;,:--- ;::::;::::-_-;:--·...--;--:--;::-.. ..: ..-. .:.:; :; -~:--.--:-:-;;:r.:"'.:::r~.=-~-- .--:::=-:-~-·::-. ~ ,_,.

,-
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AgriculturalExtension
and ·
Commu.nicatio·n
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Contributors:
4
Ms. Filma C. Calalo
. s Prof. Nelita M. Lalican

Dr. Ram~r.o -· F. - . Plopino .

'.l ·· or. 'Bla11da R·~ · S·umayao
3

- --- - -
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION 173 .
 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION

I. Specmc Knowletlge Areas and Competences

Knowledgeable and competent in ·agricultural teaching methods at1d communications
speci fi cally in the areas of extension objective, principles. and programs, procedure of
differen t extension teaching methods, and purposes, scope and levels of communication.

II. Professional Ccwe Su~)j o ints in S11ecific J\r·eas

Extension a nd Cornin11 n i1..:cition

(,,,. objectives, programs and principles of extension
.:.~~ interrelationship ofresearch and extension
G · communication processes '1nd elements. scope and levels as they-relate to extension
0 • factor to consider in effective communication like the adoption prpcess, types of
adopters and attributes of technology.
. . . .

Includes methods of extension and their relationship to adoption process and approaches to
extension

1. Overvkw of Agricultural Extension

1.1 Definition of terms
c:.~· Exte11sion
,:::;,. Agricultural Extei1sion
,.-_;r- Communication
e Technology
1.2 History of Extension
1.3 Philosophy, Principles and Objectives of Extension
I. . Extension as One of the Major Functions of a University /College
2.1 Functions of a University . .
2.2 Interrelationship of the different functions of a college/university
2.3 Sources of Information and T.echnologies

3. Communication in Extension
3. 1 Importance of communication ,
3.2 · Elc~ments of communication process
3.3 Levels of communication
3.4 Extension Workers as a Communicator
3.5 Barriers to effective communication

4-. Th e Adoption Process

'J..l Stages of Adoption Process
o · Awareness
c-.:i~ lntcrest
,.: ;- Evaluation
.::..- Trial
13•· Adoption
- -- ------·- - - ---------- - -. --------------------
174 Agqie Board Reviewer
 '-1.2 Types of Adopters
·· lnno·vators
,:;.·· Early Adopters
·~P EJrly Majority
<Y Late Majority
'-"-~ Laggards

l\ tt ribuiJ: o f Technology
·' CF" Rr:! lative A clvant~1ge
"""' Complexity
, ·~:·· Cornr>a tilJility·
:::.· 'frial~1bdity
··.. Obsc~rvahility

l\ilc:thocb/Techniques of Extension
6.1 Dc'finition of Methods/Technologies
6.2 Far.tors to consider in the choice of extension teaching
6. 2.l Human Factors (Source and Receiver)
C--"' Knowledge/skills
._., , . Attitudes
0
• Socio-culhfral Er1vironment
(J.2 .2 Objectives
6.2.3 ·· Subject: matter/Technology
G.2.4 Time (preparation on tfme and time of the day)
6 .2.5 Budget
6. :7. .6 Other factors
6.3 E\'.te11 sion teaching methods according to number ofclientele to be ob~;erved
6.3.1 Mass Method s
6.3.l.l Mass fvledia
6 .3.1.l .1 Mass Media
6 .3.1.1..2 Television
6.3.1.1.3 Print
c=» Folders/Leaflets/Pamphlets
'"" Posters
,:;.- Newspaper
'""' Wall Newspaper
a· Fact Sheets
6. :?i .1.2 Exhibits
Cd .1.3 Educational Campaign
6.::u.4 Projected Visuals ·
< ') • ·1
t J. ..J
c:
....... . ... ) Lantern Slides
6.3. 2 Crnu ; i
C.3.2 . .l Lecture
6.3 ? .:?. Demonstration
6.3.L3 Tours and Field Trips
6.3.2.4 Field Dav
. . - J

(i . 3 . '.J..~) Meetings
___ .... . · - ~ - -·-·· · · - · · · -· · - ·- -~ ..._.__ .. .
----~-- · ----- .._. ~ · · · ·-··-----

f\GRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND (OMMUNICATION 175

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6.3.2 .6 Group Discussion

6.3.2 .6.1 Phillip 66 (6 person, 6 min. discussion)' ·.
6.3.2.'6.2 Brainstorming
6.3.2 .6.3 Panel
G.3 .2.6.1 Symposiu m
6.3.J Individual
6.3.3.l Farm and Home Visit
6 .3.3.2 Office Calls
6.3.3.3 Telephone Calls ...iI
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6.3,3.4·· Personal Letters -~

6.3 .3;5 Informal contact .I

6.3 .3.6 Electronic Media

.:-~~ Fax
•:..,., Internet
•:J£." Email

/'. Approaches in Extension 1

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Mnss Approach
C:ornrnoclity Approach
Area Approacl1
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·~ 7.tJ. Team approach "~
7.5 lndividut-1l Approach ·l
f'i
7.6 rntegrated Approach j
7 .7 Training and Visit Approach

-----.........-...·-·-·-··. ·-·- ... -······- ··--.. ..... . -..

--·~ ··-- - - --·--------

176 /l.•J9i c F>:.xrnl l·k vicwer

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 ._ ... ....-· .. .. ·- -
~ · ·~· · .. . ~ . . -·-- - ---- I
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I

erences:

ikarya, Ronny. Strategic Extension Campaign. A Participatory-Oriented Method of

Agricultural Extension. A Case Study of FAQ's Experiences. Rome, Italy. 1994

1 G. et al. Leadership and Dynamic Group Action

rlo, DJvicJ K. Proce ~;~; of Communication lntrod'uction of Theory and Practice. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston New York; 1960. 318 pp.

ng, Chi-Wen. Rural Asia Marches Forward. University o(the Philippines. College of
Agriculture, College, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. 1969

:anay, Remedios C. Extension Methods and Approaches. Mimeographed.

·ranco T. Sorne A~;pecL.;; of Extension Work Inter-American Institute of Agricultural

Sciences of the OAS_AID Turralba, Costa Rica. May l 963, Vol.
I i
l
ran co T Some Aspects of Extension Work. Inter-American ·Institute of Agri.cultural
Sciences of the OAS_AID Turralba, Costa Rica. J<~nuary 1966, Vol II. ·

tive Delivery of Extension Services and the Masagaria '99 Program -1st Agricultural
Proceedings.

nder, Addison H. AgriculturalExtension ~ A Reference Manual Food and Agriculture

Association of the United Nations. Rome 1972.

ina,Amadea. & Rufina R. Ancheta. Agriculture and Home Extension: In the Philippine
Setting. Publisher's Press, Quezon City, Philippines. 1978
I .'

;' '

cado. Methods in Agricultural Extension Te3ching Manual ~

i:

rt of the Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension. Rome, Italy, December 4-8,

1989. Prepared by the Agricultural Education and Extension Service (ESHE).
Human Resources; Institutional Agrarian Reform Division with the editorial
Assi stance of Burton E. Swanson. Food and Agriculture Organizations of the · ,,
United Nations Rome 1990. · 'i
'. l
;: H .
ers, H.C. The Coop;:! rative Extension Service. Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N. 1. ~
. 1J
I~

1969 . 'j
. 1,
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AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND (OMMUNICATION 177

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 ...,.~_.. .................... . . . . . ... . ... ........... ,. ..... ~--... . ..... ····· - · -·--.
~

THE BEGINNINGS OF EXTENSION

·- -- -·~-- -- -~-·- - -- - ---·-- --
The mstant 01•it!ins
- - -- ------i------ - -
1 In Mesopota rnia (p1~esent day Iraq), archeologists have unearthed clay of
· tablets of tim eon which were inscribed advice on watering crops and
1aoo nc getting rid o frats. .
Some hierog lyphir~: on Egyptian columns gave advice on avoiding crop
_ ___________
,____ dam'!_~an~-loss-.
of life in Nile's floods
Latin texts w ere written, frequently drawing on practical farming
experience w hich aimed to help Roman landowners to maintain and
2nd centwy BC improve the ir estates and revenues.
to 3rd century
BC In Imperial China, dissemination of agricultural information was a matter
of concern t o the state since it heavily relied on taxes and revenues from
landowners and tenants.

- -------~---
The_19'.'.'._Ce~1tury England _
The term "U niversity Extension" or "Extension of the University" was -first
J.?.1.~(~~- - .·--· ---·-··____ _re_<:Qrd<::_<JlE!_Britain.
- - --------------------·
' ·-- ····-
Discussions began in two ancient universities (Oxford & Cambridge) about
1850s how they co uld ~erve the needs of the rapidly growing population in the .
industrial an d urban areas.
First practic al steps were taken by James Stuart, Fellow of Trinity College·
1867·'. 1868 _in Carnbridg e, gave leC:tures to women's associations and men's clubs in the
North of Eng land; Stuart is Often considered the' Father of University
______
Extension' 1<l Vt - ·t:iS[~"''1:i c.:l\! •l!~-~l''l?t '1n 1.i1,a 1 1ea: 1 d'-'liOJl.G!l:ccl ''v"11·.11.o- R-nt--l l:~n1-Jf1·~· ·.
·-·· ·- ---·------ -·----- -·--- ..._.
James Stuart appealed to authorities of University of Cambridge to
1~-?J_________________ _Q~~ ni ze ce72 ~rs fo!. extef!§ion lectures under the university's supervision.
1872 University o f Cambridge adopted the systen1.
1_~1.~-- - · -·······--·----··· Jl.!:!Jvcr~ity__Q_f:J~_'?_nd<?~~!!_q__wed Cam b~.!_~ge
1878 University o f Oxford followed the system . .
The system became well-established and developed and was referred to as
extension mo vement; the University extended its use beyond the campUSi
thus~~~-~~~s-ion be_~_~trne mor~J!1stitueional(~edfi~nction of the universities.

Birth of 11!~!!.~rn -~g~icultural Extension Services

•--lt1-EUROPEl______ _
~\\

1841 Founding_of the Xfoyal Agricultural Improvement Society (RAIS) in Britain

The first agr icultural extension service came into existence as a result of
the outbreal<of the potato blight in Ireland where the predominantly
E~-~-0nt COJ~muni_!:y_relied on potatoes as staple food.

The Earl of r.:' 1__::11.~ ~:.c:l_~~ 1-~--~1.1_ :gg_~~~:~.':'.J0..I_0_t_g_..':.\.l?J? o ~~?..~.i~!~]_P:~~~~~~..!~.~!~~r~'::.!:~~-~~r a V_<:!_.

