Indicators and

Display Devices 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to
Outline the different types of indicators and displays
Understand the operation of different types of indicators and
displays

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Analogue ammeters and voltmeters are classified together, since there is no
basic difference in their operating principles. The action of all ammeters and
voltmeters, except those of the electrostatic variety, depends upon a deflecting
torque produced by an electric current. In an ammeter, this torque is produced
by the current to be measured, or by a definite fraction of it. In a voltmeter, it is
produced by a current that is proportional to the voltage to be measured. Hence,
both voltmeters and ammeters are essentially current measuring devices.
The essential requirements of a measuring instrument are (a) that its
introduction into the circuit where measurements are to be made, should not alter
the circuit conditions, and (b) the power consumed by it be smal.

2,.1 Types of Instrument

The following types of instrument are mainly used as ammeters and voltmeters.
. PMMC 2. Moving iron
3. Electrodynamometer 4. Hot wire
.Thermocouple 6. Induction type
7. Electrostatic 8. Rectifier
 M e a s u r e m e n t s

Instrumentation
and
Electronic

28
de
measurements
only, and
the
be used for
or ho
PMMC type can
Of these, the be used for
measurements only. The
other types can
both.
nduction type for ac iron types depend upon ne magnitude effect of
ne
moving coil and moving
used form ot indicating instrument as
current. The latter is the most commonly m e a s u r e m e n t s and is
well as the cheapest. It can be used
for both ac and dc very
accurate, if properly designed.
The PMMC instrument is the most
accurate type for dc measuremen:
Instrument of this type are frequently constructed to have substandard accurac
cy.
h e calibration of the electrodynamometer type or instrument is the same
for ac and dc. The same situation prevails for thermal instruments. These ara
particularly suitable for ac measurements, since their detiection depends directly
upon the heating effect of the ac, i.e. upon the ms value of the current. Their
readings are therefore independent of the frequency.
Electrostatic instruments used as voltmeters have the advantage that their
power consumption is exceedingly small. They can be made to cover a large
range of voltage and can be constructed to have sub-standard accuracy.
The induction principle is most
generally used for Watt-hour meters. This
principle is not preferred use in ammeters and voltmeters because of the
for
comparatively high cost and inaccuracy of the instrument.

2.2 BASIC METER MOVEMENT

The action of the most
meter is based on the commonly
dc www

fundamental Understand the working principle of a basic

principle of the motor. The motor action meter movement (D'Arsonval)
is produced
by the flow of a small
current through a moving coil, which
is
positioned in the field of a permanent
magnet. This basic moving coil
is often called the
system
galvanometer. D'Arsonval
The D'Arsonval
in Fig. 2.1 movement shown N
employs spring-loaded coil
a
S
through which the measured
flows. The coil (rotor) current
is in a
homogeneous field of a
nearly
magnet and moves in a permanent Fig. 2.1
The amount of rotary fashion. D'Arsonval principle
tation is
the coil. A
calibrated
pointer tached to the coil
in terms of
proportional to the amount of
current indicates the current
an almost linear or
calibration. The
used for calibration. voltage. lt respondsposition of theflowing
ing throu
through
magnetie shunt that to de current coilonly,
on
on a scale
nly, and
and
sC
has
varies the tield
field streing ha
strength is
 Indicators and Display Devices

22.1
2.1 Permanent Magnetic Moving Coil Movement

instrument, have a co
we
n this Understand the construction and operation
in the magnetic ficld of a of a permanent magnet moving coil
suspended
permanent magnet in the shape ofa horse- movement
Calculate the deflecting torque, deflection
shoc. The coil is suspended that it can
so
angle and current as per the given data
in the magnetic ficld. When
rotate frecly
eurrent fows in the developed (clectromagnetic) torque causes the coil
coil, the
is counterbalanced by a mechanical
to rotate. The electromagnetic (EM) torque
torgue of control springs attached to the movable coil. The balance of torques,
and therefore the angular position of the movable coil is indicated by a pointer
painst a fixed reference ealled a scale. The equation for the developed torque,
derived from the basic law for clectromagnetie torque is
T= B xA xIxN
= torque, Newton-meter
where
B flux density in the air gap, Wb/m"
A= effective coil area (m*)
N= number of turns of wire of the coil
I= current in the movable coil (amperes)
is proportional to the flux
The equation shows that the developed torque
the current coil constants (area and
density of the field in which the coil rotates,
number of turns). Since both flux density and coil constants are fixed for a given

instrument,the developed torque is a direct indication off the current in the coil.
current.
The pointer deflection can therefore be used to measure

Example 2.1 (a) A moving coil instrument has the following data.
Number of turns= 100
Width of the coil = 20 mm

Depth of the coil =

30 mm
Fhux density in the gap = 0.1 Wb/m
Calculate the deflecting torque when carrying a current of 10 mA. Also
calculate the deflection, if the control spring constant is 2 x 10 Nm/degree.

