Automatic Tap Controller

Abstract

Water is precious without which nobody can survive. Everyone use water tap
in home, shop and office. Users may forget to close the water tap after usage
and the water will be wasted. This mini project is focused on, to avoid the
wastage of water. To prevent the water loss, this project aimed to control the
water flow for a specified time using sensor circuit. Water will start to flow
through the pipe when sensor will detect someone in front of tap. Water flow
is controlled by solenoid valve associated with a relay. Once person went, tap
will get off automatically.
INTRODUCTION:
Water is an essential resource in the world and currently household drinking
water is an important asset to save the life due to shortage of water in the
earth. This paper describes the design and development process of an
automatic control system for tap water using float less water level sensor
which can save wastage of water without the presence of any operator
physically. This sensing system utilizes a combination of a solenoid valve,
electromagnetic relay (a type of electrical switch), float less level controller
(61F) and electrodes (used to sense the watery level electrically). The
developed system can automatically control the water tap accordingly when
level sensor can sense the lower level of water tank. Also, the system has
ability to activate the relay which starts solenoid valve. The entire process can
continue until sense the upper level of water. After that the system deactivates
the relay as well as the solenoid which can stop the water flow through tap,
when the upper level is sensed. In summary, the developed system is able to
control the water tap to protect the wastage of valuable water by this
mechanism. This system is low-cost compare to other commercial systems,
was tested to assess the success rate of the development. The result shows an
autonomous plus robust monitoring system with satisfactory result which is
relatively simple to install. As you may well know, automatic control for a
water tap can significantly reduce water consumption to some extent. Besides,
automatic faucets can eliminate cross-contamination by keeping hands
and germs away from commonly-used surfaces

Presented here is a simple electronic circuit which can control the valve
operation by sensing valid-movements with the help of a Passive Infrared (PIR)
motion sensing module. In practice, automatic taps are presence sensors
and not motion sensors. They employ “Active Infrared” technology which
senses “presence” and not “movement” of objects. However, here an
unorthodox “Passive Infrared” technology is used to realize the 6VDC powered
smart faucet controller circuit

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and

perhaps additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. An
embedded system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control
system, autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical
variables and in diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.

An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing,
not a software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application.
High-end embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally
32, 64 Bit Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones
etc .Lower end embedded systems - Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal
operating systems and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose.

SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:

 Build
Operating
Digital Download
Integrated circuit
Electronic designSystems design Debug
Analog Tools
Electronic design Computer
Embedded Architecture
Sensors and Systems
measurements Software
Engineering
Electric motors
and actuators Control Data
Engineering Communication

Embedded system design calls on many disciplines

Figure 3(a): Embedded system design calls

EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLE

System
System
Definiti
Testing
on Hardwa
Rapid re-in-
Prototypi the-
ng Loop
Testing
Targeting
Figure 3(b):“V Diagram”

Characteristics of Embedded System

• An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a
computer.
• They will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software
in addition to those we encounter when we write applications.
 – Throughput – Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of
time.
– Response–Our system may need to react to events quickly.

– Testability–Setting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult.

– Debugability–Without a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is
doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem.
– Reliability – embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without
human intervention.
– Memory space – Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must
make the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists.
– Program installation – you will need special tools to get your software into
embedded systems.
– Power consumption – Portable systems must run on battery power, and the
software in these systems must conserve power.
– Processor hogs – computing that requires large amounts of CPU time can
complicate the response problem.
– Cost – Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded
system projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate
for the job.

• Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some

have a serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards,
screens or disk drives.

APPLICATION
1) Military and aerospace embedded software applications
2) C o m m u n i c a t i o n A p p l i c a t i o n s
3) I n d u s t r i a l a u t o m a t i o n a n d p r o c e s s c o n t r o l s o f t w a r e
 4) Mastering the complexity of applications.
5) Reduction of product design time.
6) Real time processing of ever increasing amounts of data.
7) Intelligent, autonomous sensors.

CLASSIFICATION
 Real Time Systems.
 RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline.
 A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer.

RTS CLASSIFICATION
 Hard Real Time Systems
 Soft Real Time System
HARD REAL TIME SYSTEM
 "Hard" real-time systems have very narrow response time.
 Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker.
SOFT REAL TIME SYSTEM
 "Soft" real-time systems have reduced constrains on "lateness" but still must operate
very quickly and repeatable.
 Example: Railway reservation system – takes a few extra seconds the data remains
valid.

