Unit 11 : Sound Waves

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 11.1The propagation of Sound Waves
⚪ Sound waves are mechanical and longitudinal wave.
⚪ It cannot show the effect of polarization.
⚪ The sound waves travel because of the compression and rarefaction
series of the medium.
⚪ The compression and rarefaction series occur because of the type of
disturbance source for example tuning fork (its prong swinging to the left
and right)
⚪ The distance between the two centre of the compressions (rarefactions)
represent the value of wavelength(λ).
⚪ There are two types of sound waves,
● Progressive sound waves
● Stationary sound waves
⚪ The speed of sound does not depend on the pressure and density of the
air but its value depend on the temperature of the air. Therefore

where

⚪ Consider a tuning fork that is vibrating in air as shown in figure.

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(a)

(b)

(c)

-A

P(pressure)
Pm

P’

(d) P0

SF017 -Pm 3
 where

Explaination of the figure

⚪ Figure (a) and (b)
● When the vibrating right arm (prong) of the fork swinging to the right,
it compresses slightly a small volume of air that is contact with it.
● A short time later, the right arm (prong) starts to swing to the left, it
drags the air that is contact with it slight to the left. It causing the
small volume of air expand slightly and rarefying the air there.
● As the right arm vibrates to-and-fro non-stop, the air in contact with
it is subject to continual compression and rarefaction.

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 ⚪ Figure (c)
● The figure shows the displacement of the air particles at
particular time,t .
● At the region of maximum compression and rarefaction, the
particle is not vibrate at all where the displacement of that
particle is zero.
⚪ Figure (d)
● Compression region
⚪ The particles are closest together hence the pressure at that
region greater than the atmospheric pressure (P0).
● Rarefaction region
⚪ The particles are furthest apart hence the pressure at that
region less than the atmospheric pressure (P0).
⚪ From the figure (c) and (d), the phase difference is given by

Hence
the equation for figure (c) is given by

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 the equation for figure (d) is given by

or

where

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 11.4 Beat
⚪ Definition – is defined as the periodic variation in amplitude of sound
at a given point due to superposition of two sound
waves having slightly different frequencies.
⚪ This phenomenon occurs because
● the frequencies of both sound waves slightly different.
● the phase difference change over time.
⚪ When beat are occurred, a listener will hear a periodic rises and falls
in loudness (intensity) of the sound wave. (csw.CD7.2.10.8.pg6T8)
⚪ Consider two sound waves of equal amplitude travelling through a
medium with slightly different frequencies f1 and f2. The wave
functions for these two waves at a point x = 0 are given below.

Hence the phase difference,

and

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 ⚪ To see how beat arise, consider two equal amplitude sound waves
y of frequency f1 and f2, respectively as shown in figure below.

(1)
0 t
y
(2)
0 t

Beat period (T)

A C

(3)
0 t
B D

Beat period (T)

A,C : Constructive interference
Animati
SF017 B,D : Destructive interference on 8
 ⚪ At point A and C, the two waves are shown to be in phase and
interfere constructively where the amplitude of the resultant wave is
maximum (increases in loudness of the sound).
⚪ At point B and D, the two waves are shown to be anti-phase and
interfere destructively where the amplitude of the resultant wave is
minimum (decreases in loudness of the sound).
⚪ Therefore the phenomenon of the increases and decreases in
loudness are periodic and is called beat.
⚪ The equation of the beat frequency is given by

where

or

⚪ If the beat frequency, fbeat = 3 Hz means that a listener would hear 3

beats in one second.