Solution The deflecting torque is given by

T BxA xNxI
0.1 x 30x 10x 20 x 10 x 100 x 10 x 10
= 600 x 1000 x 0.1 x 10
= 600 x 1000 x 10rl0
= 60 x 10° Nm

ne spring control provides a restoring torque,

1.e. t= K6,
where K is the spring constant.
As deflecting torque restoring torque
=
 M e a s u r e m e n t s

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
and
30 Electronic

6x10=3x 10 30
6x105

T6x 10 Nm =K6, 0 2 x10

Therefore, the deflection is 30°
aata

instrument has the

following
Example2.1 (b)A moving coil
Number of turns = 100

Width of the coil = 20 mm

Depth ofthe coil

=
30 mm
Flx density in the gap = 0.1 Wb/n
=
30 x 10 Nm
The deflection torque
coil.
Calculate the current through the moving
Solution The deflecting torque is given by
TBxA xNxI

100 xI
30 x 10 =
0.1 x 30 x 10x 20x 10 x
Therefore,
30x10
I = 100
0.1x30 x 10 x 20 x 10 x

30x 10 = 5 MA
I
0.1x 600x10° x 100

2.2.2 Practical PMMC Movement

D'Arsonval movement) offers the
The basic PMMC movement (also called a
and is used when
largest magnet in a given space, in the form of horse-shoe,
a

D'Arsonval movement is based on

a large fux is required in the air gap. The
the principle of a moving electromagnetic coil pivoted in a uniform air gap
between the poles of a large fixed permanent magnet. This principle is illustrated
in Fig. 2.1. With the polarities as shown, there is a repelling force between like
poles, which exerts a torque on the pivoted coil. The torque is proportional to the
magnitude of current being measured. This D'Arsonval movement provides an
instrument with very low power consumption and low current required for full
scale deflection (fsd).
Figure 2.2 shows a permanent horse-shoe magnet with soft iron pole pieces
attached to it. Between the pole pieces is a cylinder of soft iron which serves to
nrovide a uniform magnetic field in the air gap between the pole pieces and the
cylindrical core.
The coil is wound on a light metal frame and is mounted so that it
can rotate
freely in the air gap. The pointer attached to the coil moves over a
scale and indicates the angular denecuon ot the coil, which is proportional to the graduated
current flowing through it.
 Indicators and Display Devices 31

llalalhlluhll.
hlutallhllldldilalallalda

Pointer

Permanent
Magnet

Coil
Core
Spring
Air Gap

Non-Magnetic
Support

Fig. 2.2 Modern D'Arsonval movement

The Y-shaped member shown in Fig. 2.3 is the zero adjust control, and is
connected to the fixed end of the front control spring. An eccentric pin through
the instrument case engages the Y-shaped member so that the zero position of the
pointer can be adjusted from outside. The calibrated force opposing the moving
torque is provided by two phosphor-bronze conductive springs, normally equal
in strength. (This also provides the necessary torque to bring the pointer back to
its original position after the measurement is over.)

Permanent
Magnet

Y-Member

Coil
Control
Spring

movement showing the Y-member

E2.3 Simplified diagram of a PMMC
 Measurements
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
and
32 Electronic

maintained by kecping
The ccuracy
can be
y balanccd " g
sprin
of the instrument

moving system is statically at al balanced

performance constant. The cntire
balance weights, Tne pointer, springs.

pOSitons by three (counterwcights) bases and the

m e a n s of pivot
to the coil assembly by
entire
ixed bearings.
coil element is supported by jewel
blc
PMMC instrument are
constructed to produce
as little viscious
damping:as
is added.
POSsible and the required degree of damping case; the pointer attached to th
n Fig.2.4. Curve 2 is the underdamped the
several times before coming to rest, A
movable coil oscillates back and forth tends to aPproach the steady stato
C u r v e 1, the overdamped case, the pointer
POSition in a sluggish manner. In Curve 3, the
critically damped case, the pointer
without oscillations.
Critical
damping is the
nOves up to its steady state position
1deal behaviour for a PMMC movement.
Curve
3 [Critical Damped]
Curve 1 [Overdamped]