COMPONENTS:

Transistor:
Assorted discrete transistors.

A transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic

signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because
the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the
transistor provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually but
most are found in integrated circuits.

Simplified operation :
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied
between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals.
This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input
signal, that is, can act as an amplifier. Or, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off
in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by
other circuit elements.

The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A
bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the
base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much
larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the
terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current
between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow
between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally
the base and emitter connections behave

like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base
current exists. The size of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from,
and is referred to as VBE.

Advantages:
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors
in most applications are

 Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic
devices.
 Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost.
 Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-
powered applications.
 No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application.
 Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
 Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
 Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than
30 years.
 Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementary-symmetry
circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.
 Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of micro
phonics in audio applications.

RESISTOR

Fig 2.2.1

 A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its

terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with
Ohm's law:
V = IR

 Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).
  The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum
working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature
coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value
below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above
which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials
constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design.

Units:
 The ohm (symbol: Ω) is a SI-driven unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg
Simon Ohm. Commonly used multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic
usage are the milliohm (1x10−3), kilo ohm (1x103), and mega ohm (1x106).

Theory of operation:
Ohm's law:
 The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's
law:
V = IR
 Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
 Each color corresponds to a certain digit, progressing from darker to lighter colors, as
shown in the chart below.

Color 1st 2nd 3rd band 4th band Temp.

band band (multiplier) (tolerance) Coefficient
Black 0 0 ×100
Brown 11 1 ×101 ±1% (F) 100 ppm
Red 2 2 ×102 ±2% (G) 50 ppm
Orange 3 3 ×103 15 ppm
Yellow 4 4 ×104 25 ppm
White 9 9 ×109
Gold ×10−1 ±5% (J)
Silver ×10−2 ±10% (K)
None ±20% (M)

Table No. 2.1

 POTENTIOMETERS

Fig 2.3.1 A typical single-turn potentiometer

Type: passive
Electronic symbol
(Europe)

(US)

 A potentiometer (colloquially known as a "pot") is a three-terminal resistor with a

sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider.[1] If only two terminals are
used (one side and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers
are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio
equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position
transducers, for example, in a joystick.
 Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a
watt). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls
on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light
dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly
control the brightness of lamps.
 Potentiometers are sometimes provided with one or more switches mounted on the
same shaft. For instance, when attached to a volume control, the knob can also
function as an on/off switch at the lowest volume.
 Diode

Fig 2.5.1 Various semiconductor diodes. Bottom: A bridge rectifier

 In electronics a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric

current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the
most common type today, which is a crystal of semiconductor connected to two
electrical terminals, a P-N junction. A vacuum tube diode, now little used, is a
vacuum tube with two electrodes; a plate and a cathode.
 The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current in one direction
(called the forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the
reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a
check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert
alternating current to direct current, and remove modulation from radio signals in
radio receivers.

Current–voltage characteristic:

 A semiconductor diode’s behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage

characteristic, or I–V curve (see graph at right). The shape of the curve is determined
by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion
region that exists at the p-n junction between differing semiconductors.
 If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in
potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any
significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole pairs are actively being created
 in the junction by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is the reverse bias
phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in
potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric
current through the p-n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes
recombine at the junction).. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately
0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be
developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the
N-doped region and the diode is said to be “turned on” as it has a forward bias.

Fig 2.5.2 I–V characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale).

A diode’s I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation (see
the figure at right).

Types of semiconductor diode:

Zener Schottky Tunnel

Diode
diode diode diode

Light-emitting Photodiode Varicap Silicon controlled rectifier

diode

Fig 2.5.3 Some diode symbols.


  CAPACITOR

Electronic symbol

Fig 2.9.1 A typical electrolytic capacitor

 A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric. When a potential difference exists across the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and
produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The effect is greatest when
there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor
conductors are often called plates.
 An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference
 between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance
and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
 Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the
output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant
circuits in radio frequency equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal
with many frequencies.