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 ⚪ Example 1:
Two sound waves with wavelengths 3.00 m and 2.50 m undergo
superposition. If both of the waves have the same speed of 330 m s-1.
Calculate a number of beats is produced in one second.
Solution: λ1= 1.20 m, λ2= 2.50 m and v = 330 m s-1
By applying the equation of wave speed,

then

The beat frequency is given by

Therefore the number of beats produce in one second is 22

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 ⚪ Example 2:
Two tuning forks A and B make 3 beats per second when sounded
together. If the frequency of tuning fork A is 515 Hz, find the possible
values of the frequency for tuning fork B.
Solution: f = 3 Hz, fA= 515 Hz
beat
By applying the equation of beat frequency,

⚪ Note :
The actual frequency of tuning fork B can be determined by using two
methods :
1. Put a little wax to the tuning fork B
● Its frequency will decrease because the mass of the tuning fork B
increase.
● Find the new beat frequency, fbeat by referring to the fixed fA

fbeat = 3 Hz fbeat = 3 Hz
fB fA fB
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512 Hz 515 Hz 518 Hz
 ● Because f is decreases hence the possible values will move to
B
the left as shown in figure (slide 11).
● If the new fbeat is increases hence the fB = 512 Hz
●If the new fbeat is decreases hence the fB = 518 Hz
2. Remove a little pieces of tuning fork B
● Its frequency will increase because the mass of the tuning fork B
decrease.
● Find the new beat frequency, fbeat by referring to the fixed fA
fbeat = 3 Hz fbeat = 3 Hz
fB fA fB
512 Hz 515 Hz 518 Hz
● Because fB increase hence the possible values will move to the
right as shown in figure above.
● If the new fbeat increase hence the fB = 518 Hz
● If the new fbeat decrease hence the fB = 512 Hz
⚪ Example 3: (exercise)
A tuning fork of unknown frequency makes three beats per second with a
standard fork of frequency 384 Hz. The beat frequency decreases when
a small piece of wax is put on a prong of the first fork. Find the frequency
SF017 of this fork. (HRW.424.43) Ans. : 387 Hz 12
 11.2 Stationary Wave - Wave on a
stretched string
11.2.1 Wave speed on the string
⚪ The equation of the wave speed on the string is given by

where

⚪ Its value depends on

● the tension in the string, T
● the mass per unit length of the string, μ
⚪ The S.I. unit for
● T : newton (N)
● μ : kg m-1
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 ⚪ The value of μ is obtained by using two method:
a. If the length of the string is l and its mass, m hence

b. If the radius of the string is r and its density, ρ hence

where

or

11.2.2 Vibrational modes in a string fixed at both ends.

⚪ When a string is
Incident wave plucked, a progressive
transverse wave is
Reflected wave produced in the string.

⚪ This wave is travelling to the both fixed ends (incident wave) and
reflected (reflected wave) as shown in figure above.
⚪ The superposition of both waves making stationary transverse wave
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and the simplest pattern of the stationary wave on the string is 14
shown in figure below.
 ⚪ From the figure above, both ends of the string as a node (N) and the
centre of the string as a antinode (A).
⚪ The string forms one segment (loop) and the pattern of this vibration is
called fundamental mode (first harmonic mode).
⚪ The frequency of fundamental mode is called fundamental frequency (f0).
⚪ The stationary wave on the string forced the air vibrates and produces a
sound wave in the air.
⚪ If the string vibrating in fundamental mode hence the sound wave
produced in fundamental tone. Therefore

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 11.2.3 Harmonic series in a string fixed at both ends.
Mode Figure Wavelength Frequency

Fundamental and

1st overtone

2nd overtone

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 ⚪ In General,

or

where
⚪ Note :
● All harmonics are allowed in vibrational mode of a string fixed at
both ends.
● The expression above valid if the length of the string is constant.
● Examples of vibrational modes in a string fixed at both ends for
musical instruments are piano, violin and guitar.
⚪ Example 4:
A piano tuner stretches a steel piano wire with a tension of 800 N.
The steel wire is 0.400 m long and has a mass of 3.00 g. Find
a. the frequency of its fundamental mode of vibration.
b. the number of the highest harmonic that could be heard by a
person who is capable of hearing frequencies up to 10,000 Hz.
No. 15.36, pg. 585, University Physics with Modern Physics,11th edition,
Young & Freedman.