Curve
2
[Underdamped]

Fig. 2.4 Degree of damping

In practise, however, the instrument is usually slightly underdamped, causing

the pointer to overshoot a little before coming to rest.
The various methods of damping are as follows:
One of the simplest methods is to attach an aluminium vane to the shaft of the
moving coil. As the coil rotates, the vane moves in an air chanmber, the amount
of clearance between the chamber walls and the air vane
effectively controls the
degree of damping.
Some instruments use the principle of
electromagnetic damping (Lenz's law),
where the movable coil is wound on a light aluminium frame.
The rotation of the
coil in the magnetic field sets up a
circulating current in the conductive frame,
causing a retarding torque that opposes the motion of the coil.
A PMMC movement may also be damped
by a resistor across the coil. When
the coil rotates in the magnetic field, a
voltage is
circulates a current through it and the external generated
in the coil, which
resistance. This produces an
opposing or retarding torque that damps the
motion. In any galvanometer, the
value of the external resistance that
produces critical damping can be found.
This resistance is called critically
damping external resistance (CDRX). Most
voltmeter coils are wound on metal frames to
The metal frames constitute a short-circuit provide electro-magnetic damping.
turn in a
magnetic field.
 Indicators and Display Devices 33

Ammeters coils, are however wound in a non-conductive frame, because the

coil turns are effectively shorted by the ammeter shunt. The coil itself provides
the EM damping.
If low frequeney alternating is applied to the movable coil, the
current

deflection of the pointer would be upscale for half the cycle of the input wave-
form and downscale (in the opposite dirction) for the next half. At power line
variations in
frequeney (50 Hz) and above, the pointer cannot follow the rapid
of
direction and quivers slightly around the zero mark, seeking the average value
for ac
the ac (which equals zero). The PMMC instrument is therefore unsuitable
measurements, unless the current is rectified before reaching the coil.
Practical coil areas generally range from 0.5 2.5 em.
The flux density for nmoderm instruments usually ranges from 1500- 5000 Wb/cms.
The power requirements of D'Arsonval movements are quite small, typically
from 25200 uW.
The accuracy of the instrument is generally of the order of2-5% of
Sull scale

deflection.
The pernmanent magnet is made up of Alnico material.
Scale markings of basic de PMMC instruments are usually linearly spaced,
because the torque (and hence the pointer deflection) is directly proportional
to the coil current. The basic PMMC
instrument is therefore a linear-reading
device.
as follows:
The advantages and disadvantages of PMMC are

Advantages
be modified with the help of shunts and resistance
to cover a
1. They can

wide range of currents and voltages.

2. They display no hystersis.
they are not
3. Since operating fields of such instruments
are very strong,
fields.
significantly affected by stray magnetic

Disadvantages and the permanent

. Some errors may set in due to ageing ofcontrol springs
magnet.
2. Friction due to jewel-pivot suspension.

2.3 TAUT BAND INSTRUMENT

band movement utilises the

same
The taut Explain the working ofa taut band
movable coil
principle as the D'Arsonval instrument

and fixed magnet. The primary difference Stateits advantages

*.www.AAAAANS

Defween the two is the method ofmounting

the movable coil.
 Voltmeters and

4 Multimeters

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
will be able to
After studying this chapter, you
of a Permanent Magnet Moving
Understand the basic principles
Coil (PMMC)
of a PMMC as dc voltmeter
Appreciate the operation
voltmeter used for
Comprehend the operation of an electronic
measurement in mV and micro-volt range
ohmmeter and a
Know the operation of an ac voltmeter,
multimeter

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The most commonly used dc meter is based on the fundamental principle oI ne
motor. The motor action is produced
by the flow of a small amount of curren
through moving
a coil which is positioned in a permanent
magnetic field. Im
basic moving system, often called the D'Arsonval
movement, is also refered
as the basic meter.
Different instrument forms may be
obtained by starting with the basic
movement and adding various elements, as
1. The basic meter movement follows.
becomes a dc instrument,
() dc current, by adding a shunt
resistance,
measurm
a microamnie
,
milliammeter or an formine
ammeter.
(i) dc voltage, by adding a
multiplier resistance, forming
milli

voltmeter, voltmeter "

or
kilovoltmeter.
 Voltmeters and Multimeters 91
(ii) Resistance, by adding a batlery and resistive network, forming an
ohmmete.
2 The basic meter movement becomes an ac instrument, measuring
i) ac voltage or current, by adding a rectifier, forming a rectifier type
meter for power and audio frequencies.
(ii) RE voltage or eurrent, by acdding a thermocouple-type meter for RF
(i) Expanded scale for power line voltage, by adding a thermistor in a
resistive bridge network, forming an expanded scale (100 140 V)
ac meter for powcr line monitoring.