TRANSFORMER
 A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in
the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core,
and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
 If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary
winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of
the number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP)
as follows:
 By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating
current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped
down" by making NS less than NP.
 In the vast majority of transformers, the coils are wound around a ferromagnetic core,
air-core transformers being a notable exception.
 Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer
hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to
interconnect portions of national power grids. All operate with the same basic
principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have
eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still
found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage.
Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission which makes long
distance transmission economically practical.
 Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of
power. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage.
Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high
voltage to a safer low voltage.

FIG 4.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

 The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There
is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an
alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two
lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very
little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is
stepped down and current is stepped up.
 The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of
turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply,
and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output
voltage. TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Is = secondary (output) current.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.
Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in
the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a
Wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown
and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat
sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed

primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external
components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

Internal Block Diagram

FIG 4.2(a): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

 RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one
direction, a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of
solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. The
output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The
rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used
because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification. In positive half cycle only
two diodes( 1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct, in negative half cycle remaining two diodes
will conduct and they will conduct only in forward bias only.

FILTER

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of
rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains
voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage
received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
 The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of
this filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power
supplies for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from
the supply.

This filter is also used in circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not
critical and can be relatively high. Below figure can show how the capacitor changes and
discharges.

POWER SUPPLY:-

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is
most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another,
though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical,
chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that

controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly
constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power
supply's energy source.

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a
power supply may obtain energy from:

 Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power

supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.
 Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.
 Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.
 Solar power.

A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral

device that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC
power supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.

Commonly specified power supply attributes include:

 The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.

 How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.
 How long it can supply energy without refuelling or recharging (applies to power
supplies that employ portable energy sources).

TYPES:-

Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into line-frequency (or
"conventional") and switching power supplies. The line-frequency supply is usually a
relatively simple design, but it becomes increasingly bulky and heavy for high-current
equipment due to the need for large mains-frequency transformers and heat-sinked
electronic regulation circuitry. Conventional line-frequency power supplies are sometimes
called "linear," but that is a misnomer because the conversion from AC voltage to DC is
inherently non-linear when the rectifiers feed into capacitive reservoirs. Linear voltage
regulators produce regulated output voltage by means of an active voltage divider that
consumes energy, thus making efficiency low. A switched-mode supply of the same rating as
a line-frequency supply will be smaller, is usually more efficient, but will be more complex.

Battery

Alkaline batteries

A battery is a device that converts stored chemical energy to electrical energy. Batteries are
commonly used as energy sources in many household and industrial applications.

There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are
designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries),
which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes,
from miniature cells used in hearing aids and wristwatches to room-size battery banks that
serve as backup power supplies in telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

DC power supply
A home-made linear power supply (used here to power amateur radio equipment)

An AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses a transformer to convert the voltage
from the wall outlet (mains) to a different, nowadays usually lower, voltage. If it is used to
produce DC, a rectifier is used to convert alternating voltage to a pulsating direct voltage,
followed by a filter, comprising one or more capacitors, resistors, and sometimes inductors,
to filter out (smooth) most of the pulsation. A small remaining unwanted alternating voltage
component at mains or twice mains power frequency (depending upon whether half- or full-
wave rectification is used)—ripple—is unavoidably superimposed on the direct output
voltage.

For purposes such as charging batteries the ripple is not a problem, and the simplest
unregulated mains-powered DC power supply circuit consists of a transformer driving a
single diode in series with a resistor.

Before the introduction of solid-state electronics, equipment used valves (vacuum tubes)
which required high voltages; power supplies used step-up transformers, rectifiers, and
filters to generate one or more direct voltages of some hundreds of volts, and a low
alternating voltage for filaments. Only the most advanced equipment used expensive and
bulky regulated power supplies.

AC power supply

An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and lowers
it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.

Linear regulated power supply

A linear DC power supply.

The voltage produced by an unregulated power supply will vary depending on the load and
on variations in the AC supply voltage. For critical electronics applications a linear regulator
may be used to set the voltage to a precise value, stabilized against fluctuations in input
voltage and load. The regulator also greatly reduces the ripple and noise in the output direct
current. Linear regulators often provide current limiting, protecting the power supply and
attached circuit from over current.

Adjustable linear power supplies are common laboratory and service shop test equipment,
allowing the output voltage to be adjusted over a range. For example, a bench power supply
used by circuit designers may be adjustable up to 30 volts and up to 5 amperes output.
Some can be driven by an external signal, for example, for applications requiring a pulsed
output.