178 Aggie Board Reviewer

 -·------·--- - · -·-··Ta rou;dth~dist;:e-;-;~<ld.istrlcts to helpfa;mers improve their cultivation l
____________ - ·----· _j_~!_l-~_grow.~~~~!.!!_2_us_<:E2P..~_:________ _ _· -· _________
I
89~~---·-- "···--·-- ..Ib..~~-~niversities began to c_C?Ve_I.:.~g!:lcultur~l Sut!j_ects in lectures. _ ___ ·
In USA
. .
There are two developments significant to the evolution of the agricultural
extension in USA; (1) Morill Act of 1862 was signed by Pres.Lincoln during
the Civil War providing for the creation of Land Grant Colleges and
Universities. Fund~: were made available from the Federal Government to
establish dei11onstration centers/experimental stations. (2)The beginning

--------I~:i~;-~~;~~~~s~~~,;~;~:ed
of Farmers Institute Movements which organized cine-to-two day meetings
professors from the ,state ~olleges and

890 American So ciety for Extension of University Teaching was established.

I Second Morill Act was passed which extended Land··Grant concept in other
areas of USA. The Farmers Institute Movement hasbeen institutionalized
1

· ~---·--- . -- .-- -t-"0'.ith Federal support and s~e;visi~m. --·-· ·- -·--- - - - - - -----
1

I The University of Chicago and Wisconsin began organizing e.xtension

program which leCld to the establishment of Land Grant College and the
_...~!!.~~~1~-~.l..~~~s_t:.~l?_U.:~l_!._!!~E_nt of a_g_!.:_i~:ult_ural ext_<2!~:-;iC?J:!...~~rk in the co~!..!!._t:r_·y_._ _
l\1ssage (Jf the Smith-lever Act which established the Cooperative Extensioi1.
Service-a tripartite cooperation between the federal, state, and local ·
I gc:vernmcnt together with the state colleges and universities as extension
I • ,1J,JI ~ C. \ \ V(°
···--·---- .. ----- __ ]. __~1g~t]_<:Y:. ____ ,___ __2_« .r l ;~ l');n- 0.;i:'lL!.~!~ V""l"f-il'--tb:.....YJ.L~-"'......'.~~~un. :Ni>O
:,'\ .~ ..-\)ji:i -~-r ~""((t-b:d. lJO Agv\ cul~;v''/I). e...11Pot Ht.>\H~ Vi..- 0 \°'I OM\'.: 1-.

------·--······---·-··-·- Agricultural !Extension h1 Developing Countrie.!..._ _______·

40s • .1960s Ii Agricultural extension organizations were established in Latin America

and the Caribbean. . . . .. . . .· · .· . . .

'--- -····-·-"·· ·- -·-·--!----·-··-·---- ··- - - --- . . -·-----
· -----
r6~-~ :}2_!0.~---- -L~J. ~~1:. e~~~ension organ~zati01~s were sta~ted in many African nations.
"'~ i:i,~ - .\i<>o\ts/ ·J"'-'Vn<A\I c."ol ot1,e ... Yc"o\;119
. : , · 1'1\0\,l><vi<A\.r

·T1:.1- '•"'J'.1 t.:.T • t· ~" ··\.1· r..• .,

r v"~• 1 ,1,~;::; .,R1·· I\\
. ..,_ - ~~

,. .

·--- --··--·-·-·-······-····---·-·- ·--··· -----------···- -----·-----

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AMO COMMUNICATION 179

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 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSWN IN THE PHILIPPINES: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
(Source: Sison, Obdulia F., 1987)
· ·- - ---·-·-DA-:i~-l-~ ·---- -···.,-·-···--·--···--·-·---·---··-·····------ -SIG NI riCANT-~ FFE er·-··-- --·-···- ···------.- - - -···- --·1
~ --··· -·· ··----· · · · -· ·-···--·-··-·-1- · -------·· ----·-----
. ----~-----....____._,_ __ ___________ __... _ _ _____-l
,_
1 8 65 · . The beginnings of extension work thru. the Gra~jas Modelos or model farms
that were set up. They served as: . · . . · . . .
.. Experimental stations of the Spanish gov~rnment
•Demonstration centers for farmers
-·-- -- --- - -- - --- · ~- ---- ·· - - - · · - - - - - - - - _ - i _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ , _ _.
- - - -·------
TOH/m·ds end of Extension also had regulatoi·y functions such as supervision <;>f tobacco fields
the .18t:h Century and grading of tobacco leaves for export.

July 19.-LO ~Demonstration and Exteqsion Division.was created.in the Bureau of

Agriculture making it the first formally organized government department
implementing extension and research programs.

1
Several experiment stations and demonstration farms ·w ere set up in
stl'ategic places in the country.

Agric ultural schools were also established to educate and train government
agricultural ~xtension workers and others engaged in agriculture. (Note: The
I College of Agriculhire, University of the Philippines was established on
---~- --...--··- ---····-- -- ·-·-.l'.!~EE.h 6, 1:29.2L . . ---------
]11Jy .l 0, .1919 The extension service organization was made a separate unit of the Bureau
of Agriculture as the Demonstration and Extension Division. its expanded
operations included: · · ··
\ • Farmer;, cooperative organizations
, ..
Rm<.1! credit
. .. Marketing

1, I I •Animal insurance . · . . ·.
[--·-·--·--- ···- -----·· . -- -~-~er~~J~~~:£l_g_ageq_!n this workw~!·e called farm advi~ers:
i .
.t 923 · I The name of the Division wa:s changed toA,qricu/turcil Extension Service.
I . ,
Other events that took place:
· ~ Start of the Home Extension work (later known as the Division of Home
j Economics) under the Division of Organic Chemistry of the Bureau of ~£..-,\ ·
· · [ Science. Main service was on food preservation. ·
---· -----· ··-· ·· .. ...... ..... --··· ··-~-- ~-L~_ !'::1ari~__y. Orosa found~d the !!9112~~tensio_Q_~~i.Y._ice. ' . .
c, \.r ,, l..c1''"·"~ i;J
--·-- ---- ·---- ·-·-···--·-----·
130 Aggie Boa rd Heviewer
- ---·, - ------ ___ ____________
M 0 1(.1\!:f. o~ \\1:;1\w l2>-l:;<'11r; b,,
,
~qv;c. e
 - --· - -
Bureau of Agriculture was reorganized. The Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) ;
and the Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) were formed. Both Bureaus continued
to ex2_and their 'e xtension 'activities. · ·

Commonwealth Act BS was passed.Jt 'established the provincial exten~ion

services financed by the provincial and 1nunicipal governments. Some
significant results: . ,
• A broader and more compi·ehensive agricultural system emerged .
• Extension service in the Philippines became a serious organized
business · · ·
•The positions of the Provincial Agriculturists were created
•Farm advisers were now 'called extension agents. .
Some constraints: · · ' '
• The home economics group were in the Plant Utilization Division of ·
the BPl -
• Insufficiency iJf funds ,
·--+-----··_U_n~sy~s..!_ematic, scattered, and decentralized agricultural' extension. _:..:._

Enactment of Commonwealth Act 649 which increased the budget for

extension work.

Japanese Occupation
"Home economics and agricultural extension work, particularly in the
--···'- - --.,.- ___Rrovinces st!fferect drawbacks. Extension work was paralyzed ·

The Home Extension Unit of the Plant Utilization Division.of BPl was fused
- -. __ --·· -'- --~ _wiQ!J:_IJ_~:__~gricult~!-~~.§.xtension of tht:_Bureau >". · . · ··

Upon request of the Preside;1t of the Philippines to the President of the USA
to send to the Philippines an Economic Survey Mission "to
consider financial
problems of th e country and to recommend measures that will enable the
Philippines to becomE:· and remain self-supporting".· The Bell Survey Mission
came to · the Philippines. Its recommendation . ·among others: The ·
consolidation of the scattered extension organiz:a tion . in the different
Bureaus (BPI, BAI, Bureau of . Soils, Bureau of Forestry, and Bureau of'
Fisheries) into one bureau that would adequately extend information into
farm families on improved · methods of farming, . homemaking, and rural
organiza_~-~~.n_
. ---·------·----~------------~----1
Creation of th e.Bw g_gJ.u!l.!lgriculturqLfixtension {BAEx} through RA No. @Q
enacted by the Congress of the Republic of the Philippines.This was in
response to the Bell Mission's recommendation. All extension activities of the
Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources b~came the responsipility ·
of BAEx, , .
····- - ---- - - -··---·- - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - --- - - --'

-- ------·-------------··---- --
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION 1"81 '
 ~-- - --
........ .....,,"'~--··...-...:.:.~-.,,._,:,.......,,.,.~:.;... ...;;.....;...-. - - - -
-
-- ... -::.=--•• ~.:..~ _;:.:-· ·.·>~ · :.-: .•.:.; ... ._ .. ~ .•---........ _._,._ ·-··· · . ··-·- '"'' _,.,;....,_• ..-. -...

-·-·--- ------·--· --·- - - - - - ---- - - - - - - - - - - -- ---------,

August 8, 1963 The BAEx was renamed the Agricultural Produc.t ivity Coin mission (APC)
placed under the Office of the President. Under the APC, th~ Agrici.1ltural
·Tena ncy Commission was organized asa separate office.
The APC, the Land Authority, the Agricultural Credit Administration, and the
'...ctnd Bank were placed at the "Crest of the land reform program" .

.Positi' Con5eQ_tJence: A concentrated technical assistance because of the

team ii up of agricultlirist, home demonstrators, and 4- H club officers in
·carryil .: out the res pon sibility in the integrated national land reform ·
prc)gr;: n .
Nega!.i/ e Con s e~nce:.It revived the all intra-departmental jealousies.
_...__R_e~nttne_nts arose from other agencies that were covered by the program. __

Creation of the Rice and Co~Authority (RCA) through Executive Order No;
62. RCA extended credit for· seeds, pesticides/ ·a nd·harvesting. It also had a
fertilizer subsidy
... .
program for participating. ,.. farmers.
. .
t----- - -.. - ------t-----~-

1965 Reconceptuaiization of the rice self-sufficiency1)rogram to include rice

production, m'a rkcting, and distribution and the coi1solidatio11, integration,
and the con c~ntration of governn:ient as _w ell as private sector resources.

The National Food and·Agriculture Council (NFAC) emerged by Virtue·of

Executive Order No. 183. It was given full control of the food production
program and so controlled a large portion of fupds for agriculture ~nd _the .
funding from the U.S. Administration for lnter~a~io.nal <Development (USAlD).
The NFAC assu.med a m ajor responsibility for overseeing the effective
·---·-·-····- -··· - --·--- - -- _c_!_~.!.~Y.:t::ry~f tl~e agricultural extensi on services for the entire c~un~!:Y·--------1
.Declara:tion of Martial Law. Several· organizational changes affecting
agricultural extension took place ..
•Presidential Decree No.1 and Presidential Letter of Implementation
(Nov. 1, 197 3) reverted the APC .to its original name, BAEx.
• Functions and p ersonnel in cooperatives we1~e transferred to the
Dep artm ent of Local Government and Community Development

~~L~i~~bollshed the Bureau of Fann Mana/iemen~.of t~e Department .

·__ __ _ _ _ _ _·___I _•_9ff\gi:;irian Reform and transferred its extension function to BAEx.

1~~1'. 1~73 1j :~;;~ ~~:~t::~a~~dE~nder th e DA Alsci, the Abaca and other Fibers Board

- - - --- ·- - - -- -~-~~------------~---------
182 Aggi e Board Review er
 ---------G.;~::;,~~-~-~,;~~-=i-=~1as requ~sted by t:~hilippine Government to
1
' li977
. appraise the country's agricultural extension service. Results: I• Ovt 1Al)-I
I "The Philippines adopted the Training andVisif (T&V) system · l . ~ 1' t £> ~
! • The proposal for Ihe !~~i:ion~l Exten_sion__Proj~~! (~§~)was approved
and became operational on Mardi 27, 1979. .
t \" ' ( ; ' 'fl\ \ ( '

•The World Bank approved a loan of US $35 M. · [i'-\ o ('-"'l!