4.2 BASIC METER AS Ade VOLTMETER

To use the basic meter as a de voltmeter, Explain the use of a basic meter as a
it is necessary to know the amount of voltmeter
Define sensitivity as applied to a votmeter
current required to deflect the basic meter
to full scale. This current is known as full scale deflection current (/fd). For
example, suppose a 50 uA current is required for full scale deflection.
This full scale value will produce a voltmeter with a sensitivity of 20,000 Q per V.
The sensitivity is based on the fact that the full scale current of 50 HA results
whenever 20,000 2 of resistance is present in the meter circuit for each voltage
applied.

Sensitivity =
1/sd= 1/50 uA =
20 kM/V
Hence, a 0-1 mA would have a sensitivity of 1 V/I mA= 1 kS2V or 1000 2.

Example 4.1 Calculate the sensitivity of a 200 uA meter movement which

is to be used as a de voltmeter.

Solution The sensitivity is given by

1 1
S
pa) 200 uA

Therefore S=5 kQ/V

43deVVoLTMETER
A basic D'Arsonval movement can be
converted into a dc voltmeter by adding
a series resistor known as multiplier, as
.Describe the operation of a dc voltmeter
using a PMMC meter
.Design a basic voltmeter as per given data
aosascoswwwww

shown in Fig. 4.1. The function of the

multiplier is to limit the current through the movement so that the current does
measures the potential
Ot exceed the full scale deflection value. A de voltmeter
lference between two points in a dc circuit or a circuit component.
lo measure the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or a cir-
Cuit component, a de voltmeter is always connected across them with the proper

polarity.
 M e a S U r e m e n t s

Instrumentation
and
Electronic

92
ted as follows
Referring
calculated
is
required
The value of the
multiplier
Multiplier to
Fig.4.1. current of
tull scale
deflection
R
the movement (p
movement

resistance
of
R internal
Rn
R,multiplierresistance
f u l l range voltage ofthe
instrument
Fig. 4.1 Basic dc voltmeter
From the circuit of Fig. 4.1
-1, (R, + R,)

R -1R= R
1

ThereforeA, = R
The multiplier limits the current through the movement, so as to not exceed

the valuc of the full scale deflection sd

The above equation is also used to further extend the range in dc voltmeter

Example 4.2 (a) A basic D 'Arsonval movement with a full scale deflection
of 50 uA and internal resistance of 500 S2 is used as a voltmeter: Determine the
value ofthe multiplier resistance needed to measure a voltage range of0-10

Solution Given
10
R Im
-

50
-

500

=
0.2 x
10° - 500 200 k- 500
= 199.5 kQ

Example 4.2 (b) Calculate the value of

multiplier resistance on the >0r
range ofa dc voltmeter that uses a 500
resistance ofl k2 uA meter movement with an interna
Solution
Step 1: The sensitivity of S00 HA meter movement is
S=
given by
1/= 1/500 uA =2 k2/V.
Step 2: The value of the
multiplier resistance can be
calculated by
R,= Sx range R,m -

R, 2 k2/V x 50 V-1 kQ
=100 k2-1 kQ =99
k2
 Voltmeters and Multimeters 93

L44 MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER

ot an ammeter, to obtain a for the
ASsin the case Design a multi range voltmeter
neter, a number of shunts required voltage ranges
multirange
shunt
across the movement with Explain the operation of an Ayrton
connected
a rt Convert a basic D'Arsonval movement into
switch. Similarly, a dc a multi range dc voltmeter for the required
multi-position
voltmeter
can be converted into a voltage ranges
multirange
voltmeterby connecting a
resistors (multiplicers) along
number of
with a range
switch to provide a greater V Ri
workable
ranges.
number of V2
Figure 4.2
shows a multirange voltmeter
switch and three V3 R3 Rm
using a three position
multipliers R. R2, and R, for voltage
values . V2, and V3.
be further modified to Fig
Figure 4.2 can Fig. 4.2 Multirange voltmeter
4.3. which is a more practical arrangement
of the multuplier resistors of multirange
a

voltmeter.
connected in a series string, and the
In this arrangement, the multipliers are
range selector
selects the appropriate amount of resistance required in series with
the movement.