AC/DC supply

In the past, mains electricity was supplied as DC in some regions, AC in others. Transformers
cannot be used for DC, but a simple, cheap unregulated power supply could run directly
from either AC or DC mains without using a transformer. The power supply consisted of a
rectifier and a filter capacitor. When operating from DC, the rectifier was essentially a
conductor, having no effect; it was included to allow operation from AC or DC without
modification.

Switched-mode power supply

A computer's switched mode power supply unit.

In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is directly rectified and then
filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then switched on and off at a high
frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current that will pass
through a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching occurs at a very high frequency
(typically 10 kHz — 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use of transformers and filter capacitors
that are much smaller, lighter, and less expensive than those found in linear power supplies
operating at mains frequency. After the inductor or transformer secondary, the high
frequency AC is rectified and filtered to produce the DC output voltage. If the SMPS uses an
adequately insulated high-frequency transformer, the output will be electrically isolated
from the mains; this feature is often essential for safety.

Programmable power supply

Programmable power supplies

Programmable power supplies allow for remote control of the output voltage through an
analog input signal or a computer interface such as RS232 or GPIB. Variable properties
include voltage, current, and frequency (for AC output units). These supplies are composed
of a processor, voltage/current programming circuits, current shunt, and voltage/current
read-back circuits. Additional features can include over current, overvoltage, and short
circuit protection, and temperature compensation. Programmable power supplies also
come in a variety of forms including modular, board-mounted, wall-mounted, floor-
mounted or bench top.

Programmable power supplies can furnish DC, AC, or AC with a DC offset. The AC output can
be either single-phase or three-phase. Single-phase is generally used for low-voltage, while
three-phase is more common for high-voltage power supplies.

Programmable power supplies are now used in many applications. Some examples include
automated equipment testing, crystal growth monitoring, and differential thermal analysis.
Uninterruptible power supply

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources
simultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously
charging a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery
instantly takes over so that the load never experiences an interruption. In a computer
installation, this gives the operators time to shut down the system in an orderly way. Other
UPS schemes may use an internal combustion engine or turbine to continuously supply
power to a system in parallel with power coming from the AC. The engine-driven generators
would normally be idling, but could come to full power in a matter of a few seconds in order
to keep vital equipment running without interruption. Such a scheme might be found in
hospitals or telephone central offices.

High-voltage power supply

High voltage refers to an output on the order of hundreds or thousands of volts. High-
voltage supplies use a linear setup to produce an output voltage in this range.

Additional features available on high-voltage supplies can include the ability to reverse the
output polarity along with the use of circuit breakers and special connectors intended to
minimize arcing and accidental contact with human hands. Some supplies provide analog
inputs that can be used to control the output voltage, effectively turning them into high-
voltage amplifiers albeit with very limited bandwidth.

Voltage multipliers

A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC electrical power from a lower
voltage to a higher DC voltage, typically by means of a network of capacitors and diodes.
The input voltage may be doubled (voltage doublers), tripled (voltage Tripler), quadrupled
(voltage quadruple), and so on. These circuits allow high voltages to be obtained using a
much lower voltage AC source.

Typically, voltage multipliers are composed of half-wave rectifiers, capacitors, and diodes.
For example, a voltage Tripler consists of three half-wave rectifiers, three capacitors, and
three diodes (as in the Cockcroft Walton multiplier). Full-wave rectifiers may be used in a
different configuration to achieve even higher voltages. Also, both parallel and series
configurations are available. For parallel multipliers, a higher voltage rating is required at
each consecutive multiplication stage, but less capacitance is required. The voltage rating of
the capacitors determines the maximum output voltage.
Voltage multipliers have many applications. For example, voltage multipliers can be found in
everyday items like televisions and photocopiers. Other applications can be found in the
laboratory, such as cathode ray tubes, oscilloscopes, and photomultiplier tubes.