I
• The Philippine agricultural exte.nsion service' was strengthened with
~ .
1_________ ____.. _____ j_~!fi.JJ}~~-.a.u_tj_t~:?:'.:n1_rces a~_quired t~~-the World Bank-As~.sted NEP_._ __!
>-

, i 1978
I
I
1M_i nistry-wide
. regional office~ were created in the Ministry of Agriculture by
l
~
1 virtue of PD 1579. With this structural set-up, 12 ministry-wide Regional
. ~; ; Directors and 24 i\sst.Regiot)al Directors (one for livesfock and one for crops
Jl ' in each region) were appointed. Th.is was followed by the designation of 75
.. ..._________ .. ______~ro~j_!!_!:ia~_g_~!cultural Officers in .1980. - - -·· - - - -------1

~ 1982 ! By Virtue of EO. 803, the province under the leadership of. tl~e
governor was
designated as the political unit of management for including agricultural
development, coordination and supervision of operations of the various ·
agencies involved in the delivery of the agrieultural services. This means the
}'>rovincial governments were empowered to have their own extension
services as provided for in RA. N0.5 1.85 (1967) known as the
Dccei1tralization Act.

. Th e Organizational Structure for the Implementation of the Integrated .

1
Agricultural Extension Program . ·
I •The Regional Director were directly under the Minister of Agriculture
11 The Regional Director directly supervised the Provincial Agricultural
.. '
Officer (PAO) · . . · . . i'

·I
,1
'*The PAO was rnsponsib)e for nll municipal agricultural officers(MAO's) I
. I
I

At the provincial level, the PAO was assisted by:

•The Senior Home Management Techniciari{SHMT)
. . The Rural Youth Development Officer (RYDO)
"'J'hc Provlnclnl Subject Matter Specialist (SMS} '

· I Th e ~fao is directly responsible for all ~!i!:.lcttlturul Food Technologist~

___ __________J_ll\TI~_JI~th~ municipality. ·. .. . . , ~·-·--
· _ _, - - - - - - - - - - - ;
0
9117
II By Virtue of EO. No.116, the BAEx, the Philippine
. .
Agricultural Training
I Council, and the Philippine Center for Rural Development were merged Into
j ~,ht~ A1.-:'.:ict~ltural Trairiing_lnstitute (ATI). Thus, the ·,~birth" of ATI ineant th~
death of BAEx. · . .

The ATl is mandated by E.O. 116 to be ,,·responsible for the training of all
1 agricultural extension workers and their clientele, who are mostly farmers
_ __..........___ ____ L!):~.<!ther a_g!·icult\~ral workers: ensure th_at training'progr.a ms address the
- --·-·-·---·-. -·... - -·- · - - ----------- ~-- ----- ------·-------
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION 183
-.~~u~i.fWXtb..~""'-V~~.~ .
I ·y \1 ~:: f 0( \ h\ 1: l: \?.•, / E'\'- l n ':;{'- I

·; ~.' t. '.'\'\'. .:. L~\ / i •\:• \ '1 •l \\ \1 •q \;t'\\ (\°I '=' ft'/}
::t .· ' !: ! ~i ..: (.~:·;,:;. \={tf2)

Cv, , ,.,; ,.\: ;.,,. t".\:( \,,i' • (:O \JJ 1TH)

·-·--·---··--·-·-----,-------··-E ·-·---··---- · - - ----- . -------- --- - · -- -·- ,

reai needs .of the agricultural sector; ensure that the research results are
then communicated to the farmers through appropriate training and
r--·· 1
--------···--- - ··--:--+~-x tension activities". . . . . . . .

. 1991 I The agricultura! exte)1sion .!iervices of the DA were devo_Ived. to the local ·
1 · . Jgovcrnnumt umt.~ (LGUs) by ·\1i rtue of._R.A. 7160 o~herw1se known as the
~1997- ----·-··· !/h~9:~~~~i~; ;~f~~;l~~~~c~~t~L ·s also known ~1s ~gric~lture. and Fish~ries
I..··-- ···-·····----·--·····-·· -- Modernization Act or AFMA - ··- ------ ~ -- ··---· · - ~· - -· ·. .. . . __,_.
; . h ·.J t 1 .i c: (.\/ fi-\; ~~ ~ "\\\(,L">\\ \C lln""'v.. e: \'\\t-'.. \: ( .. ,,./1 s/(l\a°''Q·., ; \·~, 5 • . Stifti\:'"".'~\\i~
·2 ?-.r. 1cv tlJ il \\r~1:f,\\...-\~.. \, L{. · c~loUI.'" \ i.~·.,, ,, c·\-"·"~ '~\"\ T;:" f.f

MEANINGS AND TERM!NOLOGY FOR EXTENSION IN SOME SELECTED COUNTRIES

(Compiled by Dr. B.R. Sumayao, DAERS, UPLB ~CA) ..
--------------
-----·-·-·-... - . .-MEANING
. - .... ·-··----.............. --.-. ... ....--··--- · -·-
._

Llgh t:ing the pathway ahead to help people

find their way -------·-- --
Germa ny Bera tung An expert .c an give advise on the best way to
reach one's goal bu~ leaves the person the ·
final ·r esponsibility for selecting th e wJy.

Au fklarung Enlightenment, so that qne knows dearly

where he/she is going. ·

•-·
j .

·-1~1-;s ;_;:~;~~-· - --- -

.
lI
Erziehung
-·--··F ~~d ~-un£ ______
Education, that is, to
teach people to solve
_!heir 2!:2_bl0;ri1s themsel_ves ________;____ ·
1
- ·- ·-· ··
Furthering or stimulating one to go in a
i
------ -··········.:. ___
.__..). __--·--··-----·- - - - - - desirable direction ·
- . - - - -·-· - - - - - - - - -----·--
Fran ci.~ i Vul garisation Simplification of the message for the common

·- \'·rt1'- ~ .iJ ,, \ ·\x"•'.f\..,,h,:,1

\
.:i ·
.!
~''"" 1<."7 ·"·""11;:>,,e ,,,, v•
., f;ul'<V.,t'f
' ·,,.
'"(" . "'"· ' ''
.\-r>A r ; .c
D/
·, "' /hn l .C, ;
Tc: c: \l hl.-:J \-o (" ' c ,O.t,1,y f\t'i',· ..~ ·JC.~\) C< ,o\ . ~ •-I\\'\;;\\""'"

1-1...J1:\ (.\.1'. \).- .._• .{.. \.;)~ \"\\(\'\ 't,

'~' "~(A .:- 11' h'/ s...\ 11-. cA

"\ w 1.;(pi11v, \)~ 1; '/
\'\
· '<.
-~ .
\ ·• 'n ~:. \ ~\ ~.\ o\ s·.· t,~\ ·J us\.1( .... .
'.: D11c\ .1·.,,:vv 1\/

. ·--····-· ·· - -· ·~· ~ .······-··-····-- ··········-··· -· ··· ---- ·---··-··· --... --· - -·----·..--·---·--··--. - -.-..·-··---....-----·----
184 /.\~_39i e [io,11·d Revi ewer
 MA\Ji,• Q1:,7_ 1~n-, , i''"'L1
/\ (,~) ~ 't \ q ;· Cy dS\:,CI"
. ·\\\ ;...., ... r)''
f

t'rA,it:A.bDl'lAl
"'"'~ " r. 1-.n .nt
\'\l..o L(;' \)IJ~ 1;;.(
t• · ~~fj •~ ov l1..-vv::... \ f ~ i <Jt~·""Gf\

MMUNICATfON: comes i • orn the Latin word "communis" meaning to make common or to
blish ccimmcmm's.s .betw Jt ·n tv1•0 or more people.
a
rmunii::ation is a proces:; by. wh ich ~J:!.LS§ sends a message to a receiv~r by means of
· e r_h <:~DJlC.l in order to prod uce ,' ,.<,<;nn,.r:p fro m the rec~~r, in accordance .to the
ntion of the source.
Key points in the defi ni, ;on
• Comnnmicati n·· · a 1.iro , is a on-going, cycl L., ever-changing, with no
beginning or e1,l. , ir ;rdependent, interrelated)
Consists of 5 basic e ements (source, message, receiver, channel, response) .
o Effectiveness is arhi •1ed if receiver's response matches with intention of source.
• Has 4- attri bute·c
o Dyn tic · ha~· ·1. ever changing character, fluctuates constantly never
fi '<' · no ( !em ·ginnings and endings
o · ~)y::, 1.,;~ rnic as,, '·<)Jn, it consists of a grollp of elements which interact
to infl 1 1 n e<.1 her and the system as a whole
o Inter o.i th1 ·1hols - essential in communication that what
symbt we s· ncl how they are organized affect other's
interpi ation .f c., r messages
o Meanil ,i-; is p e1 .-;m i· 'y constructed - no two people construct the same
meanin ;- f en if th ey hear or see the saine thing.
1

LD OF EXPERIENCE: the s1m1 tot; ·! of an individual's experiences, i)1cluding one's culture

languag~~ yvhich influen : his , ' lillty to communicate. . .
Let: us look at the tw ,, .., verL ~ ping circles, each circle representing the field of ·
rience of co111munication p 1rticip: ints A and B..
··.·,·,:

\!IJ
..... . . .Dt: L\ \?> lr \'2./\\1?'

IN'fa'iv t::-U·r1.CAJ - A 4'y 11oc,'"<bi> e\\·'" " ·

(Llll!--lr .
''OLvrJ \,.,1-.:y
. C\~~NC·1~

The overlap in the tWo ci rcles represents the con1mon field of expe;·ience of A and 8,
their shart~d similar experien ces.

DBACK: tlie inform.a tion tha·t is sent or fed back by the receiver, intentfon~lly or
tention<111y, to the source ·· · · ·

POSE: teJ.ls the source whether the receiver is paying attent:ir;m fo the message,
erstands it, is not bored, or likes the presentation. The source is formed whether s/he
~Id revis e. hi:=; communication act. ·

.. I)

~i'
~

(
' n '\ / :rii\, (~ 1 \( '\ h . J •'\ l'\\"\f:

•J \~~~!.~:i.U.).J~------·----.. - - - - ···- - · J
·• 1~" '-' ·"":1..,., w h·, \;.1 <'i '- ,-,,; enc. <: A.GRICULTURl\L EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION .185
IJ
1.
 Relation ship of Elements of Communication

i
r-
[Feedback}·---:·--~-,;;~~~- · -~ :
SOURCE- ~--··-· ·-·-·--·--,---- RECEIVER·
~1__ ,_CHANNEL
• ·.
I
I

SOURCE: sends message/i nformation to receiver

Characteristics of the so·urce:
• Credibility - refers to a set of perception about the source held by receiver in ·
terms of competence, trustworthiness and dynamism, u(. \ :ev~~ \)i \\·1,1
o · Dimensions of Credibility
Character o·' "'"n$ \oq
Competence \) ; '"eM io11
Composure tr.111 ens io·~
Dynamism \·);,,, e,,si un
• Homophily - refers to the degree to which a receiver perceives the source
as similar to. him in certain attributes . .:x · '' ~J~ , 1J<iCr1 c,., \"11q~t1qe , ~'"' 'c t. 1

MESSAGE: sign or symbol that has meaning to both sender and receiver ·
Message Factors:
• CJ?g~~ symbols used in communicatingi both sender and receiver should
understand in order to communicate . .
• CQnt~..!.lt- the idea or substance selected to express the purpose of the sources
foi· cmn.municatii1g . . . .
• '!=I.e.at.m~gr.- the rnanner by which the materials are arranged in order to be
meaningful to the r eceiver.
' .