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 Solution: T = 800 N, l =0.400 m and m = 3.00 x 10-3 kg
By applying the equation of mass per unit length,

a. The fundamental frequency,

b. By using the equation of harmonic,

and

therefore the highest harmonic is

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 11.2.4 Stationary Waves-Wave in an air column
11.2.4 Closed Pipe (air column with one end closed)

Reflected wave Incident wave

⚪ If the air in a pipe that is closed at one end is disturbed by a source

of sound (e.g. tuning fork), a progressive longitudinal wave travels
along the air column and is reflected at its end to form a stationary
longitudinal wave.
⚪ The simplest pattern of the stationary wave was produced have the
node at the closed end while the antinode is at the open end as
shown in figure below.
N A
where

⚪ When the frequency of the tuning fork coincides with the

fundamental frequency, f0 of the air column, resonance takes place.
⚪ A sound of high intensity is produced at this frequency.
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⚪ Table below shows the harmonic series in an air column with one end closed
(closed pipe).
Mode Figure Wavelength Frequency
N A
where
Fundamental

N A N A

1st overtone

N A N A N A

2nd overtone

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 ⚪ In General,

or

where
⚪ Note :
● Only odd harmonics are allowed in vibrational modes of an air
column in closed pipe.
● Examples of vibrational modes an air column in closed pipe for
musical instruments are flute and recorder.
11.2.5 Open Pipe (air column with both ends open)

⚪ If the air in a open pipe (both ends are open) is disturbed by a

source of sound (e.g. tuning fork) as shown in figure above, a
progressive longitudinal wave travels along the air column.
⚪ This wave will superposition with another progressive longitudinal
wave produced by the air outside the pipe and form a stationary
longitudinal wave.
⚪ The simplest pattern of the stationary wave was produced have the
antinode at the both open ends while the node is at the middle of the
pipe.
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⚪ Table below shows the harmonic series in an air column with both ends open
(open pipe).
Mode Figure Wavelength Frequency
A N A
where
Fundamental

A N A N A

1st overtone

A N A N A N A

2nd overtone

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 ⚪ In General,

or

where
⚪ Note :
● All harmonics are allowed in vibrational modes of an air column in
open pipe.
● Example of vibrational modes an air column in open pipe for
musical instruments is clarinet.
11.2.6 End correction, c
⚪ Definition – is defined as the distance from the antinode in stationary
wave to the open end of a pipe.
⚪ It occurs because the antinode does not form exactly at the open end
of the pipe.
⚪ Closed pipe

N A

c
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 After considering the end correction, the general equation of the
frequencies for closed pipe is given by

where

⚪ Open pipe

A N A

c c
After considering the end correction, the general equation of the
frequencies for open pipe is given by

where

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 ⚪ Example 5:
A tuning fork is set into vibration above a vertical open tube filled with
water as shown in figure below.
The water level is allowed to drop slowly. As it does
so, the air in the tube above the water level is heard
to resonate with the tuning fork when the distance
from the tube opening to the water level is 0.125 m
and again at 0.395 m. Find the frequency of the
tuning fork. Ignore end correction.
(Use the speed of sound, v = 343 m s-1) (GSC.443.86)
Solution: l1 = 0.125 m , l2 =0.395 m
The distance, l1 is the first distance of the air in the tube resonate with the
tuning fork at fundamental mode. Hence the next distance, l2 is refer to the
first overtone mode.
and

By applying the equation of wave speed,

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Fundamental mode 1st overtone
 ⚪ Example 6:
Find the fundamental frequency and the frequency of the first three
overtone of a pipe 45.0 cm long
a. if the pipe is open both end,
b. if the pipe is closed at one end.
c. For each of the above cases, find the number of the highest
harmonic that may be heard by a person who can hear frequencies
from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
(Use v = 344 m s-1)
No. 16.26, pg. 635, University Physics with Modern Physics,11th
edition, Young & Freedman.
Solution: l = 0.45 m
a. By applying the general equation of frequency for the open pipe,

or and
Fundamental frequency, n = 1

First three overtone, n = 2,3 and 4

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 b. By applying the general equation of frequency for the closed pipe,

