Anthropology

A Global Perspective
Ninth Edition

Raymond Scupin
Lindenwood University

Christopher R. DeCorse
Syracuse University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Scupin, Raymond, author. | DeCorse, Christopher R., author.
Title: Anthropology : a global perspective / Raymond Scupin,
Lindenwood University, Christopher DeCorse, Syracuse University.
Description: Ninth edition. | Los Angeles : SAGE, [2021] | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019043430 | ISBN 9781544363165 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781544363172 (epub) | ISBN 9781544363196 (epub) | ISBN
9781544363189 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Anthropology.
Classification: LCC GN25 .S39 2021 | DDC 301—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019043430
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
20 21 22 23 24 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 BRIEF CONTENTS

Preface xviii

Acknowledgments xxii

About the Authors xxiv

PART I • BASIC CONCEPTS IN ANTHROPOLOGY

Chapter 1 • Introduction to Anthropology 1
Chapter 2 • The Record of the Past 19
Chapter 3 • Evolution 42

PART II • BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Chapter 4 • The Primates 65
Chapter 5 • Hominin Evolution 87
Chapter 6 • Human Variation 115

PART III • ARCHAEOLOGY

Chapter 7 • The Paleolithic 137
Chapter 8 • The Origins of Domestication and Settled Life 161
Chapter 9 • The Rise of the State and Complex Society 189

PART IV • BASIC CONCEPTS OF CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Chapter 10 • Culture 216
Chapter 11 • The Process of Enculturation: Psychological and Cognitive
Anthropology 232
Chapter 12 • Language 255
Chapter 13 • Anthropological Explanations 278
Chapter 14 • Analyzing Sociocultural Systems 296

PART V • STUDYING DIFFERENT SOCIETIES

Chapter 15 • Environment, Subsistence, and Demography 313
Chapter 16 • Technology and Economics 335
Chapter 17 • Social Structure, the Family, Marriage, and Age 362
Chapter 18 • Gender and Sexuality 395
Chapter 19 • Politics, Warfare, and Law 421
Chapter 20 • Religion and Aesthetics 443

PART VI • CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBALIZATION

Chapter 21 • Globalization, Culture, and Indigenous Societies 468
Chapter 22 • Globalization, Colonialism, and Postcolonialism 496
Chapter 23 • Ethnicity 532
Chapter 24 • Applied Anthropology 555

