer Standorte.)
Gustav Metscher, Märkische Sühnekreuze in Deutsche Zeitung
vom 23. Juli 1921.
Karl Zimmermann, Zur Steinkreuzforschung, in Mitteilungen des
Nordböhmischen Vereins für Heimatforschung. Leipa 1919, Heft
2 bis 4, S. 80. (Besprechung der Dr. Kuhfahlschen Arbeit von
1914 bis 1915. Kleinere Nachrichten.)
E. Mogk, Zur Deutung der Steinkreuze in Mitteilungen des Vereins
für Sächsische Volkskunde. 1919, Heft 12.
R. Krieg, Die Steinkreuze im Harz. Zeitschrift »Der Harz«,
September 1922, S. 113.
Rottler, Kreuzsteine und Steinkreuze im Bezirk des Landbauamts
Bamberg in »Deutsche Gaue«. 1920, Heft 407 bis 410.
Max Hellwig, Steinerne Zeugen mittelalterlichen Rechts in
Schlesien (Steinkreuze, Bildstöcke, Staupsäulen, Galgen,
Gerichtstische). Liegnitz 1923, Selbstverlag. 8°, 34 S. 13
Bildertafeln.
Über Berg und Tal. 1924. Die alten Steinkreuze der Sächsischen
Schweiz, von Dr. Kuhfahl.
Rund um den Geisingberg, Monatsbeilage des Boten vom
Geising. Januar, Februar und März 1924. Mord- und
Sühnekreuze, von A. Klengel, Meißen a. E. Allgemeine
Schilderung der Steinkreuzsitte, sowie Einzelbeschreibung der
Erzgebirgischen Standorte im Umkreis vom Geising.

IV. Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der

Steinkreuzabbildungen
 nach Dr. Kuhfahl seit 1914
Abbildungen Nr. 1 bis 25 in Heft 6, Bd. IV, Nr. 26 bis 65 in Heft 1, Bd.
V, Nr. 66 bis 77 in Heft 11, Bd. VI, Nr. 78 bis 101 im vorstehenden
Heft
26 Auerbach i. V.
39 Auligk bei Pegau
34 Basteiwald bei Rathen
45 Bautzen
8 Bautzen (Kreuzstein)
69 Beutha bei Hartenstein
78 Bockwen bei Meißen
82 Böhla bei Großenhain
14 Boritz bei Riesa
46 Börnersdorf bei Lauenstein
33 Borsbergwald bei Pillnitz
25a Burk bei Bautzen
59 Burkhardswalde, siehe Sachsendorf
5 Chursdorf bei Penig
62 Claußnitz bei Burgstädt
65 Colditz
52 Colditzer Wald
85 Crostwitz bei Kamenz
21 Demitz bei Bischofswerda
93 Dippoldiswalder Haide
37 Dohna bei Pirna
22 Dresden, Großer Garten
32 Eichgraben bei Zittau
78 Fischheim bei Wechselburg a. M.
43 Frauenhain bei Großenhain
42 Gatzen bei Pegau
74 Geising
 56 Glashütte
55 u. 83 Gorknitz bei Pirna
98 Gospersgrün bei Plauen i. V.[10]
53 Gottleuba
81 Gräfenhain bei Königsbrück (Kreuzstein)
7 Gränze bei Kamenz (Kreuzstein)
95, 96 Grillenburger Wald
72 Gröbern bei Meißen
28 Großcotta bei Pirna
22 Großer Garten, Dresden
9 u. 10 Großraschütz bei Großenhain
4 Großröhrsdorf bei Pirna
20 Grünstädtel bei Schwarzenberg
11 Hausdorf bei Kamenz
65a Heidenholz bei Börnersdorf
17 Hertigswalde bei Sebnitz
19 Höckendorf bei Königsbrück
25 Jahnshain bei Penig
76 Jauernick Bez. Görlitz[9] (außerhalb Sachsens)
40 Kamenz
99 Kemnitzbachtal bei Plauen i. V.[10]
68 Klaffenbach bei Chemnitz
47 Kleinwolmsdorf bei Radeberg
66 Knatewitz bei Oschatz
64 Königsbrück
58 Kreckwitz bei Bautzen
97 Kürbitz bei Plauen i. V.[11]
16 Langenhennersdorf bei Pirna
71 Leppersdorf bei Radeberg
101 Liebstadt
79 Löbau
15 Lommatzsch
 2 Luga bei Bautzen
67 Mannewitz bei Pirna
92 Meißen a. E.
100 Mügeln bei Oschatz
35 Nauleis bei Großenhain
27 u. 49 Neukirch bei Königsbrück
24 Niederschlottwitz bei Dippoldiswalde
75 u. 84 Oberau bei Meißen
12 Oberfrauendorf bei Dippoldiswalde
38 Oberseifersdorf bei Zittau
51 Oehna bei Bautzen
23 Ölsen bei Pirna
36 u. 66 Ölzschau bei Bad Lausigk
1 Oschatz
31 Oßling bei Kamenz
3 Oybin
90 Pirna a. E.
89 Porschdorf bei Bad Schandau
54 Radibor bei Bautzen
48 Ralbitz bei Kamenz
94 Rathendorf bei Penig
30 Reinholdshain bei Dippoldiswalde
80 Röhrsdorf bei Meißen a. E.
18 Rosenthal bei Königstein
59 Sachsendorf bei Wurzen (Burkhardswalde)
63 Schmerlitz bei Kamenz
13 Schönau bei Borna
29 Schönfeld bei Pillnitz
87 Schrebitz bei Mügeln
61 Schwand bei Plauen
57 Seifersdorf bei Radeberg
50 Thoßfell bei Plauen i. V.
 91 Thümmlitzwald bei Leisnig
6 Waltersdorf bei Liebstadt
88 Stadt Wehlen
44 Weifa bei Niederneukirch
70 Zittau
41 Zschoppelshain bei Mittweida

Fußnoten:
[1] Vgl. Mitteilungen Bd. IV, Heft 6, S. 202.
[2] Mitteilungen Bd. IV, Heft 6, S. 202.
[3] Vgl. Mitteilungen X 4/6 S. 85.
[4] Dresdner Lokalvisitation samt derselben Instruktion
10599/1539 Blatt 134 b.
[5] Vgl. auch Mitteilung des Vereins für Sächsische Volkskunde
1899. Heft 12, Seite 11.
[6] Nr. 25/1923, Verlag von C. F. Müller, Karlsruhe.
[7] Verlag von Heinrich Kirsch, vorm. Mechitharisten-
Buchhandlung, Wien 1920.
[8] Genauere Angaben und Photographien erbeten.
[9] Aufnahme von Rittergutsbesitzer von Craushaar auf Jauernick.
[10] Aufnahme von Curt Sippel, Plauen i. V.
[11] Aufnahme von Werner Rosenmüller, Hamburg.