Cl-JANNEL: th e medium through whic;h the message is sent from the source to the receiver.
RE CEIVER: receives, analyzes, und erstands and interprets the message; also refcrredto as
deco der. rc1.~c~·"'' t;,: rc,j"J \2[, Pe-\~.L·l~" \'\\~.... ,· yi1::re i-11"" 1<::1N' D1J'G Vf.f(oN
EFFE CT: the difference behrVeen what the receivers think, feel and does before and after
exposure to a m essage. o v , (;.>me .

• Co gnitive effect - knowledge, awareness, thought and skills

• Neutralization- shifting of an existing attitude to the n.e\ttral zone
~ Boomerang effect - a shift opposite to that direction that is intended
·• Conservation - maintenance of existing attitude
.. Attitud e r einforcement. or strengthening of existing attitude.
" Shift: to the opposite sign, from(+ J to(-) and vice versa . ·
-~~:~~-~ ••'. :u
· '- [ l)\J (AT \\-11'\.\ \ \\ (11;, 11 \Q 1Ge1y ~-1QH 1'0(LM), L
/
i:e..1 Ov_'cS\ t\ e \:;I\( .~ov''' °' ' 'Svl\oo\ · .rjS t(l\ li
- ,) o l•:s'. '.1 '"'~ 1
b• bY1 0 ~ V~-1 0G \? ,~";-A l-.l l)\ \'-\t" 111q(;', \t- NQ,J L \51)(,1;" \p ~ CD{'\t f ,~· "\\ u \et SJ°Cf/ '

- \:> '{•!\ ') \ ('.( C LO f"M \ T"11) N '""J .) ;-~1)~\1 \Tl1t-.l P \ N ti- "'-\ ' P \'? OQ. 1, i;·1-1.r .._.., \,c,! s ·:•\_,\ 1\;V if .
"{ • :.'~ •(.:t<.l\i , rt 1.. :.,,~,~-,.q ,1C..· ""t\rA S·n1.;. ,· t,\ ~, o:. fAli. .' C\~ (.. , ".,"b \,c: (tC.\\~l!v ~~ , . ·
' \ br " 1) ., ~ ·q .· . 0 t \ . . It iJ
· ' ,, \ '(" . \ ' ~ j /\T >l/~l.'{'\t:Jrt) lf, '1• 1(/l,~• 11 .~".). \ f "
_ _ _ __ ..____ ____ __ _ _______:_ (
' _II'
\ " \\
_·-~.
L
c~"~ ~ ·vu t,<.
' h
~ \:.\, ~ AC: ~1 l>Y<S'1 ·" 1<':· "-'f Dr-
• /
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'l
1E'lW1
"
k\AT · ~

186 Aggi e Board Reviewer

.... \... ,(· ·· •• (•' ,., . \ ' ~ \. ·. '"' ./. : .' . {I . ' /\'~ \-. /l • 1 r-. , r- :-·
 "
!?>ti:HAv1<>R. . Vol,\lf-)\/\\'!.IL'f · '7.

t11c'J Wfll'l I ·ro cr.o-nq e. :

th-a1j /' i.tNO'v.; lf1:W ··it' c.t:lc°'''9'C. .
-!> ""'~'' \:,h ~j .. f.>:!."'. . /'-1;' (.,'" .l "' ,, lh·~9"'.
. . . .
~· l~oV.> ... ~\.-\) t;)(T"1-t<10IV ~1ro1'-'o · ·w 1111; <..\ti\IU61! ~- .. \JO <fl'll~S~
· · ' • ·: • · r • r ~- · •. , ~- .: ,· . :
fHILOSO PHY OF EXTENSION ...p cve.t"C · Jl"'/\1zct-:->t5.f · ... · .
; .., 1J<"'-'" \ot . TN1Jo,14nouf t\\.,:.\: :· 1-\-r · ill)( erre<'I t'-l~f .
I . , . .
• ' ..\> tiiv<NV"'-'"~ 9At2.Tt°c\ ..l'J+n"..\<;' r. o~,{lOr->S "''w't tJn, ionov,,.l:-ia1iJ. :
YI fi . J) l , J J . ', , J . . ·•
f e .n ing · .-i1 .osop 1y ·· . ' ., ·,_;.,,w 9 . "'"""~ 11 · th<- , ;~es1v.,..1,. "'~ .."'l"-. · . .
1
,,,
• The body of prindples underlyihg a given bfanch oflearning 61~· major discipline, a ·
• ' •1
.
~- religious system, a human activity or .the lik~. ,i . r.··• ; ':;Ji,h· ..
~ A guide to <1 person's actions. ·' · . . . . .. . . ,.., . ? . , .· .
A view of life - what ought to be and frs chm(forieifrs or'"what iS" 1
;how to bridge and
th e ga p" betvJea1 "what is" and "what ought to be". ·.-· ·. r.
J ' . ~ ,·\ ·, .
Vf'-Jt'nt tl 1< i f l c.,I ,1• ew
fh~'t.C Q,\ F~e.. .
,\\

---·-··-- ·-··----·---- -------- --------·-----

. . WHAT OUGHT TO BE ('fh~ Ideal view bflifej :.... ' ' . . . .
(What t he people should or couid bt~ as a restiit.of tt1e extension .p rogram/activities ·
••
expressed in objectives).
•a- · - - ·· ~ -· - ._...,,._ _..,
.:: :·:.,· ·: : ·
_ _ _ _, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

·How to bridge'th~ ga'p (the ~ducational

ill
--.-·-· ···· ···~ -·-··- ----·-···-·-·----------]
1c Gap Uhe problem area or needs . . means to attain t'he;objectiv_es-methods,
.
{t;h e people) · · procedure usedin.·relatio.11 ·to heeds of the
. .
..._..._.-...-......... -.~ ---- · ·- ... - -.-- - - - - - people that have to address~s by .. ,
J .exl'ensionJ _____-'-~-,-------------
(T;:~:~cnt-~:,te ~f the ;,eople~client~~~;.r:! of kflowle~g~; ~ki;;;' ~t;i~d~: etc. th:Jey...·.
. posses; their resource, present·level of living, arfd 'oth'e rsr .. ·. . . . ·.
·· -· ·· - · ·- · ·--·- - · ······- · · · · - -- -.. - - -·- - - - - - ··- - - - - · - - - · ·_;· • ' : .::.___.. • • ' • ! •
)i ' I f , ,• , ~ ' I J • \' •. I
~ . . . . .; . . .·. .
ig. I. A '.'cherr.e within which Extension may be \iew~ci'in relation th 'a"¢}6w
s ~r- c,10vv· c. l'\ N,;\ <>S ''l'l'j
of lifc(Philosophy).
- v,1\\Jf.f n
·- •1e "'·1S
,. · r
·. . :· :
~ · n .1 i;q
•• ~ •• I, ' ' •· l t<··; .·'..i >.\ \>), . .'
UCATIONAL Pl·IILOSOJ>HY OF EXTENSION · ,.: . : I. ·.r . , ;

0 . Humanism- Man, his interest and development are central 'a11d dominant
..
Pragmatism - the value of the ideas, .knowledge and skills t_hat e~tension offers
its dientele is measured ill terms cf the practical consequences fo these
people for whom extension efforts are directed. .· . . , .:;·> • . ·

ME PRINC IPL ES OF EXTENSION . ·,._:

..
· ·'I,·,
'• ' \

Communication and Education

o Extension agent's role- communicator and educator' · .: .. ·..· · .
_As communicator - pass on useful inforrnationor tec4ho.logyto pe.ople
who need them . , _.,. 1,,,.··. ,.1 o;:,,,,\:,t .,;,:i·~~J· ,·. ,· - ·
.As educator - help rural people acqulre the knowledge,·skills and
atti~ude thatwill helpthem effectivelyutilize.thednformationor .. .
technology · · · . ·
_________g~f:'.~~f€____________ ,___ - --""'....,.---'---..,..--..,.--....,_._ _ __
l"~l\<H?rl.o/ ro,-s \r:lll!' ~ 'I <O!vv1"? .• AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION .AND COMMUNICATION 187 ,.
I
i:"I '"·1 I I\'? ..i\:,{ .

·,..,f . '~ f O\ ntA i\'f\ "" '' H.;)'-;.f

1.. .1·1 •• ••, , ,·, 1-i ,., o f ~- ... ,",!\ ( '.
 ~· •. , . ' #011 ·. ,, ,.
- \ t: t,\w1~ \"0 y
~. t' v\ v ,· t.\ t ; :;,~, n l ~ v..~ ) f.'C\ y .c\,

• (.M\'\ '" V ( ! \ ( ' i''l lei l'.J ("\ ~ f~ \• 0 \F

,. \1l ht.,, , ·. vv- 1'1l ... .1t\l,.I-'·"' (.

Works with Rural people · . , . .. ' . . . . r , 1 .... : . • . . •

o For impact and sustainability, work with and no't:for the people
o People must participate and 1nakedecision that'wiff b"en'efit them; extension
age nts m'ust assist th em by providin:g the'm wltli 'al l '. the infor mation needed .
an d possible alternative solutions .t o clientele problems· ·
ll Accountability to the Clientele . . ·. · . . .
to
o · Exten sion agent must justify the organization. whatever action he/sHe takes ·
and be accountable and responsibl'e-to the clientele:'oii"whatever advice or . ·
information given to them:·. '·. "' · · · · " · ,, .. ·;..cr•- ' · . .
o The c/ientele is the one to pass fudgine'nt ori tht:?sh&
1 1
' 'U /' , j I'
failure of the ess'b'r
extensionprogran1 . .'- ..:· '' I c'i,
.
.,=· :/ '<- . • · ." . '\ ~: ,":.; , ,'. "':' ·.
'

• Two-way Process Linkage . .· ., · · . · . . · ..

o Disseminate informatio11 ~nd' t~chnology to kria} 62Hi0ereeC:tback from
clientele so that their n eeds ·c~fr -be better fu1flll ed''IU,: ~ . '" J " '
o Learn from the clientele the we.al th of their experiences
Cooperate with Othe1: Agencies
R
.. · · ' .
• ' •
· · '>, :• ,;. ...
' •
·..::..
' ¥ .' '.I
.. .
f • . ..
',
: . , • • ' •• ~ ~ I i
G Extension is only one ''aspect of the many economk ,"social, ,c ultural and ·
political activlti'es that hope to' ·. ..prt~duce
.. .
chadge' for :the' bettennent of the rural '

masses
o Extension should therefore cooperate and collaborate with both GOs and
NGOs _to accomplish above · . . ·
o Extension can't be effective on its own as its activities . ~
• '
must be • " · · 1 ', I I ; I j '

interd ependent on other related activities ..

.. Wo r k with different T<irget Groups .
o Extension clientcle is made up of various target groups with different needs,
so cial status, cultural and ·e conomic backg1~ound ·.. · . , · , ·
· , . . · . · · .- l :v 1.) · . . ..
· o Extension ther efore cannot offer ajJackage oftechnology for all its clientele · I :
ctu e to this h~J~ rggm}eit~ · .iI.!I
I !
o There must therefore. be targeting of extension, meanfog different programs
.an d technology packages for differenttargetgroups · · ·
: II I
PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
" lnfor m Jtive extension
._
.·
J
.
I ' '

.
,, ·

I
'

I'
.