or and

Fundamental frequency, n = 1

First three overtone, n = 3,5 and 7

c. The number of the highest harmonic of the open pipe,

and

The number of the highest harmonic of the closed pipe,

and

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 ⚪ Example 7:
A tube 1.20 m long is closed at one end. A stretched wire is placed
near the open end. The wire is 0.330 m long and has a mass of
9.60 g. It is fixed at both ends and oscillates in its fundamental mode.
By resonance, it sets the air column in the tube into oscillation at that
column’s fundamental frequency. Find
a. that frequency and
b. the tension in the wire. (HRW.423.38)
(Use the speed of sound, v = 344 m s-1)
Solution: lt= 1.20 m, lw= 0.330 m and m = 9.60 x 10-3 kg
a. The fundamental frequency of closed tube,

b. When resonance is occurred,

and

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 11.5 Properties of Sound Waves
11.5.1 Pitch
⚪ Definition – is defined as the property of sound that characterizes
highness or lowness of the tone to an observer.
⚪ It varies with the frequency of the sound waves by using the
relationship below.

⚪ From the equation of wave speed,

● The speed of sound (wave) is constant i.e. 340 m s-1 in the same
medium.
● If the pitch increases hence the frequency also increases but the
wavelength will decreases.
a. Lowest pitch – can be heard by the human ears.
The frequency is f =20 Hz.

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 b. Highest pitch – can be heard by the human ears.
The frequency is f =20,000 Hz.

11.5.2 Fundamental frequency (f0)

⚪ Definition – is defined as the lowest frequency emits by the musical
instruments at particular tone.
⚪ The tone with fundamental frequency is called fundamental tone
(mode).

11.5.3 Overtones
⚪ Definition – is defined as the other tones upper than the fundamental
tone (mode) emits by the musical instruments.
⚪ The overtone after the fundamental tone (mode) is called first
overtone.

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 11.5.4 Harmonics
⚪ Definition – is defined as the frequencies, which are multiples of
fundamental frequency of a vibrating system or

where

⚪ It exists in two types i.e

i. All harmonics
ii. Odd harmonics

⚪ All harmonics

Harmonic Frequency Overtone

First (n=1) Fundamental mode
Second (n=2) First overtone
Third (n=3) Second overtone

Fourth (n=4) Third overtone

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 ⚪ Odd harmonics

Harmonic Frequency Overtone

First (n=1) Fundamental mode
Third (n=3) First overtone
Fifth (n=5) Second overtone
Seventh (n=7) Third overtone

11.5.5 Octave
⚪ Definition – is defined as the pitch of a tone where its frequency
is twice times the frequency of another tone.
⚪ For example,
● Tone A is octave of the tone B, If the frequency of tone B is 50
Hz hence the frequency of tone A is 100 Hz.

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 11.3 Intensity of Sound
⚪ Definition – is defined as the rate of energy flow across unit area
perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation
i.e.
or

where

⚪ The unit of intensity is W m-2.

⚪ The factors influence the value of intensity are
● Amplitude of the sound i.e.

where
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 ● The distance from the source of sound i.e.

where
Therefore

⚪ A wave flows out from the source in all directions, hence it is a

three-dimensional wave and is said to be a spherical wave as shown
in figure below.
⚪ Consider two points at distances r1 and r2
from the source ( power, P is constant),
then
and

so

⚪ Therefore

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 ⚪ The graphs below show the variation of intensity of sound.
(a) I (b) I

(c) I (d) I

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 ⚪ Example 8:
A fundamental tone of a sound has a frequency of 300 Hz.
Determine the frequency of
i. the first harmonic,
ii. the third harmonic,
iii. the first overtone and
iv. the second overtone.
for a. all harmonics exist.
b. odd harmonics exist.
Solution: f0 = 300 Hz
Applying the equation of harmonics,

a. All harmonics (n = 1,2,3,…)

(i) First harmonics, n =1

(ii) Third harmonics, n =3

(iii) First overtone, n =2

(iv) Second overtone, n =3

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 b. Odd harmonics (n = 1,3,5,…)
(i) First harmonics, n =1