R R2 Ra Ra
W W
V2
V V
Rm

Fig. 4.3 Multipliers connected in series string

This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one, because all
multiplier resistances the first have the standard resistance value and are
except
also easily available in precision tolerances.
The first resistor or low range multiplier, R4, is the only special resistor which
has to be specially manufactured to meet the circuit requirements.

EXample 4.3 AD'Arsonval movement with a full scale deflection current

J 50 uA and internal resistance of 500 2 is to be converted into a multirange

oImeter Determine the value of multiplier required for 0-20 V, 0-50 V and
0-100 V.
Olution Given I = 50 uA and R,, = 500 S2
 MeasuleNA)
Instrumentation and
Electronic

94
20V
Case 1: For range 0
20 500
04x 10°
500400 K 500399.5ko
R R60 x10
50 V.
Case 2: For range 0
5001000 K 500 - 999.5 k
50 500-I x 10
, 50x 10

Case 3: For range (0 100 V.

100 500 2 x 10500- 2000

K
- 500 =1999.5 ko
R
-

50x 10

AD'Arsoval movement
witha full scale deflection current
Example 4.4 converted into a multiranae
of 10 mA and internal
resistamce of500 2 is to be
voltmeter Determine the value ofmultiplier
required for 0-20 V, 0-50 V and
0-100

10 mA and R
=
500 S2
Solution Given /=
Case 1: For range 0-20V,
20 1.5 kQ
500 =2x 10- 500 =
2000-S00 =

R 10x10
Case 2: Forrange 0 -50V,
50
R-R 10x10
.-500 5 x 10-500 5000 500= 4.5 kQ

Case 3: For range 0- 100V,

--R10103-500
Rm10x 10
100
R, = 10x 10-500 = 10K-500 9.5 kQ

Example 4.5 Convert a basic D'Arsonval movement with an

internal
resistance of 100 2 and a full scale
deftection of 10 mA into a multirange dc
voltmeter with ranges from 0-5 V, 0-50
Vand0-100 V
Solution Given /,,= 10 mA,
R,,= 1009
Step 1: For a5V(V3), the total circuit resistance R1 R2 R3
1S W W-
W
5
= 0.5 kQ V3
10 mA
Rm
Therefore, R=R,-R=500 2- 100 2
= 400 2
Fig. 4.3 (a)
 Voltmeters and Multimeters 95

2: Fora.50 V (V,) position,

Siep
50
=5k2
RI (ud 10 mA
RR,(R, +R,)=5 kS2 (400 2 + 100 2 )
Therefore,
5 k2 500 - 4 . 5 K2

Step 3: For a 100 V range (V) position,

V 100
= 10 k2
R,= 10 mA
R= R,- (R2 + R, + R,) = 10 k2-(4.5 kQ + 400 2+ 100 2)
Therefore,
= 10 k2 - 5 Q=5 k2

Hence, it can be seen that R3 has a non-standard value.

Example4.6 Convert a basic D'Arsonval movement with an interna

resistance of 50 2and a full scale deflection current of 2 mA into a multirange
dc voltmeter with voltage ranges of 0 -

10 KO-50 V, 0- 100 Vand 0 -

250
V. Refer to Fig. 4.3.

For a 10 V range (V4 position of switch), the total circuit resistance is

Solution
T2mA
10 3 k

Therefore R4R-R,, =
5 k- 50 =
4950 2.
For 50 V range (V position of switch), the total circuit resistance is
50
= 2 5 kQ
sd 2mA

Therefore RR-R4+ R,)=25 k-(4950 +50) 2 5 k- 5 k

R 20 kQ
For 100 V range (V2 position of switch), the total circuit resistance is

R pd 10050
2mA kQ
Therefore, R2 R,-(R, + R, + R
=
50 k-(20 k+4950+50)
R, =
50 k-25 k= 25 k2
For 250 V range, (V, position of switch), the total circuit resistance is