\ j
' •

! ll
o Helps people make well -considered ~hoices among alternatives provided by
exteas inn for the Individu al to achieve his/her goals · "' ,.,, .
II Ern ancip<lt ory extension .
o An instrument to uplift the poor, to achieve societal goals, to correct structural
pro blem s . . · · ·.... · · .. · · . . . ·
'f ~ , , I 1, - : , • , : ' , ·• : J' I \ : ' : 'I

o Paolo Frei.re calls it pedagogy of the oppressed.

" Formative Extension or HRD '. . . . : : .i .. . ·, i ·: t· . ;.. ,, .•: " .
o An instrument for developing, 'forming' I • I
an individuaJ.'or .enhancing
? i \i..tl . " • •
his/her . • • 1 ' • • • • • ' I

capabilities to. make decisions.to learn, to manage,:to comm.u nicate, to organize, .

etc.
o Persuasi ve Extension
o A policy instrument to induce preventive behavior wit~, n~spect _to .societal
co ncerns such as environmental pollution, health hazards, vandalisms, drug ·
add: c: tio n, rape, etc. such preventive behavio r is in the interest of the society as.a
,,
whole or of the future generation. · '
. .-
188 Ag.gie Board Reviewer .I.
 Jlitlllb,\!<l>d;.,.~llftil>.t:!!&.U~l~~- ,,......,..,.,,,,.,,,.:",~~-~~.----~· -~·~::°'.'---- -:-- · · -- -·
(; -x t t NS\01-J q·;r<~'i'f v/ '.
.,,.,,, .. c _\ll"<>I'' e. . \· ~ ov> ,

V.Jh~\:.. ~ "" f \<-! bth .1C/ ·· ,

. 11 \;\1 /'.J· v •1 fl\ cy S. ~o. ,,,:1,
CTJONS OF THE UNIVERSITY
Instruction -offers degree programsfrom,the baccalaureate ~o doctoral programs .· · , •1' I • , , . l • , · .

R ~ search - conducts basic and applied research from sodal science :to natural science
Extension - diss emi .n a tes research results
· various forms ·
breakthroughs to.various clientele in
. · , · .· · . ,_• ; .. 1" " ' • . •·
or
, 1., :1' ': I 1'1f·· ,· '
!, . I I , .. • • ~ ; -~ \ : :r : •I
·,
RICUL;fURE's One O.bjft5cn <~ is: .
· .. . . .1.·.• . · . . . . _ ·
Disseminate r e:search f\ndi ind technology in a form or package_suitable f9r
adoption by extension vo n"e cs and farmers; heli> train/1~etraiil'exteri.sion workers;
provide techn i ~ al back "op :to extension technicians in the field Whenever necessary;
• • •l\ :;: \ ' > • '' •
' ' ' ' I • . ' ' · • 1 ; .,

and conduct p · !ot .a ct!c 1/research project,s on agriCulture and rural developmen(
~ .
·nen .lr prt ditated, deliberate intervention to.achieve the I:

ervencr's goal; ca . ctivc~ b.. nducing voluntary charige,.and.t {henc~

, ! I. .. I
• ~
,
satisfying client's ..
· ·' • . · , •: I .!. •• _J t ! ' ' .

Is.
' . . .. .
. ' ' I t ~ •

. ·, · ' , ' : I i, J,: • ~ - -,, ·, :' ~ ·i.\ d ). ll\l, 1"1 :~f.:.". . ' '
, ERVENTIO N: a syst,e mat ic .~ ffort , strategically _a pply,resoui~c.es_ ,to ll}anipulate ·.·. ·r
mingly casuc.11 elements b 1an ongr ·· 1g social 'pi·ocess to peri11ari'entiy:reorient that ·
1

cess in directions deem , cl desir : ..~ by the intervening

\
party.
'.
· :. .~~ - f '..-1(.1'~,, ...· .. : . .
__ ;.

HODS FOR IN FLUE iG HU MAN BEHAVIOR .··

1
·i. Compulsion or ( ·f cion
• •
.. '• i· . .
't , • • • • • 4 ( .. l ••

o Power is exerted by an al.1thority forcing sor:nebody'to do som~thing. People '. .·· ~ ; '.~ l

applying coercive r ower must ._ . ' . -- ' . . -

have sufficient povver .. . . , _. :\ -:; .
know how they can achieve their goal
be able to check whether the person: being coerced is behaving the desired
. ' -
in
manner
Exchange .. _ . ... ; , r.· .., h.
o Goods or services are exchanged between individuals or groups · two
o Conditions necessary for applying tNs ~i,eth.od: · ·, _,,·;J<.{:..-;-r' .· . _
Both parties consider the transaction to be in their favor ·
Each has the goods or
services desired by the.other : .·, - · _ .
Each can only deliver his part when the exchange goods or services have been .
deliveredbytheother. .: , 1 .. . ., . . «'•:'· ' ·· .
Advice ~
·· I •I • ~. l °' ... I \ JI " / •j 1 ·,

Used if . . _. . _ _. _ - . .. . .. . . .
Farmers agree with extensioh agent ~bout the nature of t~eir .problems and
the criteria for choosing the ".cori~ect'.' solution : .·· . -~
. ~ • . · · ,·1 ·
<.· ":_• . -·.· .-..
1F • " · ·•

Extension agent (EA) k11ow_s enoug~ ;~b.out the farfri~r~:, si_t_t;tation and has
adequate information to solv·e 'their p·rablems in'a' iNay which have been
. tested scientifically or in practice . . . - >1;~~J.l;'t.: / . •· . ' - .
Farmers are confident the extension worker can helpthem\..Vith a solution to
their problems . . .· · · · - .,, · · ·
EA doe's not think it necessary or.possible for farmers to solve their problems
themselves · ·' ·
Farmers have sufficient means at their disposa_l to ca'.ry out.the advice

AGRICULTU11Al. EXTf:NSIOI~ ,AND COMMUNICATION 189

 '
4. Openly Influencing a Farmer's Knowledge and Attitudes
o Apply wheri . · . . . . · . .
EA cannot solve their problems because of insufficierit incorrect or
knowledge and their attitudes do not m.atch their goals ·· . · · . ·
EA thinks that farmers can solvetheir problems if they havernore knowledge .·
and/or have changed their attitudes ·. , , . . , . ~· ,;,,~·'.: j. ..·. ·. . . . ' .
EA is prepared to help farmers collect more and better knowledge to help
th em change their attitudes !·..
Farmers trust the EA's expertise and motives and are prepared to cooperate
I
with EA · . ·
5. Manipulation
o Carried outif
EA believes it necessary and desirable for farmers to change their
behavior.in a certain direction . .. .
EA thinks it is necessary for f~rmers to make:independent decisions
EA controls the techniques to influence farmer~. without them being aware .
of it · · ·
The farmers do not actively object to being influenced in .this way ·
6. Providing meai1s ·, .. <1 .. : .... , ,
o · Apply under the following conditions . .. .
o Fahner·is trying to achieve goals which EA considered to be appropriate
. o Farmer does .not have the means available to achiev.e these goals or does not wish
to risk using these means .
o EA has these means and is prepared to make them available to the farmer on a·
temporary or permanent basis
'7. Providing Service
o Use if · "
EA has the knowledge and/or means available to perform the task better or
more econornically tha11 the farmer .· · · ·
EA agrees with the farmer that it is useful to perfoQn tl)ese tasks
EA is prepared to perform ~h~mfor the .farm~I\: i. ' 1,: . . :i .. · ·
. 8. Changing the Socio~economic structure . · ·
o Used when . · · ·
EA agrees with the farmers about their optimal behavior
Farmer is not in a position to behave in .this way because of barriers in the · ·
~ conomic' and o~ social structur~" , .· 1,," ' '.I : !i: :\ ;;,,; .:: . " . : " .· . '; '' i .
EA considers .ch!lnges in these structures to be 'desirable · ·
EA has the freed:om to work towal·d these change~. "· ·
EA is in a position to do these, either through power or through conviction
· c,» "1 ~ 10'1VZA,_;'&'.>NJ · i~ . <: ~1i1c...,; · o\· .{1:,....1:,~Jj
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190 Aggie Board Reviewer

•
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iii
:xtension Pr~clitioncr ' s Work .··,

'' . 1 : Goal ri • ,:",1

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'• ·, I, : , ;satisfactiori : " d\
1
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w change people :1
.•::Accor.ding to
!. \ f' "I " .
, intervener's ·
" ·. g·a~iL" ·"
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EATUHES OF MODERN AGRICULTUHE ! ~ I

~· . Dynamic soci ety that welcomes innovation and change

I
: I
•· Highl'.Y co rnp etitive and productive because it uses modem production a11d
nwn agcrn cnt technology ·
• 1 Manned by an enterprising farmers who exercises his right to chose;wliat -
technology to apply, what crops to raise and whei1, and to whom to sell his ~reduce ~.
ii
!i
1
to get the highest returns. · ' ·· ··
I

1)Mi)ONENTS OF i\GR!CULTURE DEVELOPMENT

\> Pr b duc tion
)• M;:'1 rkoting
. ': j
} Siipply
> Govern a n c<~
.'
> IZes!)an:h
}·· Extei1:.; ion/Educatinn ,,. i
"
me~ork fo r Suslai.nable Development: Economically viable; ecologically sound; socially
etncl hurn r.me; cul turally appropri a te; grounded in holistic science.

Ff! J~lON Af\JD ADOPTION OF INNOVATJON ,......., ;()\ .,.\ \'r-~vb'co<: / \ n h. perc ~i.,,,.<A 'IJ 11 '''.> b/ " 1
'

:"-,,;\:.ht' ~ \'l'"i''' 1.\ r. \' ' ~ d t:: (.:., ,::;. ~ v -" 1.:. l;:\t. -.:: or . fh l--t vh\l:> \., .~Y
OPil~!OH: a pr ocess by which a particular farmer (clientele) is expo~;ed to, considers, and
ally- reject:s or practices a particular innovation (Mosher,j 978), It occm"s at the individual
·el. . ·- '" ;

opfon compl'i~c·s iivc (5) successive steps or stages: . · :· ·. ·" ' ,

(\wareness - t he first step towards adoption on an ihnc>Vation; tfre fahner becomes
1

aware thaL tht' technology or innovation exists, bi1t'h.e lacks adetjt.iate'irifcirmatio.n '·
about it. [tis :mmcwhat like seeing something without attaching meaning to
son1et·hi n.r;. So (11·cc of inConnation an~ in.ass media such ~~s use of radio, news artides,
newslc tt~' r :;, o r rc ~_;ult
de monstration.
,! nteres l - fiin ner becomes .interested <lnd seeks more information; he believes that
I
rhc t ech nolo gy or information is possible fu; him, He wants to know what it.is" how

r··-·. ·--- . ...... ·----·-----·.. ··-- -- - · -- ·-· · ·· --·- --- - --- - - - ·- · - ---- · - ~*--- ·----

}\c,rnc ULTUf1AL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION 191

r ,l
,' I
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ti
 . .'l ·.
· ·;

i 1. v.rurk :~:, 1Nk 1t: is its p:)tent:iJl. Usually he is aroused by mm:s media , result
;_!,•1r1o;i:·.l!·a!:io11 and indiv idual far m vi sit. .
C1·<t lll <tL :1:1 ·· hnn lc'r cva1u;: t:cs t:ec hnulogy 1,vit:h h is co ndi tions, expec tati ons,
: csou ru."~. _;,-, 1 JJ:i dc cir.h.~s v~.il t eth er or not to try it. Can I do it? Hovv ca11 I d o it? l s it
bet te r th :_in V.' h ;1t I ~\ his do in g'? Th is can be has te ned or improved by method
d ~· nv1nsli-.1tio:; a:1-; d l i,rou '- :!i ·:russi on s.
~ T!fal- f!.lrn1<:· r col" t :: UH cl inputs, learns any new $kills th at are required,
ccrn. ~n its so :ne ~ 1
, dbo . .11oney for the trial, sees what happens, Normally h e
irics rj11 <~ sm:-.11\ scale Fr if 'sa nd neighbors are usually the best form of infonm ition.
-> Adop ti o n /: ~ · ~ j ec:tic 1 fin :age v:hetb er to adopt or to reject the technology, It
.; ~--

should nni: l:e assu rn , l th; . every fi rst trial will lead to repeated use. This stage is
d1<il' Ci ctt~l'\.;'. t· d \)y l<fff 'l C ..... and continuous use of the idea.