Glossary 587

References 596

Index 642
 DETAILED CONTENTS

Preface xviii Dendrochronology 36

Radioactive Decay and Carbon-14 Dating 37
Acknowledgments xxii
Potassium-Argon and Fission-Track Dating 38
About the Authors xxiv Thermoluminescence Dating 38
Interpreting the Past 39
PART I • BASIC CONCEPTS IN Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 39
ANTHROPOLOGY Key Terms 41
Chapter 1 • Introduction to Anthropology 1 Chapter 3 • Evolution 42
Anthropology: The Four Subfields 2
Cosmologies and Human Origins 43
Biological Anthropology 2
Western Traditions of Origin 43
Archaeology 5
Linguistic Anthropology 7 The Scientific Revolution 44
Catastrophism Versus Uniformitarianism 44
Cultural Anthropology 8
Applied Anthropology 10 Theory of Evolution 45
Darwin, Wallace, and Natural Selection 46
Holistic Anthropology, Interdisciplinary
Examples of Natural Selection 47
Research, and a Global Perspective 12
Anthropological Explanations 12 Principles of Inheritance 48
Mendel and Modern Genetics 48
Evaluating Anthropological Data 13
Mendel’s Principle of Segregation 49
Humanistic-Interpretive Approaches in
Dominant and Recessive Traits 49
Anthropology 14
Principle of Independent Assortment 50
Why Study Anthropology? 16
Inheritance and Molecular Genetics 51
Critical Thinking and Global Awareness 17
Cells and Genes 51
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 17 The Role of DNA 51
Key Terms 18 Polygenic Inheritance 52
Epigenetic Factors 52
Chapter 2 • The Record of the Past 19 Population Genetics and Evolution 52
Answering Questions 21 Mutations 52
Gene Flow 53
Paleoanthropological Study 22
Genetic Drift 53
Fossils and Fossil Localities 23
Natural Selection 53
Archaeological Research 25 Cultural, Behavioral, and Epigenetic Factors 54
The Archaeological Record 25
How Do New Species Originate? 54
Locating Sites and Fossil Localities 29 Measuring Evolutionary Change 54
Subsurface Archaeological Testing and Speciation 55
Geophysical Surveys 30 Phyletic Gradualism 55
Remote Sensing 30 Punctuated Equilibrium 55
Archaeological Excavation 32 Adaptive Radiation 55
Dating Methods 32 Analogy and Homology 57
Relative Dating 33 The Evolution of Life 58
Faunal Succession 34 Blood Chemistry and DNA 58
Palynology 34 Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift 58
Relative Dating Methods of Bones 35 The Paleontological Record 59
Obsidian Hydration 35 The Precambrian and Paleozoic Eras 59
Seriation 35 The Mesozoic Era 59
Numerical Dating Methods 35 The Cenozoic Era 59
 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 63 Increase in Cranial Capacity 91
Key Terms 64 Fossil Evidence for Hominin Evolution 92
The Oldest Hominins 93
Sahelanthropus tchadensis 93
PART II • BIOLOGICAL Orrorin tugenensis 93
ANTHROPOLOGY Ardipithecus ramidus 94
Chapter 4 • The Primates 65 Australopithecus anamensis: Early Hominins
From Lake Turkana 95
Primate Characteristics 66 Australopithecus afarensis 95
Movement and Locomotion 66
The Laetoli Footprints 96
Dentition, Eyesight, and Brain Size 67
Australopithecus africanus 96
Vision 67
The Robust Australopithecines: Branches on the
Complexity of the Brain 68
Family Tree 97
Reproduction and Maturation 68
Australopithecus boisei: The “Nutcracker Man” 98
Classification of Primates 68 Australopithecus aethiopicus: The “Black Skull” 98
Classification of Fossil Primates 69 Australopithecus sediba 98
Evolution of the Primate Order 71 The Origins of Genus Homo 99
Prosimians 73 Homo erectus 99
Modern Prosimians 73 Interpreting the Fossil Record 100
Evolution of the Anthropoids 74 Changing Views 101
Evolution of the Platyrrhines 74 Current Perspectives 102
Modern Monkeys of the Americas 74 Missing Pieces in the Fossil Record 103
Evolution of the Catarrhines 75
From Homo erectus to Homo sapiens 104
Parapithecids 75
Transitional Forms and Archaic Homo sapiens 104
Cercopithecoids 75
The Evolution of Homo sapiens 105
Modern Monkeys of Europe, Asia, and Africa 75
Multiregional Evolutionary Model 105
Emergence of the Hominoids 76
Replacement Model 106
Hominoid Evolution 77
Hybridization and Assimilation Models 107
Ancestors of Modern Hominoids 77
Archaic and Anatomically Modern
African Hominoids 77
Homo sapiens 107
Asian Hominoids 79
Neandertals and Modern Humans 108
European Hominoids 79
Denisovans or the Denisova Hominins 109
The Extinction of Most Miocene Apes 79
New Branches on the Hominin Family Tree 109
Modern Apes 80
The Gibbon and Siamang 80 Genetic Data and Hominin Phylogeny 110
The Orangutan 80 Mitochondrial DNA 110
The Gorilla 81 Paternal Genetic Ancestry 111
The Chimpanzee 81 Neandertal DNA and Modern Humans 111
Modern Human Variation 112
Primate Behavior 82
Social Groups 82 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 112
Dominance Hierarchy 82 Key Terms 114
Affiliative Behavior 84
Primate Sexual Behavior 84 Chapter 6 • Human Variation 115
Communication 84
Sources of Human Variation 116
The Human Primate 85
Genetics and Evolution 116
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 85 The Physical Environment 117
Key Terms 86 Culture 117
Evaluating Reasons for Variation 117
Chapter 5 • Hominin Evolution 87
Adaptive Aspects of Human Variation 118
Trends in Hominin Evolution 89 Body Hair and Sweat Glands 118
Bipedalism 89 Skin Color 119
Why Bipedalism? 89 Differences in Skin Color 119
Thermoregulation 90 Adaptive Aspects of Skin Color 119
Reduction of the Face, Teeth, and Jaws 91 Body Build 120
 Cranial and Facial Features 121 Ethnicity and Social Organization 153
Biochemical Characteristics 121 Upper Paleolithic Art 154
Blood Types 121 The Migration of Upper Paleolithic Humans 154
Sickle Cell Anemia 122 Upper Paleolithic Hunters in the Americas 155
Balanced Polymorphism 122 Clovis or Pre-Clovis Occupation? 156
Lactase Deficiency 123 Homo Sapiens in Asia, Australia, and Oceania 157
Effects of the Physical Environment 123 The Initial Settlement of New Guinea and Australia 157
High-Altitude Adaptations 123 Pacific Frontiers 158
Cultural Factors in Human Evolution 124 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 159
The Impact of Modern Urban Life 125 Key Terms 160
The Concept of Race 126
Ancient Classification Systems 126 Chapter 8 • The Origins of Domestication
Early “Scientific” Studies of Race 129 and Settled Life 161
Limitations of Early Classification Systems 129
The End of the Paleolithic: Changes in Climate and
Continuous Variation and Classification 129
Culture 162
Geographical Races 130
Epipaleolithic, Mesolithic, and Archaic
Heredity and Intelligence 130 Technology 163
Problems in Measuring Intelligence 130 The Epipaleolithic in Southwest Asia 163
Current Approaches to Human Variation 132 The European Mesolithic 164
Clinal Distribution 133 The Archaic in the Americas 165
Multivariate Analysis 133 The Neolithic: Origins of Food Production 167
Current Perspectives 134 Evidence for Domestication 167
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 134 Other Archaeological Evidence 168
Key Terms 136 Distribution of Wild Species 169
Molecular Genetics 169
Ethnographic Studies 170
PART III • ARCHAEOLOGY Why Did Domestication Occur? 170
Chapter 7 • The Paleolithic 137 Early Theories 170
A Push Toward Domestication? Environment,
Lifestyles of the Earliest Hominins 138 Population Growth, and Demographic Stress 171
Primate Models of Early Hominin Behavior 139
Coevolution: Was Domestication
The Archaeological Record 140
Unintentional? 172
The First Tools 140
Agricultural Origins in Perspective 172
How Were Tools Used? 141
Domestication in Different Regions of the World 173
Oldowan Sites and Early Hominin Behavior 141
Southwest Asia 173
Man the Hunter or Woman the Gatherer? 142
The Eastern Fertile Crescent 175
Current Perspectives 142
Europe 175
Diet and Subsistence 142
Megaliths 176
The Life and Times of Genus Homo 143 East Asia 176
The Archaeological Record and the China 177
Acheulean Industry 145 Southeast Asia and Japan 177
Hand Axes and Other Tools 147 Vegiculture in Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia 178
Living Sites 148 South Asia 178
Fire 148 Africa 179
Diet and Subsistence 148 Pastoralism in the Sahara 179
The Middle Paleolithic 149 Domestication in Sub-Saharan West Africa 180
Changes in Technology and Subsistence 150 Northeastern Africa 181
Diet and Subsistence 150 The Origins of Domestication in the Americas 181
The Neandertals 150 South America 183
Neandertal Ritual Beliefs 151 North America 183
Modern Homo sapiens and Their Cultures 152 Consequences of Domestication 184
The Material Record of Homo sapiens 152 Human Settlement and Population Growth 184
Diet and Subsistence 152 Health and Nutrition 185
 Increasing Material Complexity 185
PART IV • BASIC CONCEPTS OF
Sociopolitical Organization 186
CULTURE AND SOCIETY
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 187
Chapter 10 • Culture 216
Key Terms 188
The Characteristics of Culture 217
Chapter 9 • The Rise of the State and Culture Is Learned 218
Complex Society 189 Symbols and Symbolic Learning 218
The State and Civilization 190 Symbols and Signs 219
Types of Political Systems 190 Symbols and Culture 219
Agricultural States 191 Culture Is Shared 221
Primary and Secondary States 192 Aspects of Culture 222
Studying Complex Societies 192 Values 223
Settlement Patterns and Organization 192 Beliefs 223
Evidence for Administration 193 Norms 224
Monumental Architecture 193 Folkways 224
Specialization 194 Mores 224
Status and Social Ranking 195 Ideal Versus Real Culture 225
Trade and Exchange 196 Cultural Diversity 225
The Archaeology of Religion 197 Food and Diversity 226
Written Language 197 Dress Codes and Symbolism 228
Writing Systems 198 Ethnicity 229
Why Did States Form? 199 Cultural Universals 229
Integrationist or Voluntaristic
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 230
Perspectives 200
Trade and Exchange 200 Key Terms 231
Conflict or Coercive Theories 200
Warfare and Circumscription 201 Chapter 11 • The Process of Enculturation:
Criticisms of Conflict Approaches 201 Psychological and Cognitive Anthropology 232
Multicausal (or Multivariant) Theories Biology Versus Culture 233
of State Formation 202
Instincts and Human Nature 234
Conclusions About Early State
Human Beings as Animals 234
Formation 202
Instincts in Animals 234
Hierarchy or Heterarchy? 202
Instincts and Learned Behaviors 235
States in Different World Areas 204 Do Humans Possess Instincts? 235