I
V250=125
2mA
kQ
 96
4 9 5 0 ) I0 )
Theretore (25kI 20k I
25k

) k
125 k

75 k iIN 1 1he1)-4l rd
nulupic)

imnge
the resistanee R, (low
Only
RANGES
VOLTMETER
EXTENDING

4.5 Underetand how

Undorstand how a voltrmetør
v o l m e t e r can
be extended range Carn be
The range ofa oxlondod
using a high
to high voltages, by
measure
exler1nal
an
o r by using
voltage probe 4.4. In
shown in Fig. W
multiplherresistor, a s
is used Meter Set
most meters, the basic
movement
to
Extørnal
Values lor Multiplier
on the lowest current range. Lowest
using the
can be determined Current
multipliers
procedure of Section 4.4 Range
movement can be used
The basic meter
to measure very low voltages. However, Fig. 4.4 Extending voltage range
exceed the
great care must be used not to
voltage drop requiredfor full scale deflection of the basic movement.
Sensitivity The sensitivity or Ohms per Volt rating ofa voltmeter is the ratio
of the total circuit resistance R, to the voltage range. Sensitivity is essentially the
reciprocal of the full scale deflection current of the basic movement. Therefore.
S= 1/pa .
The sensitivity 'S' of the voltmeter has the
advantage that it can be used to
calculate the value of multiplier resistors in a dc voltmeter. As
R,=total circuit resistance [R,= R, + Rm]
S sensitivity of
voltmeter in ohms per volt
V= voltage range as set
by range switch
R-internal resistance of the movement
Since R,= R, - R, and R, SxV =

R, =(Sx V)-R

Example
Example 4.7
4.7
Calculate the value
range of a dc of
voltmeter, that uses a 200
the
multiplier resistance
ice on
on the 501
resistance of 100 2 uA meter movement with mal
an interna

Solution As R,= Sx Range -

The internal
sensitivity of the meter resistance, and S= 1//fsd*
S= movement is
1/d 1/200 LA =5
kQ/V.
 97
Voltmeters and Multimeters

R, is caleulated as
value
of multiplier
The internal resistance = Sx V- R
RSxRange
5kx 50 100
250 k 100

249.9 k2

resistance for the multiple

Example Calculate the vahue of multiplier
rample 4.8
4.8 in Fig. 4.5 (a).
Itmeterecircuit shown
de
range

the meter movement is given as follows:

Solution
The sensitivity of
20 k2/V
S=1/d= 1/50 uA RR
=

fsd 50 uA
be Rm 1 k2
of the multiplier resistance
can
The value
calculated as follows:
5 V 050 V
V range,
For 5
R=Sx V-R,
20 kx 5- 1k Fig. 4.5 (a)
=100 k- 1k=99 kQ

For 10 V range,
R=Sx V-R,
2 0 kx 10-1k
= 200 k-1 k= 199 k2

For 50 V range,
RSx V-R
= 20 kx 50- 1k
= 1000 k 1k=999 kQ

the multirange
Example4.9 Calculate the value ofmultiplier resistancefor
de voltmeter as shown in Fig 4.5(b).

Solution
meter
Step 1: The sensitivity of 50 uA Rs fsd 50 uA
movement is given by Rs1 R Rm 1k
S=1/ =
1/50 uA =20 k/v. 10 V30 V
The value of the multiplier resistance can be 3v
calculated by O
Siep 2: The value of the multiplier for 3 V range
R = S x range - R,m
Fig. 4.5 (b)

R 2 0 kQ/V x 3V-1k2
= 60 kQ-1 kQ= 59 k2.
 M e a s u r e m e n t s

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
and
Electronic

98

multiplier
resistance
10
for 10| V range can
calculated by
Step 3: The value of thei
R , S x range -R k2
kQ./Vx
10 V - 1
20
R,
=

1 k2
=
199k2.
200 k 2 - be
multiplier
resistance
for 30V range can
ulated by
calculas.

Step 4: The value of the

R
R Sx rangex 30 V - 1 k2
-

20 k2/V
R k Q - 1 k2
599 k2 =

600

instrument
full scale deflection 20
gives a

Example 4.10 4 moving coil t e r m i n a l s is 100 mV. Calcul

ate
a c r o s s its

mA when the potential

difference
corresponding of 50 A.
scale deflection
(a) Shunt resistance for full
a
with 500 V. Also calculate the t
scale reading
(b) The series resistamcefor a full
power dissipation in each case.