CA' l':,; c u l ~J E:~ ;J F !\UOPT EHS

·• :! 11 1o v;; iu! ·., { 11t·n!:n r esorn f·) ·;:re tile fi rst perso n to a d opt. The experimen t, th ey go
~-!h 1~ ac ~ w .~ .>·~ ...

E;1 1·ly ;utoptt:r:; (r es pect'ahlc) - those who quic kly fo ll ow the lead set by the
i11J10i·'<.\l :) 1·c:. l bt;-1l\y rega rd ed by p ee r s ;:is "the m an to check wit/1" b efore using a new
idea. (\-:>\, .

Llrly !t1cijoriL:1 (de lib erate) .. w atch the innovators and early adopte r:-> first but do not
dcJ;1y much bnger befo re ;Jdopti on. y 1'i,
Lil~: r:;:;, jo r iry [:;kep tica l) - ar e conserval-ive and cf.lreful. Do not adoµt until most or a
~-' (!:· :-:i t :tum!Y:'!' Gf nfiig hbors h;we adopted/changed th eir practice. They need press ure
!'1-,Jm p•.0e r'.; !o ad opt ·1·1 ::·..
,, L.11~1 : <1 1 ,i :. ( l:c~1di :io n0 I ) - the l<is t to ad opt. Suspiciou s of innovators and cha nge agent s
11., \ .

IN~ ! UVJ\TlUN: :: ('. id e<i, practice or an obj ect perceived as new by an individual. It is a new
way or doi;1g s onieth ing. ln agricultural extension, an innov<ttion is the same thing as a
rh;1ngcd p r ;:1c~iC'.:' or a n iln provecl va riety, technology or practice.

· Diffu:1io 1t 01 ini;c .:;:!i o n .. refers to t he total process by which an innovation spreads our
11

, a:no ug Ln·;m:;-:; ur..i·iJ ;-1 large number of farm ers ha ve adopted it. It is how an innov<i tion is
ad u p :.~(·d by !T': o) ··: ;; nd mo re fonn~:r.s .

C !' 1 id ~ il
v:1_:rn c1 1::; in the d i!f\:s ion q f :m inn ovdti on a r e the inn ovatio n, which is comnrnnica tcd
th ro ugh certa in chc;n rrels, O'ier time, ::unong members of a social sy stem, Communi cation
li i;rn,J ()]:.; cm l'i' rn:\::>s rnedi.a. th e ex te ns ion w orker him selt: and other m ethods. So cial
sysk!ll re fers i.:·::, <iP Y ronunun ity or local ity \vhich a so cial s tr ucture can imp ede or facili tate
th e ::;c!uph o n u; <!'l'.'u:-;ki; 1 of new id eas in cl ud ing the n o r m s, social s t;:ituses, hi era rchy, etc.

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INNOV/\TlON-DIFFUSlON MODEL: The "reconceptualized" adoption process. The process

through which an individual (or other decision making"imit) passes from first knowledge of
an innovation to a decision, to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea and to
confirm:,1tio n of the decision. "·

STAGES OF INNOV/\TION-DIFFUSJON MODEL

• '
1
Knowlcdge ~t<1ge - farmer understands new idea and gathers information ::ibout }t:.
~ " Persuasion Stage - formation of attitude about idea and persuades himself and is .
persuaded by others, He can ;:1ccept: or reject the ideCJ based on attitude formed in th e
previous s ta ge .
• -~
Decision-Making Stage - individual may either Lo cidopt or reject the new idea or to
del<1y the decision for further verification.
• ' Implem en tation Stage - puttin g an idea into use.
• Confirmation Sta.ge - individual seeks reinforcement for the decision he made, or he
may reverse his previous decision if there is conflicting messages/info about the
innovation. In dividual justifies hi s earlier decision based on his experience of other
ado pters.

Fi\CTOHS AFFECTING ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION PROCESS

Ch~r<1~JcristiGLQXlnns:i_y:g_t;Jpt1-t.Jrntlntlli~n_c,~ _Actop_tjon QLR~jggion_

--.--·Relativc-Aclvai1filge--::- degree to wl1ich an innovation1s-perceived as better than the
previow; on e; the proven c~ffectiveness or superiority of the new idea that includes
cost of the tech nology.
Compatib ility - consistency with existing values, experiences needs and resources of
the farmer.
a
Comp lexi ty - the difficulty or ease to understand, to do or follow technology. People
favor a practice that requires less time and effort.
.- Tri~1L1hility -· ckgroc to which an innovation may be experimented \Nith on a limited
basis. For e:-:<1mple, on ;:i :~m;1ll size of land.
Olise1v;1hi lit y - d c!gn~e to which n~s ults· of a11 innovation Hre visible to others. Seeing
;111 i 111 proved bre ed of swine is better than merely hearing about it.

Ch;iractc ristics of Clicntele that Influence Adoption or Diffusion

educational !eve!
l~rniil y '.> ize
f;n-mcr'~; ex p er ience
t'a111ily d ~;p i r· ;1tion
tenure sta tus
VLlluc and bl'lid-systems
perso nality ch<ll«H:terist:ics

~1.E!n·!c.;.t.E:i~l2.tJ ~~ - ~>.U=t.~~~~-~l!~'. .~\g er~.t

Credibility - n.: rers to the competency, trustworthiness and dynamism of the .change
agent as perceived bjl clients .
• llomophily - d egree to \'lihich the change agent has rapport with the clientele, his
.se ns e of belongingness.

AGRICULTURAL EXrENSION AND (OMMUNICATION 193

 • Personality traits - personal attributes such as intelligence, emphatic ability,
commitment, resourcefulness, concern for farm people, ability to communicate,
pers u ~1sivcncss and development orientation.

The Biophysical Environment, Socio-economic and Socio-cultutal also influence adoption or

diffusion of innovation.

EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS .~~- \;> c:~'-- ''~_'.j_~on '_

'" ~ "· \:.f.\'t°l . ~-.~·. \.,J '> {\t.ev r,1\.e l/, (\" \ \~~,

INDIVIDUAL TEACHING METHODS ,-.,,, __,_,_ ,"" l· ~\j1"-1\'," '' \i'(\V\"''V ~t<'l l c'rl') - (_ l~ v /~~f'V ""c ~)
Farm and Home Visit ;L \v'\11 ~ r. Mc,v' ~ e '=' "-1)
.. Office Calls t\- i_:"~1\o1.~< v- )'•\Vn,ev -- ( I "l,V A\'l''~"'.:.11)
~; \. " (.'.ln lr,~v\ \ .:, v1"<:"<(
e Telephone Calls
, :;,A '( 1\\ l" '( .. b._, ... ff.11 11 \nt V"
" Personal Letters
\_VAn ~.· \ rY'l'r..\ \.'- \•\V\\\l"V} \.\\,, .; __..~ t, \11 \"f\l"\ f.1 t
o Inform al Contacts
• Electronic Media (Fax, Internet, E~mail)
GROUP METHODS ;-r-_. ' "' 1-.. "''" «.'1•
• Lecture (involves factual presenta~ion and textual explanation of a particular topic or
few selected topics) ··:;',> <" ,N

• Demonstration (Method and Result Demonstration)

Tours and Field_Trips . r,1 ia 1·"~ c\,h, 11:u
.. Field Day
• Mee tings
. Group Discussi.on
o Brainstorming· An activity in which a deliberate attempt is made to think and
speak-out freely creatively about all possible approaches and solutions to a
given problem, the group participating in spontaneous and unrestrained
discussion. - r\

o Panel - a direct, conversational, and inte1~actional discussion among a small

group of experts .or·well-informed persons. Panelists exchange ideas among
th e mselves and react directly with each other. It involves actual panel
discussion, exchange of ideas, summary or last statement of panelists .;
o Open forum- clarifications, questions, objection to ideas .,
l

o Symposium- a method where speaker(s) is/are invited to compound on a

topic given or ass!gned to him (them)
o Phillip 66 - 6 persons, 6 minute discussion.

MASS1.METHOD
. Pupp et ry - acting a play on the stage using puppets that could be a doll, a small
fi gure, or an image of an animal
Popul ar theater - makes use of performances in the form of drama, singing, dancing
and puppetry. Called '·popular" because they are aimed at the whole village, not just ·
at tho se who are educated. It involves local people as performers.
.. Wall newspaper
" Exhibi ts - displays th at create interest or are used for information sharing that use
posters, pictures, photographs, models and specimens. Suited for bulletin boards,
demo pints or cigricultural shows.
-----------·----------- - - -
194 Aggi e Bo ord Review er
 • Campaign - a coordinated use of different methods focusing oii a particular
1..videspread problem and its solution. Normally planned and directed from the
regional or national levels. · · · · .
I '
• Tel evision · · . .·. ·. ..
Print- folders, posters, newspapers, fact sheet. .. .
. Projected visuals~ slides, film~:; overheads projectors.transparencies. ·
'f}, ·JoC:'t1ct\{\:.- \>l\f<'·~ . .... t-i\::.c~~ "" 't\\\ar'"(.\~'-'t\·. \~~\,·o\\jO.',J

~ '\.:i){\ j St"\V,_1 ·; ' ~\~ h)C CJ~ic.t Q ,SrJ~Ld \-\t!'h-"'0'\l...(

EXTENSION APPROACH. the style of action .within extension system which embodies the
philosophy of that system; sets the pace of all the activities of the .s ystem: works like a of
doctrine for the system-informs, stimulates and guides. ·

Extension System: that entity composed of properties su.ch as o·rganizational structure,

leadership, rcsotfrces (human and physical), program, goals and .'6 bjectives, methods and
: techniques for implementation, linkages with various organizatio Ks .anct·publics. . .
'I
EXTENSION APPROACHES:
I -::=::::.:.:::::::===: =======:::::=;--.--- :
t
' 1. The General Agricultural Ext(!nsion Appr:o;;i.ch (GAE) .
.• General Nati.ire - Transfer of Technology (TOT)
1'{

,., • Basic assumption - technology and Information are availabl~ but are no.t being
·~ used by farmers; If these could communicated to .farrrlers, farm practices could be
be improved. .
• Purpose- to help farmers increase their production. . .
" Program planning - controlled by government and changes·in priority, from time
to tim e, are made on a national basis, with some.freedom for local adaptation;
• Implementation - carried by a large field staff assign~dthroughout the country.
• o ·e rnonstrntion plots.are a major technique. · . .·. · . . ·
a Resources reqciired iarge numbers of field personnel. . .
• Measui·e of success - increase in .nationa.l production of the commodities being
e1:nphasizcd in the national prograri1. · · . ·
• ·. Advantages - interpret 1i.ational government policies and procedures to the local : . "
people; covers the whole nation:· relatively easy to control by:the national .
government; relatively rapid c6mmunication from.the ministry level to rural
pecple. · ·· . · . . ~. . · .· .
• Dbadvantages - lacks two way flow ot communicatlon;'fails adjust extension to
messages to different localities; field staff not accountable rural people; ·. to
expensive a11ci inefficient. . .· . . . .