Civilizations in Southwest Asia 204 Drives 236
Early Asian Civilizations 205 Culture Versus Instinct 236
China 205
Enculturation: Culture and Personality 236
Southeast Asia 206
Early Studies of Enculturation 237
South Asia: The Indus Valley 207
Benedict and Culture Types 237
Agricultural Civilizations in Africa 207
Mead in Samoa 237
The Nile Valley 207
The Culture-and-Personality School: An Evaluation 237
Nubia 208
The Freeman–Mead Controversy 238
Great Zimbabwe 208
Childhood Acquisition of Cultural Knowledge 239
The East African Coast 209
Japanese Childhood Enculturation 239
West Africa 209
Empires of the Americas 210 Psychoanalytic Approaches in Anthropology 241
Teotihuacán 210 Sigmund Freud’s Influence 241
The Classic Maya 211 Enculturation and Cognition 241
Andean Civilizations 211 Structuralism 244
The Collapse of State Societies 212 Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky 244
Reasons for Collapse 212 Cognitive Anthropology 245
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 214 Evolutionary Psychology 248
Key Terms 215 Enculturation and Emotions 249
 Neuroanthropology 250 Unilineal Evolution: Morgan 280
The Limits of Enculturation 251 Morgan and Kinship Theories 281
Unique Biological Tendencies 251 Unilineal Evolution: A Critique 281
Individual Variation and Agency 251 Diffusionism 281
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 252 British Diffusionism 282
German Diffusionism 282
Key Terms 254
The Limitations and Strengths of Diffusionism 282
Historical Particularism 282
Chapter 12 • Language 255
Boas Versus the Unilineal Evolutionists 282
Nonhuman Animal Communication 256
Functionalism 283
Teaching Apes to Sign 256
Structural Functionalism: Radcliffe-Brown 284
Ape Sign Language Reexamined 257
Psychological Functionalism: Malinowski 284
Ethological Research on Ape Communication 258
The Limitations of Functionalism 284
Chimpanzee Communication: Jane Goodall 258
Twentieth-Century Evolutionism 285
Animal Communication Versus Human Language 259
Steward and Cultural Ecology 285
Productivity 259
A Case Study: The Shoshone 285
Displacement 259
The Strengths of Neoevolutionism 286
Arbitrariness 259
Cultural Materialism 286
Combining Sounds to Produce Meanings 260
Criticisms of Cultural Materialism 286
The Evolution of Language 260
Marxist Anthropology 287
The Structure of Language 261 Evaluation of Marxist Anthropology 288
Phonology 261
Symbolic Anthropology: A Humanistic Method
Morphology 262
of Inquiry 288
Syntax 262
Criticisms of Symbolic Anthropology 289
Semantics 263
Materialism Versus Culturalism 289
Kinship Terms 263
Feminist Anthropology 289
Language Acquisition 263
Criticisms of Feminist Anthropology 290
Chomsky on Language Acquisition 264
Creole and Pidgin Languages 264 Postmodernism and Anthropology 291
Sign Language in Nicaragua 265 Postmodernists and Contemporary
Research 291
Language, Thought, and Culture 266
The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis 266 Twenty-First-Century Cultural Evolution 292
A Case Study: The Hopi Language 266 Shifts in Anthropological Explanations 293
Universals of Time Expression 266 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 293
Weak Linguistic Relativity 269 Key Terms 295
Historical Linguistics 270
The Family-Tree Model 270 Chapter 14 • Analyzing Sociocultural
Assessing Language Change 270 Systems 296
Sociolinguistics 272 Ethnographic Fieldwork 297
Dialectal Differences in Spoken Language 272
Ethnographic Research and Strategies 298
African American Vernacular English (AAVE) 272
Key Informants 298
Honorifics in Language 273
Interviews 299
Greeting Behaviors 273
Quantitative and Qualitative Data 299
Nonverbal Communication 275 Culture Shock 300
Kinesics 275 Life History Projects and Ethnography 301
Proxemics 275
Ethics in Anthropological Research 301
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 276
Analysis of Ethnographic Data 302
Key Terms 277 Universals and Independent and
Dependent Variables 302
Chapter 13 • Anthropological Explanations 278 Universals and Variables Studied by
Nineteenth-Century Evolutionism 280 Cultural Anthropologists 302
Unilineal Evolution: Tylor 280 Sociocultural Evolution: A Contemporary Model 304
 Types of Sociocultural Systems 304 Environment and Energy Use in Industrial and
Foraging, Band, or Hunter-Gatherer Societies 304 Postindustrial Societies 329
The Concept of Tribe in Anthropology 306 High Energy Consumption Patterns 330
The Concept of the Chiefdom 307 Demographic Change 330
Agricultural States 308 The Demographic-Transition Model Applied 331
Industrial and Postindustrial States 309 Urbanization 332
Cross-Cultural Research 311 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 333
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 311 Key Terms 334
Key Terms 312
Chapter 16 • Technology and Economics 335
Anthropological Explanations of Technology 336
PART V • STUDYING DIFFERENT
SOCIETIES Anthropology and Economics 337
The Formalist Approach 337
Chapter 15 • Environment, Subsistence, The Substantivist Approach 337
and Demography 313 Contemporary Economic Anthropology 337
Subsistence and the Physical Environment 314 Technology in Foraging Societies 338
Modern Cultural Ecology 314 Economics in Foraging Societies 339
Biomes 315 Reciprocity 339
Subsistence Patterns and Environments 315 Generalized Reciprocity 339
Demography 317 Balanced Reciprocity 340
Fertility, Mortality, and Migration 317 Negative Reciprocity 340
Population and Environment 317 Exchange and Altruism 340
Population and Culture 318 Collective Ownership of Property 341
Modern Foraging Environments and Subsistence 318 The Original Affluent Society? 341
Deserts 319 The Affluence Hypothesis Challenged 342
Tropical Rain Forests 319 Technology Among Horticulturalists
Arctic Regions 320 and Pastoralists 343
Mobility and Subsistence 320 Horticulturalist Technology 343
Demographic Conditions for Foragers 321 Pastoralist Technology 343
Fissioning 321 Economics in Horticulturalist and
Infanticide and Geronticide 321 Pastoralist Societies 343
Fertility Rates for Foragers 322 Money 343
Environment and Subsistence for Property Ownership 344
Horticulturalists and Pastoralists 322 Technology in Chiefdoms 345
Amazon Horticulturalists: The Yanomamö 323 Housing in Chiefdoms 345
New Guinea Horticulturalists: The Tsembaga 323 Economics in Chiefdoms 345
Horticulturalists in Woodland Forest Food Storage 345
Areas: The Iroquois 323 Property Ownership 346
Environment and Subsistence for Pastoralists 324 Political Aspects of Property Ownership 346
East African Cattle Complex 324 Economic Exchange in Chiefdoms 346
The Nuer 324 Reciprocal Exchange 346
Demographics and Settlement 325 The Kula Exchange 346
Environment, Subsistence, and Demography for Redistributional Exchange 347
Chiefdoms 326 Potlatch 347
Pacific Island Chiefdoms 326 Redistribution in Polynesia 348
African Chiefdoms 326 Technology in Agricultural States 348
Native American Chiefdoms 327 Agricultural Innovations 348
The Mississippi Region 327 The Diffusion of Technology 349
The Northwest Coast 327 Economics in Agricultural States 349
Demography in Chiefdoms 328 Property Rights 349
Environment and Demography in Agricultural The Command Economy Versus
States 328 the Entrepreneur 350
 The Peasantry 350 Descent Groups 372
The Moral Economy 350 Unilineal Descent Groups 372
Trade and Monetary Exchange 350 Ambilineal Descent Groups 373
The Rise of Merchants and Peripheral Markets 351 Bilateral Descent Groups 373
Technology and Economic Change in Industrial Clans 373
and Postindustrial Societies 352 Phratries and Moieties 373
Technology and Work 352 Functions of Descent Groups 373
The Division of Labor 352 Descent Groups and Economic Relationships 373
Economic Exchange 352 Marriage 374
Market Economies 354 Polygyny 375
Perspectives on Market Economies 354 Bridewealth Exchange 375
Capitalism 354 Polyandry 375
Capitalism in the United States 355 The Levirate and Sororate 376
Capitalism in Japan 355 Postmarital Residence Rules in Tribal Societies 376
Socialism 355 Causes of Postmarital Residence Rules 376
Socialism in the Former Soviet Union 356 Generalizations on Marriage in Tribal Societies 377
Recent Global Changes in Socialist Countries 356 Divorce 377
The Former Soviet Union: Perestroika 357 Age 377
Socialism to State Capitalism: Russia and China 357 Age Sets 377
Hybrid Economic Systems 357 Age Sets and Age Grades Among the
The Evolution of Economic Organizations 357 Tribal Pastoralists 377
Multinational Corporations 358 The Elderly 378
Capitalist Consumer Societies 358 Social Structure in Chiefdoms 378
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 359 Rank and Sumptuary Rules 378
A Case Study: Polynesia and Stratified
Key Terms 361
Descent Groups 379
Marriage 380
Chapter 17 • Social Structure, the Family,
Endogamy 380
Marriage, and Age 362 Polygyny 380
Social Structure 363 General Social Principles in Chiefdoms 380
Components of Social Structure 363 Age 381
The Family 364 Slavery 381
Marriage 364 Social Structure in Agricultural States 381
Understanding Incest Avoidance and the Kinship and Status 381
Incest Taboo 365 The Extended Family 382
Biological Explanations of Incest Avoidance 365 Other Kinship Principles 382
Marital Alliance and the Incest Taboo 365 Family Structure Among the Nayar 382
Childhood Familiarity Hypothesis 366 Marriage 382
Incest Avoidance: Biocultural Perspectives 366 Dowry and Bridewealth 382
Age 367 Polygyny 383
Age and Enculturation 367 Divorce 383
Age and the Division of Labor 367 Social Stratification in Agricultural States 383
Age and Status 367 The Caste System 384
Social Structure in Hunter-Gatherer Societies 368 Slavery 384
Marriage and Kinship 368 Social Structure in Industrial and Postindustrial
Marriage Rules 368 Societies 384
Brideservice 369 Kinship 384
Other Marital Patterns Among Foragers 370 Family 385
Divorce 370 Marriage 386
Age 370 Divorce 388
The Roles of the Elderly 370 Age 388
Childcare Activities 371 Social Stratification in Industrial and
Social Structure in Tribes 371 Postindustrial Societies 389
Families 372 The British Class System 389
 Class in the United States 390 Warfare and Feuds 423
Class in Japan and the Former Soviet Union 390 Law and Social Control 424
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 391 Law as Formalized Norms and Sanctions 424