=
100 mV
meter current, 1,, =
20 mA and voltage
Solution Given

100m 5Q
Step 1: Meter resistance, 20 mA
Step 2: Shunt resistance is given by
100 mA
20mA x52 .002 Q2
Rsh1-m
sh -I

Step 3: Voltage Multiplier

50000 mA - 20 mA 49980 mnA

RRh 10-5 Q
20 mA - 5Q
R.m 25x

=
24995 Q = 25 kQ
Power =500 x 20 mA=10W

4.6t.6 LOADING
When selecting a meter for a certain
Define loading effect
voltage measurement, it is important to
Understand the effect of loading
consider the sensitivity of a dc voltmeter. Calculate the percentage error due to loading
A low sensitivity meter may give a correct effect
reading when measuring voltages in a low resistance circuit, but it tain

produce unreliable readings

to produce in
is
ce
a
high
resistance circuit. A voltmeter,a
connected across two points in a highly resistive for that
portion of the circuit, reducing the total circuits, acts as a shunt
shunt a

equivalent resistance of that pored

as

in
shown Fig. 4.6. The meter then
before the meter was connected. Thisindicates a lower
reading than what c

loading effect of an insuu ent

is called the
and is caused mainly by low
Sensitivity instruments.
 Voltmeters and Multimeters 99

Example4.1 Figure 4.6 shows a

simple series circuit of R, and R,
to a 100 V de source. 1f the 10 k R
connected

voltage across R, is to be measured by 100 V

volmeters having

a) a sensitivity of 1000 NV, and 10kR2

bia sensitivity of20,000 2/V fnd
Voltmeter
which
the accurate value of
oltmeter will read
oltage across R,
Both the meters are Fig. 4.6 Example on loading effect
used on the 50 Vrange.
Inspection of the circuit indicates that the voltage across the R2
Solution

resistanceis
10k x 100 V = 50 V

10k+10k
This is the true voltage across R.
Case 1
a voltmeter having a sensitivity
of 1000 2/V.
Using
It has a resistance of 1000 x 50 = 50 kS2 on its 50 V range.

Connecting the meter across R, causes an equivalent parallel

resistance given
by 10kx50k 500 M8.33 k
10k+50k 60 k
Now, the voltage across the total combination is given by

Re4 V
VR+R 8.33 k V
100 V =45.43
10k+8.33 k

V.
Hence, this voltmeter indicates 45.43
Case 2
it has a resistance
Using a voltmeter having a sensitivity of 20,000 2/V. Therefore,
of
20,000x 50 1000 k =1 MQ
R, produces an equivalent parallel
This voltmeter when connected across

resistance given by
10kx1M_ 10k99 k
Rea 10k+1M 1.01 M 1.01

combination is given by
Now, the voltage across the total
9.9k x100 V =49.74 V
10k+9.9k
 E l e c t r o n C n s t r u n N e n t a t o

100 V.
will red49.74 voltmeter should
volt be used t
sensitivity
voltmete
Hence. this a high
that
shows
This exannple
accurate readings. Ised o
are
volmeters
ditenm 4.7.
4.12 of Fig.
Cxample
easure the volage
io
amss R, in the
cinuit

V 30 V Ra25
follows.
The meters an as
02K, ramge 10
e e r 1:S

S
- / ks21

=20 kS2 1, R,
R
=

1.5k. range
10V

meter
RM
er 2 without any
aoss R, 1 is
alculate (i) voitage the meter
Fig. 4.7
aross it. (i) voltage
acoss R, when 2 is used,
meter
when the
Hsed (i) voltage acrvss R,
and fi) error in the volimeters.

the resIstance Kb» Without eitha

Solution i) The voltage
across
divider formula. meter
connected. is calculated using the voltage
5k -x 30=
30 =-
150K5V
=5V
Therefore.
VR,25k+5k
kX 30 k

sensitivity S= 1 k2/V
(11) Starting with meter 1, having to the circuit is
Therefore, the total resistance it presents
k2/Wx 10 10 kQ =

range 1
=

RSx
The total resistance across R, is, R, in parallel with meter resistane

R
RR,R,xR5kxl03.33
+R5k+10k k2
Therefore, the voltage reading obtained with meter I using the voltage
divider equation is
3.33 k
VR, q-xV=-333
Rg+Ra
xV =23k+25 k x30 =3.53 V
(ii) The total resistance that meter 2
presents to the circuit is
Rm=Sxrange =
20 kQ/V x 10 V =
200 kQ
The parallel combination of R, and meter 2
gives
R,
XR5kx200 k 1000 k x1k _4 88 kS
R,+ R 5k+200 k 205 k
Therefore, the voltage
divider equation is reading obtained with meter2,2, using the voltas
u
VR 488 k
25k+4.88 k 30 4.88 k
29.88 kx 30
S0 4.9 V
 Voltmeters and imeters
101
i The error in the reading of the voltmeter is given as
Actual voltage - Voltage
% Error = reading observed in meter100
Actual voltage

voltmeter l error- 5V-3.33 Vx 100% =33.4%

SV

voltmeter 2 error = 5V-4.9 V100%

Similarly. 5V
x 100% =-2%

Example 4.13 Find the voltage reading and %

error of each reading obtained witha volmeter on (i) R45ka
5Vrange. (i) 10 V range, and (iii) 30 V range,if the V 50 V
instrument has a 20 kS2V sensitivity and is connected
R5 ka
acoss R, of Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8