Description:

Power supply is the circuit from which we get a desired dc voltage to run the other
circuits. The voltage we get from the main line is 230V AC but the other components of
our circuit require 5V DC. Hence a step-down transformer is used to get 12V AC which is
later converted to 12V DC using a rectifier. The output of rectifier still contains some ripples
even though it is a DC signal due to which it is called as Pulsating DC. To remove the ripples
and obtain smoothed DC power filter circuits are used. Here a capacitor is used. The 12V DC
is rated down to 5V using a positive voltage regulator chip 7805. Thus a fixed DC voltage of
5V is obtained.

A 5V regulated supply is taken as followed:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

 Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
TRANSFORMER

Transformer is the electrical device that converts one voltage to another with little loss of
power. Transformers work only with AC. There are two types of transformers as Step-up and
Step-down transformer. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers
reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the
dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. Here a step down transformer is used
to get 12V AC from the supply i.e. 230V AC.

RECTIFIERS

A rectifier is a circuit that converts AC signals to DC. A rectifier circuit is made using diodes.
There are two types of rectifier circuits as Half-wave rectifier and Full-wave rectifier
depending upon the DC signal generated.

Half-wave Rectifier: It is the rectifier circuit

that rectifies only half part of the AC signal. It
uses only a single diode. It only uses only
positive part of the AC signal to produce half-
wave varying DC and produce gaps when the
AC is negative.
Full-wave Rectifier: It is also called as Rectifier. A center tap rectifier can be made using
two individual diodes. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses the total AC wave (both
positive and negative sections).
SMOOTHING
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC
supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage
from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and
the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC,
and then discharges as it supplies current to the output. Here a capacitor of 330uF is used as
a smoothing circuit.

VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage regulators produce fixed DC output voltage from variable DC (a small amount of AC
on it). Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the output of the
filtered DC. It can also used in circuits to get a low DC voltage from a high DC voltage (for
example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V). There are two types of voltage regulators
1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx,79xx)
2. Variable voltage regulators (LM317)
In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification
 1. Positive voltage regulators
2. Negative voltage regulators

POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

This includes 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812.
7805 gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in (7.5V-20). You may sometimes have
questions like, what happens if input voltage is <7.5 V or some 3V, the answer is that
regulation won't be proper. Suppose if input is 6V then output may be 5V or 4.8V, but there
are some parameters for the voltage regulators like maximum output current capability, line
regulation etc. won't be proper. Remember that electronics components should be used in
the proper voltage and current ratings as specified in datasheet. You can work without
following it, but you won't be able to get some parameters of the component.

NEGATIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

Mostly available negative voltage regulators are of 79xx family. The mainly available 79xx
IC's are 7905,7912 1.5A output current, short circuit protection, ripple rejection are the
other features of 79xx IC's.

Many of the fixed voltage regulators have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as
the 7805 (+5V 1A) regulator shown on the above. If adequate heat sinking is provided then
it can deliver up to maximum 1A current. For an output voltage of 5v-18v the maximum
input voltage is 35v and for an output voltage of 24V the maximum input voltage is 40V.For
7805 IC, for an input of 10v the minimum output voltage is 4.8V and the maximum output
voltage is 5.2V. The typical dropout voltage is 2V.
 IR SENSORS

DEFINITION

IR stands for “Infra Red”. Infrared detectors/sensors are transducers

of radiant energy.IR Sensor is a sensor that sends and detects IR
Radiation/Signals. Infrared radiation is the portion of electromagnetic
spectrum having wavelengths longer than visible light wavelengths, but
smaller than microwaves, i.e., the region roughly from 0.75µm to 1000
µm is the infrared region. Infrared waves are invisible to human eyes. The
wavelength region of 0.75µm to 3 µm is called near infrared, the region
from 3 µm to 6 µm is called mid infrared and the region higher than 6 µm
is called far infrared. (The demarcations are not rigid; regions are defined
differently by many).

 “Visible”: 0.3 – 1.0 μm;

 Near-IR: 1.0 – 5.2 μm;
 Mid-IR : 8 – 25 μm;
 Far-IR: 25 – 1000 μm; airborne, space
TYPES OF IR SENSORS:

1. Active IR Sensors:
Active IR Sensors are the type of IR Sensors that employs an IR source
& IR detectors (emitter & receiver). They operate by transmitting energy
from either a light emitting diode (LED) or a laser diode. A phototransistor
is used as an active IR detector. In these types of IR sensors, the LED or
laser diode illuminates the target, and the reflected energy is focused
onto a detector. Photoelectric cells, Photodiode or phototransistors are
generally used as detectors. The measured data is then processed using
various signal-processing algorithms to extract the desired information.
Active IR detectors provide count, presence, speed, and occupancy
data in both night and day operation.
2. Passive IR Sensors:
These are basically IR detectors; they don’t use any IR source. These
form the major class of IR sensors/detectors.
A passive infrared system detects energy emitted by objects in the
field of view and may use signal-processing algorithms to extract the
desired information. It does not emit any energy of its own for the
purposes of detection. Passive infrared systems can detect presence,
occupancy, and count.