Key Terms 394 Political Organization in Foraging Societies 424

Characteristics of Leadership 425
Chapter 18 • Gender and Sexuality 395 Warfare and Violence in Foraging Societies 425
The Complexities of Sex 396 Conflict Resolution 427
Male and Female Brain Differences? 398 The Eskimo Song Duel 427
Sex and the Division of Labor 399 Political Organization in Horticulturalist and
The Complexities of Gender 399 Pastoralist Tribes 427
Gender and Enculturation 399 Sodalities 427
Gender and Status 399 How Leaders Are Chosen 427
Village Headman 428
Transgender and LGBTQ Individuals 399
Big Man 428
Gender in Foraging Societies 401 Pastoralist Tribal Politics 429
Gender and the Division of Labor 401 Segmentary Lineage Systems 429
Sex-Based Explanations of the Division of Labor 402 Complementary Opposition 429
Female Status 402
Explaining Tribal Warfare 430
Gender in Tribal Societies 403 The Yanomamö and Protein Shortages 431
Gender and Enculturation: Margaret Biological Hypotheses of Tribal Warfare 431
Mead’s Study 403
Multidimensional Explanations of
Mead’s Study Reappraised 403
Tribal Warfare 431
Patriarchy in Tribal Societies 403 Law and Conflict Resolution Among Tribes 431
Patriarchy and Sexism in Tribal Societies 404 Ordeals 431
Gender, Subsistence, and Female Status 405 Oaths and Oracles 432
Female Status in Matrilineal Societies 405
Political Authority in Chiefdoms 432
The Haudenosaunee (Formerly Called Iroquois) 405
Limits on Chiefly Power 432
Gender in Chiefdom Societies 405 A Case Study: The Trobriand Islands 432
Gender in Agricultural States 406 A Case Study: Hawaii and Tahiti 432
Gender, Subsistence, and Status 406 The Evolution of Chiefdoms 433
Female Seclusion 406 Warfare 434
Patriarchy and Sexism 406 Law in Chiefdoms 434
Variations in the Status of Women 407
Politics in Agricultural States 434
Gender in Industrial and Postindustrial Societies 409 Law in Agricultural States 435
Gender and the Division of Labor 409 Mediation and Self-Help 436
Female Status in Industrial Societies 410 A Case Study: Law in China 436
Feminism 410 Warfare 436
Gender in Latin America, Africa, the Middle Political Organization in Industrial and
East, and Asia 412 Postindustrial States 436
Machismo in Latin America 412 Political Organization in Socialist States 437
Gender in Africa 412 Industrialism and State Bureaucracy 438
Urban African Women 413 Law 438
Gender in the Middle East 413 Japanese Law 438
The Veil and Seclusion 414
Warfare and Industrial Technology 438
Gender and Status in South Asia 415
Gender in China 416 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 441