2. Training and Visit Approach (T&V) . . . . . , . . . .· .

~ Generol nature -highly discipline9 .andpatterned: with; fi~ed schedule for training
of village extension workers, .SMSs, C;\nd scheduled,'.visits by e~teilsion workers to
f·11· 1·11.p•···· ,r,.\,-1•.<A . .
•. . . 1. '.\ Nc,\i\it:r' ·:· . ·
. . s,, .,..,," ''J'\:.I'
IL1s ic :1:;s 11111pt ion - extension perso nnel arc poorly trained; not up-to-date an<l
lr:.! JHI not to visit farmers, but stay in their offices; management and s'upe1:vision is .
not adequate; to-way communicatiop between research and extension units and
between ex.tension staff and farrners .can be achieved through this. di~cipline.
-·----·•-o••-•• •._ ••• • •· •• • • - • • ·~•· • -••• • • -•• · -- ·----. ... --. w_ _ _ _ __ _ _ ,_,.,. _ _, _ _ _ _ _ _ ... _.__.;,. _ _ __

AGlllClJLTUllAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION 195

 • Purpose - to induce farmers to increase produc,t ion of specified crops
., Program planning- centralized; what to teach arid when teach is decided .uponto
by professionals and program is qelivered"down" t~farmers;; program plani1ing
·follows cropping pattern ofpriorit:Y crops . · .. · . . .· . ·
• . Implementation - relies basically on visits by extension workers to small groups
of farmers or to individual contactfanners: Iortnightly training by SMSs of the
VEWs . . .
• Resources required - high number of personnel, costs tend to be very high and
dependent on central resotirces: :more adequate transportation capabilify for
field personnel : ... · . · ·. . .. . . . . ...
• Measure of success - increase in yield, and total production of the crops being
emphasized .. . ' · . , .
• Advantages - pressure on governments to rerng1\ize a large number of small
agricultural extension units into one .integrated :serviCe; brings disciplineJo the
system, VEWs becorne more up-to-date to .ififonnation; closer technical .
supervision · · . · ·· · ·· I· . .· ·
• Disadvantages - High long-term costs to governments due to expanding size of
VEWs; Jack of actual two-:wa'y communication; technology' that is relevant to the
farmers are riot integrated; lack of flexibility to change
program·s as needs and
interests of farmers changer·field -staff tires of vigorous, patterned activities
without appropriate rewards'. . . .
'
),

3. The Project Approach (PA)' .. .· ' .

• Basic assumption - better results can be achieved in a particular location, ,during
a specified period of lime periodrwlth large ii1fusion·oU>titside l·esources; high
impact activities, carried on under artificial drcu111stances; will 'have some .
continuity after ou.tside financial support is no lcl'ryger available.
• Purpo.se - to demonstrate, within the project area, what can be accomplished on a
relatively short period oftime: .t o teat the variety-;ofalternative extension
methods · ·
• Prqgram planning~ control by outside the village, wit~ central government, t.h e .
':donor" agency or some combination. • . . ..
• Implementation - includes a projec;tmanagement staff; project allowances for
field staff, better transportation, facilities, equip.lnent, and better housing than
' . ! . . . • . . . •

reguiar government programs· . ' '. . .

• Measure of success - increase in yield arid tofalproduction ·of the 'crops being ·
emphasized . .. - ' . '> . . . .

• · Advantages - focus which enables evaluation of effectiveness, ~md sometimes

"quick results" for a better dcmor; ·nove}'tech11.iqu~s a'ri'd methods cari be treated
·and experiniented within the limits of the projects ' ... · - · · . · ··· ' ·
• Disadvantages - usually'to~ short time period; money provided tends to be more ·.
than what is appropriate; flow of';good ideas" in the project to areas outside the
project; double standards; yvhen.money ends; projecfextension programs i'nost ·
after ends also. .,

- ---·----·- -·----·-·- --------.:------

196 Aggie Board Reviewer
~-....._ _____
 .... ~- · ··· ~ ...... ·~·-·'· ~ . . .. ····-- ................ .. ·•· '-·-···· . : · ~·-"' · - ........... .
·1 _,,_
__._.~·--•- .... U•~ · --·-·----•-'" _______._..._ ..-

The Commodily Specialized Approach (CSA) ,

0 General na ture - highly specialized, focuses on one export crop or one aspect of
fanning
" f:lasic assumption- the way to increase productivity and the production of a
p<JrtiCular commodity is to really concentrate on that one; grouping extension
vvith such other function s as research, input supply, output marketing, credit anc;l ·
sometimes price control, will make the whole system produ ctive .
0 Purpose - to increase production of particular commodity: som,et:imes it is to
in c r ea~;e utilization of a particular agricultural input
~ Program planning - controlled by the commodity organization .
• Implementation carried ou.t by a large field staff a_s signed through the country;
demon s tration plots are a major technique ·
0 Resources required - provided by the commodi.ty organization
Measure of success- total prod~ctivity of a particular .crop .. ,..
• Advantages - technology tends to "fit"' the production problems and so messages
of ex tension officers sent to growers tend to be ·appropriate; because of
coord\n~1t'ion with research and marketing people, messages tend to be delivered
in ;1 timely m anner to producers: focus on a narrow range of technical concerns;
higher salary incentives; closer manageIT1ent and supervision; fewer farmers per
extension vvorker; easier to monitor and evaluate; relatively more cost effective
• Disadvantages - interests of farmers may have less prio,rity than those of the
cornmodity organization; does not provide advisory service to other aspects of
fai·ming; problems of the commodity organization,promoting-" its commodity"
even in situations where it is no longer in the national.interest to be in increasing
production of t hat particular commodity ·

5. The Fannin g Sys tems Development Approach (FSDA)

• Basic ass umptlon -· technology which fits the needs of farmers particulal"ly small
fonners, is .not available and needs to be generated locally ··'.:
• Pu rpose- to provide extensio11 persons and through their farrri people'. with
research results tailored to meet the nee,ds and interests oflocal farming systems
conditions
Program planning - evolve slowly duri ng the process, and may be different for
c;:ich ages, climatic farm ecosystem type s1'nce the prograni must take into aCCOlJ '
;1 lioli slic approach to the plants, animals and the people in each particular
lo cation; control of program shared jointly by local arm' men and women, .
agricultural extension officers, and agricultural researchers . · ' · · e
• Implementation - through partnership of research and extensiorf persor
witl1 !Dea l peo1ile, taking a systems approach to the farm: sometimes i• .ar
. seve ral scientific disciplines, however requires that research persoP .ner
hnn, li ste n to them, and the extension personnel, understand the ·
Measure of success - extend to which farm people·adopt the tecJ· ,f-
developed in the program and continue to \1se them overtime I
i\ dv<m t·;:1ges - some measures of local control of program pl<r I
rel evan ce o f program content and methods to 11eeds and i· ~

hi gher <ido ption rates; effective communication betweer ,t

I •
extension personnel; lower cost to central government ,nmg
·!!1;1._ _ _ _ _ _ , _ ___ ___ __ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - I
AGRICUl.TUR/\L EXTEN SION A1 '

.,
t
 Disadvirntages - interests of farmers may have Jess priority than those of the
commodity organization; does not provide advisory service to other aspects of
farming; problems of the commodity orgariization promoting "its commodity"
even in situations where it is no longer in the national interest to be increasing
productioh of that particular commodity. ·

6. The Agricultural Extension Participatory Approach (AEP)

• General Nature concerned with a broad range of agricultural subjects, shifting its .
local focus from time to time as village problems change or ~\s needs arise
Basic assumption - farming people have rnuch wisdom regarding production of
food from their land but their levels of living and productivity could be improved ·
by learning more of what is outside; that there is an IKS 1 different from the .
scientific knowledge system, but there is much to .bf{gafoed from the interaction
of the two; participation of the fa1~mers, ·as well as·of research and related
'.>crvices.; that there is an reinforcing effect.in group· learning and group action;
that extension efficiency is gained by focusing on important points based on
expressed· needs of farmers
., Purpose - to increase production of farming people: increase consumption and
enhance the quallty of life or rural people ·
• Program planning - controlled locally, often by farmers' association
• Implementation -features many meetings and discussioris of farmers' problems
and exploring situations with extension officers ·
• Resources required - extension workers who afe ncit only technically trained but
are cilso non-formal educators, animators and catalysts .
lVIeasure of success - continuity of local extension organizations and the benefits
of the community of extension activities: extent of participation of key .
~; takeholders in program :planning and implementatit)n,
.. Advantages - relevance or fit of the programi mutually supportive relationships
which develop among participants; less costly; stirirnlates ii1creased confidence,
<1wareness and activity among fa1·mpeople
Disadvant.a ges - lack Of contn11 of pro grain from central government; difficulty of
managing central reporting and accounting; pressure people might bring on
central units; people's influence on personnel management decisions like ·
selection, transfer and promotion, and the like
1 .&l<f ,' Y" r.! ;,J ll M ·J f />~p ""' l\;vl'<>\ v1,ow\cc\ge S~\\:/1'\.
7. The Cost Sharing Approach (CSA)
Basic assump~ion - any NFE is more likely to achieve its goals if those who benefit
from it share some part of the cost; program would ..more likely fit to local
situation; personnel would rriore likely serve interests of dient if costs are shared
between "outside" sponsors an cl !'inside" target groups; tornmitment of learners
to participate if they pay some part of the cost · .
Purpose - to help farm people .learn those things they need to know for self-
improvement and increased productivity; to make funding of agricultural
extension affordable and stistait1able both at central and local levels .
., Program planning - shared by various levels paying the cost b~t must be
res poi1 sive to local interest in order to maintain "cooperative" financial
~1rran g ements; local people tend to have strong voice in program planning

198 J\gqie Bo11rd Reviewer

 • ]'vl easure of success - farm people's willingness and a bility to provide some share
of the co s t, indfvidtially or through th eir local governrnerit un:its
• Adva ntages - some measure of local controiofprogram .planning iii creases
relevance or program content and methods to needs and interests of the
clientele : higher adoption rates; effective communication between local people
and extension personnel lower cost to central government and local people '
• Di sndv~n tag es - more difficult for ce~tx;al government to control either program
o r p e rsonn el.