(ii) Third harmonics, n =3

(iii) First overtone, n =3

(iv) Second overtone, n =5

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 Example 9:
A loudspeaker radiates sound waves uniformly in all directions. At a
distance 3 m the intensity of the sound is 0.4 W m-2. Find the power of
loudspeaker and the intensity of sound at distance 5 m from the
source.
-2
Solution: r1= 3 m, I1 = 0.4 W m and r2 = 5 m
By applying the equation of intensity of sound wave,

and

The intensity of sound wave at distance, 5 m

or

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 11.5 Doppler Effect
⚪ Definition – is defined as the change in the apparent (observed )
frequency of a wave as a result of relative motion between
the source and the observer.
11.5.1 Stationary source and observer
⚪ Any source of sound emits sound waves to all direction with the same
speed and produces spherical wavefront as shown in figure below.
The distance between two adjacent
wavefronts equals the wavelength of the sound
waves,λ.

where

⚪ Because the source and the

observer are stationary hence

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 11.5.2 Moving source and stationary observer
⚪ Figure below shows the wavefronts if the source moves while the
observer is stationary.
where

⚪ From the figure above, the wavefronts get squeezed (crowded)

together in front of the source and spread (stretched) out behind it.
Thus

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 ⚪ The wavelength in front the moving source, λF is given by

⚪ The wavelength behind the moving source, λ is given by

B

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 11.5.3 Formula of the apparent frequency
⚪ In general, the formula of the apparent (observed) frequency is given
by

where

Moving source and stationary observer(vO=0)

a. A source moves towards the stationary observer.

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 b. A source moves away from the stationary observer.

Moving observer and stationary source(v =0)

S
a. An observer moves towards the stationary source.

b. An observer moves away from the stationary source.

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 c. The rules of using the general formula for Doppler effect.
RULES
If vS and vO in the same direction with v (speed of sound)
→(-)
If vS and vO opposite direction with v (speed of sound) → (+)

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 11.5.4 The variation of apparent frequency and intensity of sound when a
source moves towards, passes through and moves away from the
stationary observer.
⚪ Apparent frequency
● When the source moves towards the observer, the apparent frequency
heard by the observer is greater than the source (true) frequency and
its value is constant.
● This value is change when the source passes through the observer where
the apparent frequency, fO is equal to the source frequency, fS.
● When the source moves away from the observer, the apparent frequency
is less than the source frequency and its value is constant.
● The graph below shows the variation of apparent frequency with the
distance between the source and observer.

Moves toward

Moves away

Stationary Observer
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 ⚪ Intensity of sound
● From the relationship between intensity, I and the distance of
source from the observer, r

● When the source moves towards the observer :

⚪ r is decreasing but I will increase hence the loudness is
increasing.
● When the source moves away from the observer :
⚪ r is increasing but I will decrease hence the loudness is
decreasing.

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 ⚪ Example 10:

Wall T

Figure above shows O is a stationary observer. Source S moves away

from the observer O towards the wall T with a speed of 20 m s-1. The
frequency of the source is 100 Hz. Determine
a. the wavelength in front and behind the source if there is no wall T.
b. the apparent frequency heard by the observer O directly from the
source.
c. the apparent frequency heard by the observer O caused by the
reflection on the wall T.
d. the beat frequency detected by the observer O due to the sound
heard directly from the source S and the sound reflected on the wall T.
(Use the speed of sound is 340 m s-1)

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 Solution: vS = 20 m s-1, vO = 0, fS = 100 Hz

a. The wavelength in front the moving source, λ

F

The wavelength behind the moving source, λB

b. By applying the general formula of Doppler effect,

or

then

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 c.
Wall T

When the sound wave hits the wall, the apparent frequency received by
the wall is

or

Thus the frequency of the reflected sound is 106 Hz.

Wall T
(Source)

When the reflected wave reaches the stationary observer, the wall
becomes the stationary source. Thus

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 d. By applying the equation of beat frequency,

⚪ Example 11: (exercise)

An observer is moving between two similar sources of sound along the
line joining the two sources. The observer hears beats of frequency
4.0 Hz. If the frequency of each source is 500 Hz and the speed of
sound is 340 m s-1. Find the speed of the observer. (PLY&SN.312.4)
Ans. : 1.36 m s-1

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