Sexuality in Different Societies 417 Key Terms 442

Codes of Sexual Behavior 417
Chapter 20 • Religion and Aesthetics 443
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 418
Key Terms 420 Religion 444
Myths and Rituals 445
Chapter 19 • Politics, Warfare, and Law 421 Rituals 445
Politics, Warfare, and Law 422 Rites of Passage 446
Decision Making in a Political System 423 Religious Specialists 447
 Religious Movements 448 Modernization Theory and the Cold War 472
Cognition and Religion 448 First, Second, and Third Worlds 473
Criticisms of Modernization Theory 473
Aesthetics: Art and Music 450
Dependency Theory 474
Religion Among Foragers 450 Criticisms of Dependency Theory 475
The Dreamtime 451 World-System Analysis 475
Inuit Religion 451 Criticisms of World-System Analysis 475
Rites of Passage Among Foragers 452
Anthropological Analysis and Globalization 476
Art, Music, and Religion Among Foragers 453
Globalization, Politics, and Culture 477
Religion Among Horticulturalists
Globalization and Indigenous Peoples 477
and Pastoralists 453
Vanishing Foragers 478
Animism and Shamanism in South America 454
The Ju/’hoansi San 478
Witchcraft and Sorcery 454
The Mbuti 479
The Role of Witchcraft 455
The Ik 481
The Role of Sorcery 455
Tribes in Transition 481
Totemism 455
Native North American Horticulturalists 481
Ghost Lineage Members Among the Lugbara 455 The Relocation of Native Americans 482
Art and Music in Tribal Societies 456 Native North American Indians in the
Musical Traditions 456 Twenty-First Century 482
Religion in Chiefdoms 456 Native South American Horticulturalists 482
A Case Study: Law and Religion in Polynesia 456 Recent Developments Among the Yanomamö 483
Shamanism in Chiefdoms 457 Pastoralist Tribes 484
Human Sacrifice 457 Middle Eastern Pastoralists: The Bedouins 484
Art, Architecture, and Music in Chiefdoms 457 The Qashqa’i 484
Music 458 East African Pastoralists and Globalization 485
Chiefdoms in Transition 485
Religion in Agricultural States 458
The Hawaiian Islands 485
Ecclesiastical Religions 459
Divine Rulers, Priests, and Religious Texts 459 Forms of Resistance Among
Human Sacrifice 459 Indigenous Peoples 487
Universalistic Religions 460 Revitalization Among Native Americans 487
The Ghost Dance 487
Art, Architecture, and Music in
The Peyote Cult 488
Agricultural States 460
Melanesia and New Guinea: The Cargo Cults 488
Religion and Secularization in Industrial and A Hawaiian Religious Renaissance 489
Postindustrial Societies 461 A Lost Opportunity? 490
Religion in Socialist States 462 Native American Knowledge 490
Religion in Japan 462 Preserving Indigenous Societies 491
Fundamentalist Movements 462
Pro- and Anti-Globalization: An Anthropological
Art and Music in Industrial and Contribution 492
Postindustrial Societies 463 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 494
Music 463
Key Terms 495
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 464
Key Terms 467 Chapter 22 • Globalization, Colonialism,
and Postcolonialism 496
Globalization and Colonialism 497
PART VI • CONSEQUENCES OF
Latin America 497
GLOBALIZATION Cortés (Cortez) and the Aztec Empire 498
Chapter 21 • Globalization, Culture, and Africa 498
Indigenous Societies 468 Slave Trade 498
Colonization in Africa 500
Globalization: A Contested Term 469
The Caribbean 501
Globalization: Technological and The Middle East and Asia 501
Economic Trends 470 Colonialism in the Middle East 502
Globalization: General Theoretical Approaches 471 Asia 503
Modernization Theory 471 India, Myanmar (Burma), and Malaysia 503
 China 503 Racial and Ethnic Stratification 540
The Dutch Empire 504 Ethnic Relations in the United States 541
French Indochina 504 WASP Dominance 541
Thailand: An Independent Country 504 Ethnic Challenges for U.S. Society 542
The Philippines 504 German and Irish Americans 542
Consequences of Globalization and Colonialism 504 Italian and Polish Americans 543
Demographic Change 504 The Melting Pot: Assimilation or Pluralism? 544
Economic Change 505 African Americans 545
Religious Change 506 Postslavery and Segregation 545
Political Changes: Independence and Nationalist The Civil Rights Movement 545
Movements 508 African Americans Today 546
A Nationalist and Independence Hispanic/Latino Americans 546
Movement in India 510 Puerto Rican Americans 547
Explaining Revolution 511 Cuban Americans 547

Uneven Economic Development 512 Hispanic Americans Today 547

Peripheral Postcolonial Countries 513 Asian and Arab Americans 548
Withdrawal From the Global Economy 513 Cultural Pluralism 549
Multiculturalism in the United States 549
Ethnographic Studies 513
African Peasants: A Unique Phenomenon? 514 Ethnonationalism 551

Social Structure in Postcolonial Societies 515 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 552
Latin American Social Relationships 515 Key Terms 554
African Social Relationships 516
Family and Social Structure in the Chapter 24 • Applied Anthropology 555
Middle East 517
The Roles of the Applied Anthropologist 556
The Family 517
Marriage 517 Biological Anthropology 557
Divorce 518 Forensic Anthropology 557
Social Structure and Family in India: Caste 518 Forensic Facial Reconstruction 558
Origins of the Caste System 518 Determining the Cause of Death 558
Family and Marriage in South Asia 520 Identifying Victims of War and Genocide 559
The Dowry 520 Medical Anthropology 560
Patterns of Ethnicity 520 Ethnomedicine 560
Ethnicity in Latin America 520 Ethnomedicine in Thailand 561
Ethnicity in Africa 522 Ethnomedicine in East Africa 561
Ethnicity in the Middle East and Asia 524 Chinese Acupuncture 562
China and Ethnic Minorities 524 Cultural Patterns and Epidemiology 562
Medical Anthropology and Mental Illness 563
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 529
What Is Abnormal? 563
Key Terms 531 Culture-Specific Disorders 564
Globalization and Mental Illness 565
Chapter 23 • Ethnicity 532
Cultural Resource Management:
Race, Racism, and Culture 533
Applied Archaeology 565
Critiques of Scientific Racism 534
Preserving the Past 566
The Cultural and Social Significance of Race 534 Cultural Resource Management in the
Ethnicity 535 United States 567
Anthropological Perspectives on Ethnicity 536 Cultural Resource Management in
The Primordialist Model 536 Global Perspective 568
The Circumstantialist Model 537 Studying Garbage 569