Type of IR Sensor required in the project

Active IR Sensors- Reflectance Sensors
This type of sensors house both an IR source and an IR detector in a
single housing in such a way that light from emitter LED bounces off an
external object and is reflected into a detector. Amount of light reflected
into the detector depends upon the reflectivity of the surface.
 This principle is used in intrusion detection, object detection
(measure the presence of an object in the sensor’s FOV), barcode
decoding, and surface feature detection (detecting features painted,
taped, or otherwise marked onto the floor), wall tracking (detecting
distance from the wall), etc.
It can also be used to scan a defined area; the transmitter emits a
beam of light into the scan zone, the reflected light is used to detect a
change in the reflected light thereby scanning the desired zone.
It consist of a pair of IR sensors –
-Transmitter
- Receiver
The transmitter transmits the IR signals & the receiver receives the ir
signal.
 IR TRANSMITTER

IR RECEIVER
Transmitter:
 Transmitter = LED (Light Emitting Diode)

 It is similar to normal LEDs but emit infra-red light its glow can be seen
with a digital camera or mobile phone camera.
Receiver:
 Receiver = Photodiode/IR Transistor.

 A photodiode is a diode that conducts only when light falls on it

WORKING PRINCIPLE
CONNECTIONS
APPLICATIONS:

 Robotics – Line follower, Obstacle detector, Edge detector

 Vehicle crash detection
 Speed measurement of motors
 Space expeditions applications
 Military Applications
 General uses as in Shop Door sensor, Anti-theft alarm, Appliance
control system

RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil
current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw
(changeover) switches.

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the
first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains
circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is
magnetic and mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can
be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips)
cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to
the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555
timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for
example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. For further
information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them please see the page on
switches.

Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.

The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious
and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes'
when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent
damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.

The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a
lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves
the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind
them, making the relay DPDT.

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

 COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
 Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is
on.
 Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is
off.
Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil
is switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (e.g. 1N4148) is connected
'backwards' across the relay coil to provide this protection.
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when
the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high
voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The
protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and
diode)
so the

magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage
becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

Relays and transistors compared

Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching small DC
currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay. However
transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains electricity) and they are not
usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be
needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the
relay's coil! The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below:

Advantages of relays:

 Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
 Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
 Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
 Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:
  Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
 Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times
per second.
 Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
 Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor
may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Centrifugal pumps are the most preferred hydraulic pumps used in domestic and
industrial world. In this video we will have a conceptual overview of the working of
centrifugal pumps.

Centrifugal pumps are used to induce flow or raise pressure of a liquid. Its working is
simple. At the heart of the system lies impeller. It has a series of curved vanes fitted
inside the shroud plates. The impeller is always immersed in the water. When the
impeller is made to rotate, it makes the fluid surrounding it also rotate. This imparts
centrifugal force to the water particles, and water moves radially out.

Since the rotational mechanical energy is transferred to the fluid, at the discharge
side of the impeller, both the pressure and kinetic energy of the water will rise. At the
suction side, water is getting displaced, so a negative pressure will be induced at the
eye. Such a low pressure helps to suck fresh water stream into the system again, and
this process continues.

The negative pressure at the eye of the impeller helps to maintain the flow in the
system. If no water is present initially, the negative pressure developed by the
rotating air, at the eye will be negligibly small to suck fresh stream of water. As a
result the impeller will rotate without sucking and discharging any water content. So
the pump should be initially filled with water before starting it. This process is known
as priming.

Advantages

 Easy to use
 Save water
 Very low power circuit

Disadvantage
 Maintenance may be high

References:

 www.seminarprojects.com
 www.google.com
 www.circuittoday.com
 www.indianengineer.tk
 www.wikipedia.org