Solution The voltage drop across R, without the

voltmeter connected is calculated using the voltage equation
VR,=
VRR4 Rp
xV 4 5 k+5k
k -x 50 =
50x5K5V
50 k _5v

On the 5V range,
RSx range =
20 k2 x 5 V= 100 k2

R xR_ 100 kx5k 500k kS2

Rea R+R 100 k+5k 105 k

The voltmeter reading is

4.76 k
egxV x 50= 4.782 V
VRR+
R, Req
-
45 k +4.76 k

The % error on the 5 V range is

Actual voltage Voltage reading in meter

-

% Error
Actual voltage

5V-4.782 Vx 100= 0.217x100=

V =4.34%
SV 5V
On 10 V
range,
20 k2/Vx 10V= 200 kQ
R= Sxrange
=

R x R200 k x 5K 487 k2

R+ +R 200k +55k
 M e a s u r e m e n t s

and
Instrumentation

Electronic

102
1s
The voltmeter reading
4.87 k x 50 4.88V
x=-481k+45 k
VR,R+R 5V-4.88 V
x 100 2.34%
the 10 V range 5V
The % error on

On 30 V range,
30 V= 600 k
20 k2/Vx
R S xrange
=

600 k x5k_3000 kxlk 4.95 k

R
R
R,xR
+R, 600k +5k 605 k

1s
The voltmeterreading on the 30V range
4.95 k 50=4.95 V
VR, = -xV=-45 k+4.95 kx
R+R
The % error on the 30 V range is

5V-4.95V 100=
5V
0.0100=1%
In the above example, the 30 V range introduces the least error due to loading
However, the voltage being measured causes only a 10% full scale deflection,
whereas on the 10 V range the applied voltage causes apprOximately a one third
ofthe full scale deflection with less than 3% error.

Example 4.14 A current meter that has an internal resistance of 100 2 is

used to measure the current through resistor in
the
R, Fig 4.9(b). Determine the
percentage of reading due to ammeter loading.

Solution
Step 1: The current meter will be connected
Fig 4.9 (a). in to the circuit as shown
1 k2
NW- R1 1 kQ
3V R 3 v V M

R2
R1 kQ 3v
K
1= 1 kQ
R2
= 1 kQ
SR1 k

(a)

Y
(b)
Fig. 4.9
 meters
103
Looking back into terminals x and y and usin Thevinin's equivalent
resistance.

R, =R+ R,R,x+ R,R -1klkxlk =1.5 kS

Ik
Cn2: The ratio of the meter current to the expected current is

R
IR +R
1.5 k2
1.5
Therefore,
m.5 k2+100 Q 1.6k=0.938
Therefore, 1=0.938 xI

The current through the meter is 93.8% of the expected current, therefore the
meter current caused a 6.2% error due to effects of loading.

| 4.7 TRANSISTORVOLTMETER (TVM)

Direct coupled amplifiers are economical
and hence used widely in general purpose Explain the working of a Transistor
Voltmeter
vOter((TVM)
low priced VTVM's. Figure 4.10 gives a
simplified schematic diagram of a dc coupled amplifier with an indicating meter.
The dc input is applied to a range attenuator to provide input voltage levels
which can be accommodated by the de amplifier. The input stage of the amplifier
consists of a FET which provides high input impedance to effectively isolate the
meter circuit from the circuit under measurement. The input impedance of a FET
IS greater than 10 M2. The bridge is balanced, so that for zero input, the dial
indicates zero.
The two transistors, Q, and 0,, form a dc coupled amplifier driving the meter
movement. Within the dynamic range of the amplifier, the meter defiection is
proportional to the magnitude of the applied input voltage. The input overload
does not burn the meter because the amplifier saturates, limiting the maximum
Current through the meter. The gain of the de amplifier allows the instrument
t0 be used for measurement of voltages in the mV range. Instruments in the
V range of measurement require a high gain dc amplifier to supply sufficient
of
for
curent driving the meter movement. In order to avoid the drift problems
used in high sensitivity
amplihers, chopper type de amplifiers are commonly
voltmeters.