Patterns of Ethnic Relations 538 Who Owns the Past? 570

Pluralism 538 Native American Graves Protection
Assimilation 539 and Repatriation Act 573
Ethnic Violence 539 Applied Cultural Anthropology 573
Applied Anthropology, Climate Change, and The Role of Applied Anthropology in Human Rights 582
Sustainability 575 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 585
Applied Anthropology and Human Rights 579 Key Terms 586
Cultural Relativism and Human Rights 579
Relativism Reconsidered 579
Ethical Relativism 579 Glossary 587
A Resolution to the Problem of Relativism 580
References 596
The Problem of Intervention 581
Universal Human Rights 581 Index 642
 PREFACE
EDUCATIONAL GOALS AND
ORIENTATION OF THIS TEXTBOOK
The world has become a small place. This textbook is grounded
in the belief that an enhanced global awareness is essential for
people preparing to take their place in the fast-paced, intercon-
nected world of the twenty-first century. Through exploring
the range of human diversity, the subfields of anthropology
broaden students’ views and enable students to appreciate the
full sweep of the human condition.
The anthropological perspective, which stresses critical
thinking, the evaluation of competing hypotheses, and the
skills to generalize from specific data, contributes significantly
to a well-rounded education. This text engages readers in
anthropology by delving into both classic and current research
in the field. This reflects a commitment to anthropology’s
holistic and integrative approach. It spells out how the four
subfields of anthropology—biological anthropology, archaeol-
ogy, linguistics, and cultural anthropology—together yield a
comprehensive understanding of humanity. The full range of
anthropological insights are woven together to reveal both the
distinctive fabrics of individual societies and the threads unit-
ing all of humanity.
Anthropological research is inherently interdisciplinary,
and this text often refers to research in other fields. Anthro-
pologists draw on the findings of biologists, paleontologists,
geologists, economists, historians, psychologists, sociolo-
gists, political scientists, religious studies specialists, philoso-
phers, and researchers in other areas whose work sheds light
on anthropological inquiry. Exploring interactions between
anthropology and other fields sparks the critical imagination
that brings the learning process to life.
A comparative approach, another cornerstone of anthro-
pology, is also highlighted in this text. Whether assessing fos-
sil evidence, ancient artifacts, languages, or cultural beliefs,
anthropologists weigh comparative evidence, while acknowl-
edging the unique elements of each archaeological site, fossil
locality, society, or culture.
This book casts an inquiring eye on materials from
numerous geographical regions and historical eras to enrich
students’ understanding. In evaluating human evolution,
prehistoric events, language divergence, or developments in
social structure, anthropologists must rely on models that
reflect changes through time, so this diachronic orientation
suffuses the text.
xviii
FOUR UNIFYING THEMES
OF THIS TEXT
Four unifying themes structure the material presented in this
textbook. The first two themes we introduce students to are
the diversity of human societies and the similarities that make
all humans fundamentally alike. We examine commonalities
in human physical and cultural characteristics, as well as the
local contexts and conditions that have shaped human origins
and cultures. We emphasize the growing interconnectedness
of humanity and both the positive and negative consequences
of this reality. We draw on anthropological studies to discover
how people are responding to the omnipresent processes of
globalization.
Our third theme deals with the unique intersection of the
sciences and humanities within anthropology. We call this the
synthetic-complementary approach, which views the scientific
method and the methods in the humanities as complemen-
tary and suggests that one is incomplete without the other.
Decades ago, in another anthropology textbook, the late Eric
Wolf emphasized that anthropology has always had one foot
in the sciences and one foot in the humanities. This observa-
tion is evermore true today. Wolf (1964, 88) said, “Anthropol-
ogy is both the most scientific of the humanities and the most
humanistic of the sciences.” We carry on the tradition that he
accentuated in his work.
One of the prime goals in this edition is to further highlight
the fundamental importance of the synthetic-complementary
approach to science and the humanities in anthropology.
Some anthropologists have argued that the scientific
approach is not suitable for assessing and interpreting human
behavior and culture, whereas others believe that the human-
istic approach is not appropriate for developing general cross-
cultural and causal explanations about human behavior and
culture. This has led to textbooks that focus on either one
or the other approach. In this book, we highlight how the
humanistic-interpretive perspective provides insight into the
specifics of human behavior within different cultures, while
the scientific approach offers the means to systematically test
causal explanations that allow for insight into universal aspects
of human origins and behavior.
The fourth theme we draw on is emphasized in a new
Critical Perspectives box in Chapter 1 on essentialism. We
explain the meaning of psychological essentialism: the flawed
beliefs that members of certain categories or classifications

such as “species,” “races,” “ethnic groups,” “genders,” or “cul-
tures” share an underlying invisible essence. Extensive psy-
chological and anthropological research has demonstrated
that psychological essentialism appears to be universal and
is prevalent in human cognition and thinking throughout
the world. One of the missions of anthropology and this
textbook is to counter pervasive and often horribly miscon-
strued essentialist beliefs regarding ethnic or “racial” groups,
cultures, civilizations, societies, and religions. Anthropolo-
gists have revealed enormous variation within these sup-
posed categories. Essentialist thinking has resulted in many
widespread simplistic misconceptions and distorted percep-
tions. In different sections of the textbook, we illustrate
essentialist perceptions, and use anthropological research to
demonstrate the problems of such facile generalizations and
essentialist beliefs.
FEATURES OF THIS TEXT
Boxes
Critical Perspectives boxes are designed to stimulate indepen-
dent reasoning and judgment. Students take on the roles of
anthropologists and engage in the critical analysis of specific
problems that arise in anthropological research. A successful
holdover from the first edition, these boxes push students to
think about the rigorous standards of evidence needed to eval-
uate scientific and philosophical questions that often have no
easy answers. We have updated our discussions in the Criti-
cal Perspectives boxes for this edition. By probing beneath the
surface of various assumptions and hypotheses in these exer-
cises, students stand to discover the excitement and challenge
of anthropological investigation.
Anthropologists at Work boxes, profiling promi-
nent anthropologists, humanize many of the issues cov-
ered in the chapters. These boxes—another carryover from
the first edition—go behind the scenes to trace the per-
sonal and professional development of some of the field’s
leading anthropologists.
Pedagogical Aids
In this textbook, we provide some key teaching and learn-
ing aids. Each chapter opens with Learning Objectives that
guide students to the most important issues addressed in the
chapter. And each chapter ends with a Summary and Review
of Learning Objectives, which helps the students better com-
prehend the content in the chapter. In addition, each chap-
ter has a list of Key Terms with page numbers that helps the
students focus on the important concepts introduced in the
chapter. The Key Terms are also found with succinct defini-
tions in the Glossary.
Preface xix
DIGITAL RESOURCES
SAGE Edge
A password-protected resource site is available at edge.sagepub.com/
scupin9e, which supports teaching, providing high-quality content
to create a rich learning environment for students. The SAGE Edge
for this book includes the following instructor resources:
——Test banks built on Bloom’s Taxonomy provide a
diverse range of test items
——Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint slides offer
flexibility for creating a multimedia presentation
for lectures
——Lecture notes align with the PowerPoint slides to
summarize key concepts and help with preparation
for lectures and class discussion
——Carefully selected video and multimedia content
enhance exploration of key topics
——Chapter-specific discussion questions help launch
engaging classroom interaction while reinforcing
important content
——Sample Course syllabi provide suggested models for
structuring your course
——Tables and figures from the book are available
for download
——SAGE Coursepacks provide easy LMS integration
SAGE Edge for students
The open-access companion website helps students accomplish
their coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment,
featuring:
——Learning objectives reinforce the most
important material
——eQuizzes encourage self-guided assessment and practice
——eFlashcards that strengthen understanding of key
terms and concepts.
——Chapter-specific video and multimedia content
enhance exploration of key topics
SAGE Coursepacks
SAGE Coursepacks make it easy to import our quality instruc-
tor and student resource content into your school’s learning
xx Anthropology
management system (LMS) with minimal effort. Intuitive and
simple to use, SAGE Coursepacks gives you the control to cus-
tomize course content to meet your students’ needs. The SAGE
Coursepacks are customized and curated for use in Blackboard,
Canvas, Desire2Learn (D2L), and Moodel.
In addition to the content available on the Edge site, the
coursepacks include:
——Pedagogically robust assessment tools that foster
review, practice, and critical thinking:
c— Chapter tests identify opportunities for student
improvement, track student progress, and ensure
mastery of key learning objectives.
c— Instructions on how to use and integrate the
comprehensive assessments and resources provided.
——Assignable video tied to learning objectives with
corresponding assessments bring concepts to life to
increase student engagement
——Integrated links to the eBook version that make it easy
to access the mobile-friendly version of the text, which
can be read anywhere, anytime.
What’s New to This Edition
——The discussion of the volume’s key themes, drawn on
in previous editions, has been revised and expanded,
and we have added essentialism as a fourth theme.
Essentialism is explored in several parts of the text and is
the focus of a new Critical Perspectives box in Chapter 1.
——The book has a dramatic new look: Many new photos
and figures have been added, and others have been
deleted or modified to better illustrate key points in
the text.
——New Anthropologists at Work boxes illustrate current
research directions of an archaeologist who explores
both the past and the present in Mesomerica and a
linguistic anthropologist who is assisting people in
Papua New Guinea in preserving and developing
their native language. We also have Anthropologists
at Work boxes dealing with cultural anthropologists
who are exploring topics such as psychiatric
treatments, the psychology of religion, and how
adolescents use YouTube. Other boxes tell the stories
of anthropologists who are applying their skills in jobs
outside of academia in fields such as space travel, the
high-tech industry, and the global financial world.
——Chapter 2 on the record of the past has new or
expanded sections dealing with some of the current
field methods used in archaeological research, such
as geophysical surveys, satellite imagery, LIDAR,
and GIS.
——The Chapter 2 figures illustrating archaeological
dating concepts have been newly revised.
——Chapter 3 on evolution has been slightly shortened,
some of the more detailed discussions of evolutionary
theory have been trimmed, and the number of key
terms has been reduced to better underscore core
concepts and make the discussion more appropriate
for a four-field text.
——The reviews of recent fossil and archaeological evidence
in the Chapter 5 discussion of hominin evolution and
in the Chapter 7 discussion of the Paleolithic have
been considerably revised and updated, to incorporate
an array of new findings and studies. The Chapter
5 discussion on hominin phylogeny has also been
substantially tightened to underscore key points and
make the discussion easier to follow.
——New sections of Australopithecus sediba, Homo
floresiensis (the “Hobbit”), and Homo naledi have been
added in Chapter 5.
——Sections on the evolution of anatomically modern
humans, the Neandertals, and the Denisova hominins
have been significantly revised and updated.
——The discussion of hominin phylogeny in Chapter 5
benefits from a new, updated illustration program
that incorporates new finds and interpretations.
——Sections dealing with the increasing role of genomic
data in the interpretation of hominin evolution and
modern human origins have been added throughout.
——New updated and expanded discussions of
anthropological research on color perception in
various societies.
——New discussions and developments of the
anthropological research on enculturation and
emotions.
——New discussion of twenty-first-century “cultural
evolution theories”: dual-inheritance models and
cultural attraction theory.
——New discussions of anthropological research on
inequality and debt for economic anthropology.
——New discussion of life history projects in South
America by various anthropologists.
——A new chapter on gender and sexuality that explores the
complexities of topics such as transgender and LGBTQ
issues in various societies throughout the world.

——New discussions of political power, kingships,
and warfare as understood by recent research in
anthropology.
——New discussion of extreme “high-arousal rituals”
by Dimitris Xygalatas in the religion and
aesthetics chapter.
——New discussion of shamanism and examples among
the Ju/’hoansi and the Inuit.
——New discussion of anthropological explanations of
human sacrifice rituals in agricultural states.
——New discussion of the Human Generosity Project as
established by Lee Cronk.
——New discussions of the recent impact and reactions to
globalization by indigenous communities.
——New condensed chapter on globalization, colonialism,
and postcolonialism.
——New discussion of research on essentialism as it is
related to “race” classification.
Preface xxi
——New discussion of anthropological contributions
to genomic research in Mexico in the ethnicity
chapter.
——New discussion of the roles of applied anthropologists
in their various activities.
——New discussion of ethnomedicine in Africa in the
applied anthropology chapter.
——New discussion of how anthropologists are
actively doing research on the impact of climate
change on various societies throughout
the world.
——New discussion of recent applied archaeology
and developments in garbology.
——In addition to the changes described above, we
have expanded and updated many other sections
of the textbook, paying close attention to the
readability and coherence of the content for the
undergraduate student.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A
textbook like this one requires the enormous effort of
many people. First, we would like to offer thanks to
our colleague, Christina Pomianek, a faculty member
at Lindenwood University. She provided in-depth and help-
ful comments for various sections of this textbook. We would
also like to thank the following reviewers for their valuable
comments on the various editions of this textbook: Susan
Abbott-Jamieson, University of Kentucky; Kelly D. Alley,
Auburn University; Hoyt Alverson, Dartmouth College;
Barbara Gallatin Anderson, Southern Methodist Univer-
sity; Robert Bee, University of Connecticut; Harumi Befu,
Stanford University; John E. Blank, Cleveland State Univer-
sity; Barry Bogin, University of Michigan–Dearborn; Donald
E. Brown, University of California–Santa Barbara; Susan
Brownell, University of Missouri–St. Louis; Tom Brutsaert,
Syracuse University; Robert Carmack, State University of New
York–Albany; A. H. Peter Castro, Syracuse University; Miriam
S. Chaiken, New Mexico State University; Gail W. Cromack,
Onondaga Community College; James Duvall, Contra Costa
College; Allen S. Ehrlich, Eastern Michigan University; Dale
Eickelman, Dartmouth College; Adam D. Frank, University
of Central Arkansas; Michele Ruth Gamburd, Portland State
University; Josef Gamper, Monterey Peninsula College; Alan
Goodman, Hampshire College; Leonard Greenfield, Temple
University; Joan Gross, Oregon State University; Raymond
Hames, University of Nebraska; W. Penn Handwerker,
Humboldt State University; Richard D. Harris, University
of Portland; Robert W. Hefner, Boston University; Lawrence
A. Hirschfield, New School for Social Research; Robert
Hitchcock, University of New Mexico; Benita J. Howell,
University of Tennessee–Knoxville; Arian Ishaya, DeAnza
Community College; Howard Kress, University of Connecti-
cut; Norris Johnson, University of North Carolina–Chapel
Hill; Rita S. Kipp, Kenyon College; Nancy B. Leis, Central
Michigan University; William Leons, University of Toledo;
James Lett, Indian River Community College; Kenneth E.
Lewis, Michigan State University; Scott Madry, University of
North Carolina–Chapel Hill; Ester Maring, Southern Illinois
University–Carbondale; Ann P. McElroy, State University of
New York–Buffalo; Robert R. McIrvin, University of North
Carolina–Greensboro; Nancy P. McKee, Washington State
University; Barry H. Michie, Kansas State University; David
Minderhout, Bloomsburg University; Katherine Moore,
Bentley College; Robert Moorman, Miami-Dade Community
xxii
College–North; Henry Munson, University of Maine; James
Myers, California State University–Chico; Tim O’Meara,
World Bank Pacific Islands; Thomas O’Toole, St. Cloud
State University; John W. Page, Kirkland, Washington; Curt
Peterson, Elgin Community College; Leonard Plotnicov,
University of Pittsburgh; Paul (Jim) Roscoe, University of
Maine; James L. Ross, University of Akron; Susan D. Russell,
Northern Illinois University; L. Schell, State University of
New York–Albany; Edwin S. Segal, University of Louisville;
Paul Shankman, University of Colorado–Boulder; David H.
Spain, University of Washington; John Townsend, Syracuse
University; Robert B. Townsend, College of Lake County;
Trudy Turner, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Stephen
A. Tyler, Rice University; Virginia J. Vitzthum, Univer-
sity of California–Riverside; Alaka Wali, University of
Maryland; William Wedenoja, Southwest Missouri State
University; Melford S. Weiss, California State University–
Sacramento; Ronald K. Wetherington, Southern Methodist
University; Aubrey Williams, University of Maryland; Pamela
Willoughby, University of Alberta; Dimitris Xygalatas,
University of Connecticut–Storrs; and Larry Zimmerman,
University of South Dakota.
For this ninth edition, we would like to thank Anna Bellisari,
Wright State University; Andrew Kramer, University of Tennes-
see; Daniel J. Wescott, University of Missouri; Bruce P. Wheatley,
University of Alabama–Birmingham; and Robert R. Paine, Texas
Tech University. We also extend thanks to all colleagues who sent
us photos and information for use in the biography boxes. We
are grateful for the unwavering support given to this project by
SAGE Publications, including the support and encouragement
of our acquisitions editor Joshua Perigo, development editor
Alissa Nance, editorial assistant Noelle Cumberbatch, produc-
tion editor Bennie Clark Allen, copy editor Melinda Masson,
and Jade Henderson in marketing.
Our warmest appreciation goes to our families, whose
emotional support and patience throughout the publication
of the nine editions of this text truly made this book possible.
Anyone with comments, suggestions, or recommendations
regarding this textbook is welcome to send email messages to
the following addresses: rscupin@lindenwood.edu or crde-
cors@maxwell.syr.edu.
Christopher R. DeCorse
Raymond Scupin
 Acknowledgments xxiii

SAGE would like to thank the following reviewers:

Jessica Amato, Napa Valley College John A. Napora, University of South Florida

Rucha Ambikar, Bemidji State University Christina Pomianek, Lindenwood University

Lindsay Anderson, The University of Tennessee at Martin Paul Roach, Century College

Margaret Bruchez, Blinn College Paul Roscoe, University of Maine

Steve Dasovich, Lindenwood University William Silcott, Friends University

Holly DeLeo, Rowan College at Burlington County Jesse Todd, Brookhaven College

Robert K. Hitchcock, University of New Mexico Deborah Tooker, Le Moyne College

Frank Hutchins, Bellarmine University Lillian Marie Wallace, Pima Community College

Jacquelyn Kyle, Rowan College at Burlington County Linda K. Watts, University of Colorado - Colorado Springs

Mohsen M. Mobasher, University of Houston - Downtown Derrick Willis, College of DuPage

Juliet E. Morrow, Arkansas State University Dimitris Xygalatas, University of Connecticut

 ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Raymond Scupin is a professor of anthropology and inter-
national studies at Lindenwood University. He received his
BA degree in history, Asian studies, and anthropology from
the University of California–Los Angeles. He completed his
MA and PhD degrees in anthropology at the University of
California–Santa Barbara. Dr. Scupin is truly a four-field
anthropologist. During graduate school, he did archaeologi-
cal and ethnohistorical research on Native Americans in the
Santa Barbara region. He did extensive ethnographic field-
work in Thailand with a focus on understanding the ethnic
and religious movements among the Muslim minority. In
addition, Dr. Scupin taught linguistics and conducted lin-
guistic research while based at a Thai university.
Dr. Scupin has been teaching undergraduate and gradu-
ate courses in anthropology for more than thirty years at
a variety of academic institutions, including community
colleges, research universities, and a four-year liberal arts
university. Thus, he has taught a very broad spectrum of
undergraduate students. Through his teaching experience,
Dr. Scupin was prompted to write this textbook, which
would allow a wide range of undergraduate students to
understand the holistic and global perspectives of the
four-field approach in anthropology. In 1999, he received
the Missouri Governor’s Award for Teaching Excellence.
In 2007, Dr. Scupin received the Distinguished Scholars
Award at Lindenwood University.
Dr. Scupin has published many essays, book chapters, and
review essays based on his ethnographic research in Thailand.
He returned to Thailand and other countries of Southeast Asia
to update his ethnographic data on Islamic trends in that area,
an increasingly important topic in the post-9/11 world. He
is a member of many professional associations, including the
American Anthropological Association, the Association for
Asian Studies, and the Council on Thai Studies. Dr. Scupin
has authored Religion and Culture: An Anthropological Focus,
Race and Ethnicity: The United States and the World, and Peoples
and Cultures of Asia.
Christopher R. DeCorse is a professor and past chair of the
Department of Anthropology in the Maxwell School of Citi-
zenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University. He received
his BA in anthropology with a minor in history from the
xxiv
University of New Hampshire, before completing his MA and
PhD degrees in archaeology at the University of California–
Los Angeles. His research interests include African archaeology
and history, general anthropology, and archaeology in popu-
lar culture. Dr. DeCorse has excavated a variety of prehistoric
and historic period sites in the United States, the Caribbean,
and Africa, but his primary area of research has been in the
archaeology, history, and ethnography of Africa. Dr. DeCorse
has taught archaeology and general anthropology in under-
graduate and graduate programs at the University of Ghana,
Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Syracuse University.
His academic honors and awards include the Daniel Patrick
Moynihan Award for Outstanding Teaching, Research, and
Service; the William Wasserstrom Award for Excellence in
Graduate Teaching; and the Syracuse University Excellence in
Graduate Education Faculty Recognition Award.
Dr. DeCorse is particularly interested in making
archaeology more accessible to general audiences. In addition
to the single-authored physical anthropology and archae-
ology textbook The Record of the Past: An Introduction to
Physical Anthropology and Archaeology, he coauthored, with
Brian Fagan, the eleventh edition of In the Beginning: An
Introduction to Archaeology. He is currently completing a book
examining the presentation of archaeologists and archaeology
in popular culture.
Dr. DeCorse’s academic publications include more than
sixty articles, book chapters, and research notes in a variety of
publications, including the African Archaeological Review, His-
torical New Hampshire, Historical Archaeology, the Journal of
African Archaeology, and Slavery and Abolition. Volumes on his
research in Africa include An Archaeology of Elmina: Africans
and Europeans on the Gold Coast 1400–1900 (Smithsonian
Institution Press, 2001) and the edited volume, West Africa
During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives
(Bloomsbury, 2016). His most recent books are edited volumes
that deal with Europe’s entanglements with the non-Western
World: Power, Political Economy, and Historical Landscapes of
the Modern World: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Fernand Brau-
del Center Studies in Historical Social Science, SUNY Press,
2019) and British Forts and Their Communities: Archaeological
and Historical Perspectives, with Zachary J. M. Beier (University
Press of Florida, 2018).