HIE RISE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

The industri a l revolution tha t is particitlarly typical of Britain w~s brought abou~ by a
technolo gical innov atfon. The automatic: loom · in. the 18th century, Britain quickly .
industrialized and b ecam e the first producer and exporter of textiles. The conseque1ic.e was ..
that farmers l eft their fields and became indusfrfaI workers, spurring the growth of cities
around th e t hri vin g textile industry. At the same time; there were fevver peop.l e to p1~oduce
food stuff and m ore mouths to feed. This led the Crown tQ create a ·govern~ent service to ' :
help those farm ers who still stayed on the land .to· produce · more arid more efficiently.
Agriculture th ere fore became a profession iike th~ many other ~rades and not any more a
natural ocrnpa tio n of people trying to provid'e fo·r their mere survival.Rese~rch institutions
for the adv3ncem cnt of sr.ientific farming were created and agrictilttirc underwent a process
of speci ali zati o n and professionalization which is still very much . a force . today . . From
subsis tence agriculture moved to diversification . and. specialized . market oriented
agricultu re. Becau se of its "strategic importanc.e" for rnaintaining fo·o d securit}' for .i,t s
popul a tion, most countries have created son1e kind of service to s'upport farmers ' in· their
endeavors to produce more effici ently. These are called advis~ry extension· services. ·

AShort Hi .s tory of Extensio1r Services

Asou tlin ed above, th e British crown was the first to create a free service to help fanners to .....
pro duce more foo dstt1ffs. It was therefore quite natural that they would set up similar ·. t
o ·

~
organizations in the territories under their rule., In India arid Africa, advisory or extension
iervices w ere es ta bli s hed because basically the 'problems of food scarcity were comparable 0
~ .
D those, Britain had been suhject to at the e'nd ·of the 1a.c11 cerittiry. ·In the .United States- -i r
rJhere th e te rm extension was coined - the service was started from the State universities
I), .11
rnder th e Land Grant Systeni. According to this modality, , St.a te . universities were 0 ..,
~

~:1co u rci ge d <HHl fin a nced to set up faculties of agronomy and -animal · sciences whose 7 ,;"
0
achers <!n d p 1· 0 f'esso r s not. only deal with research and ·teachi rig bu t ·also. ;'.extended" their
ow- h ow and exp er ie nce to surrounding farrners including farm visits and 011-,farm trials '; .t-
·11-
is b cCClln t~ kn ow n <I S extension service, i.e. from the tinive rsity to the O.Utside· fanning World ~
0
th e are;1s a l!1.) tte d to tha t particul ~1 r univers ity~ This wa~ later coined c.ooperative extension
rvice w hen th e us government introduced the systemiri. developfog countries, specifically
Latin Am erica but also to some parts of Africa. Ii1 F1;ance, on the othet liand, · the state
1olved into inclu strbl development while . staying a predominantly agricultul·al country,
ere fantH'l'S l)ft ei1 produced surpluses and therefore the need arose to regulate farming
ther th an c nco 1:1raging it. When the Frerich s~arted colonizing parts of Africa and Asia, they
ught w i~h tlw rn th e smne approach regarding ~gricult'ural development and therefore
- --···-·-·-····-··------·--·- - - - -·- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION · 199
 . . .

did not bother to set up such services, except of course for cash.,crops they were interested
in for export an(I furthe1: processing at home (cotton, coff~e; cocoa, rubber, groundnuts.
spices, etc.) . The'.need for farm improvement both ·at ho'ffi«t and in the former colonies was
never entrusted to the state, rather to the care and initiative· of the farmers or growers'
associations, who would then hire specia_lists in . specific trades like plant · protection,
mechanization and farm economics . .This of course posed the' problem •of. farmers'
organizations which is not a spontaneous phenomenon the leastone could say in developing
ri.ation s. The Training <ind Visit (T&V) System popularized .in the 1970s ahd the 1980s
t"l1rou gh the World Bank w as applied In many . developing countries and certain~y was
instrum en ta l in arousing the awareness on the need of knowledge systems as a critical input
to bring about development It was a great' success esp{!cially in India. When combined with
the Green Revolutiol1, it brought important ·changes in stale ·awareness . iri rirnny.part_s . of
Africa. T&V while effective - a case iri poirlt'in ftench-speaking Guirieain WestAfrica ·~ was .
criticized for tWo main reasons: first because. of its top-down capproach a.nd second ·b ecaµse
of its no t being efficient large maintenance budgets finked to e'nha.nceci salarie's, ve~i<:;les a!Jd
management of 'the system. ·This led to · partidpatory approach,· whereby ·develppment
professionals (researchers, extension workers at all l'eveisfsh6uld initiate change fogethe.r
with farmers according to the farmers' fert rleeds and no·t .necessarily according to what
suits ' pqli cymakers or governments: . Free ,;trade arid entrepreneurs~ip a~~ now: widely
encouraged as opposed to state· intervention and the t~ndericy is
presently to a strong
r eduction in state budgets and in the intei·ventio~ in thelife ofcitizeris, especially as related ·
1

to agricultural developm ent. Extension therefore Will triove to privatized systems ~ ina way
a bend towards the French appro <.tch as outlined above. Th~ need for extension is evident,
the only p ro bl ems is to whom to entrust .it, .who will pay:for it. and consequently .what '
d elivery systems should be used to ensure its effectiveness, efficiency and SllStaiJlability; .

Th e increasin g demand for extension science, training arid skills can be explained by various
facto rs: · · · .· · " . . · .
·,

1. . /lis~ bott,61rf:~ks . to agriculttlra1 production 'a re rerrioV'ed by impr.oved marketing,

l'.rnnkii1g;. infrastructure, Jarid tenure, and input delivery; the growth of productivity
becomes "technology 1frO:pelled". Once that stage has been readied, the joint a~tioh of
r e~e arch, extensfon and . education becomes · the · spear · point · of agricultural
development. · ·· . .
2. . . Modern states increasingly .rely on ·' policy . instn.ihlents . for inducing voluntary
behavior chan'ge. Ip addition .to the more .conventional ones aimed at compliance,
su'ch as sub sidies; '1)rice manipulatiori and laws. . . . .
3. Th e rninpetition for the attentio~ . of the public has taken on hitherto unknown
pr()portions as· a result of the vast_n"timber of print and electronic messages which
can be 'sent cheaply to 1nembers of the targetpi1bliC: · .· . . . . · · .· ·
4. /\.s society approaches the limits of feasible adaptation of the environment to human
inte ntionality, the need to adapt intentionality is fe~tmo.re strongly.

Extension sci ence developed. .first' as a speciaHzatiori within rural soci~logy. Given
rural sociology's focus on chai1ge, extension as an instrumei1t. for promoting change could
not be ign ored. Studying 'change agents' such as extension workers and their agencies
became accep table socio.logical preoccupations. · One of the ·earliest extension · r'e search

200 Aggie Board Heviewer

 paradigms - diffusion of innovatfons, arose within, and was consolidated as a .tradition in
· rural sociology. It provided a comfortable home for what was to ·become extension science.
. However, extension soon became decision-oriented . or activist and divorced itself
from rural soc.iology, becoming more and md1;e concerned with 'ut!lizing social psychology
and communication and borrowing heavily . from the neighboring' fields of edutation,
· marketing r.ind advertising. Extension did ,not need theories of .change but, rather, of
.. changing. In the process, the focus shifted to .the micro-level and to extension methods,
, interpersonal connnunication processes and the adoption of te~hnology by the individual. .
1

The macro-consequences of t~dmology-propelled development were neglected.

. . Recently, however, extension science seems.to be turning' full ·circle; The focus oh
information and knowledge systems on the interfaces bet:Ween the Information system and
' other social systems, and on the consequences of technological change, implies an increased .
. utilization or social system concepts and a preocc~pation with the sociology of knowledge . ..
' ~ .; .' '···r. . . . .
· ... · :·

Knowledge and Info_r_mation System .

. .
Extension science is beginning to be able to make propositions about extension as a
sub-sys tem of a larger system in which reseai·ch arid utilizes also form sub-systems. In fact,
it seem s unfruitful nowadays to look at extension ·i n isolatiohJrom these sub-systems. For
example, one ca nnot improve extension without . also h~proving research and the
mechan L5rns linking it to extension. Nor can one improve extensioifwith0ut improving user
control 01· farmers over extension services. · · · · , .·

An <~gr i ctilturai information system .. · .

Is a sys tem in which agricultural i11formation is generated, transfor~1ed, transferred,
consolidated, received and feedback in such · a manner that these processes function ·
synergically lo underpin knowledge utilization by agricultural pr'o dtic'ers.

·' • I

t' "

\I
' • :, , · 1 t I

.. . :·

;
. '
... .
·: .
.·

--- --- - ~-.--~ -- ----·-..- -.....-...-..

.. . ...
. . AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION 201
 An ag ricul tural knowledge system (AKS)

Js a systeri1 ofbelief, cognitioi1s, models, theories; concepts and other products of the
mind in which various experience of a pers_on or
group with respect to agricultural
production is accumulate. . - ~ .

Farmer

• .. Fig. 2. Th e diffor ent systems within. an agricultural exter1sion system ·

. ·: : ' . . ' .. . ·. . ' .;+~..~ .. . ·.. '. . '

Th e ' flgurc above depicts;·thc different systems that interplay within an agricultural
extension system. These are the technology /knowiedge syiStem, policies, Non -government
organization (NGO), State Universities .and Colloges (SUC); qovernment Organization (GO),
Peoples org<mization (PO), Local Govei·nment Unit (LGUJ, Extension Workers and .the
fi' a rmc rs . Each o f th ese systems has their.own strengths and weaknesses in th eir role within
the bi ggersys ~tt m. , · · . · . . · .
In th e Philippin es, The ·extension system whii::h forfris part of the Agricultural
I nforrn ation Knowl edge System iiiclude . the . Agricultural . Extension.
system ··of ·the ·Local
Guvcrnrn ent On it:s (LGUs) the Department of Agrkulttire Agencies and Bureaus, the State
Coll eges and Universities, GOs and pdva:te companies. Thi.~ practice of allowing several
orgm1l za tiom to provide extension work to the differei1t farrners·o'rthe
country implies that
the coun try has a Pluralistic Extension Poiicy. Even before· the 1993 devolution of-the
Hur c ~11.1 or 1\ gric ul t11r;ll Ex tens io n, th ere was already a plurality of organizations that w1fre
provid in g <1g ri cult11ral exten sion work .to the millions ofFilipino farmers. Th at included DA
indu stry bur;~ ;rn s, the DA commodity agencies, the - ~tate . Agricultural Colleges · and
Uni ve rsities a~; v/cll as som E: NG Os' and private companies. ·
I
\ 102 Agg ie Hoard Reviewer
 Technology/knowledge system ·' · ··. ' · .
' It is now widely accepted the usef\.1lness of system approach for understanding and
. analyzing agricultural technology generation and dissemination (Nagel, 1979; Swanson
. &Peterson, 1991; Roling, 1991; Elliot, 1994)as·mentioned by Peterson; 1997.
An agricultural knowledge system ·· was identified consisting of four companies
. namely technology generation, technology transfer, techno/09jruiiliiation ·and agricultur.al
policy. The ·functions and linkages relat~d ·to the flow ahd 1 feedback of technology and ·
information in the system defines the component The way these are . divided . among
· organizations differs from country to country: .· . · · · .
• Technology Generation consists -or ·· plannirig, ;, adininistratio~ . and
implementation of research activities that develop; assess, adapt and test
improved agricultural technology 'fcir farmers and other users. ·in the public .·
sector, these tasks, as weli a:s some ·: dlsseminat!Oifwork ate carried out ' by ·
agricultural research or,ganizado'P.s~ :: : ...:.; ., ... ··· · · . . .
• Teclmo/Qgy Transfer further evah.iates and adapts rese~n:l\ 9utputs for.users ..
and then widely' disseminates .the knowledge : and :O inpu~: fo different target .
adopters. ·' . ·· . ·. · ' ., _... '. · ·
• Technology Utilizatiot1 component encompass·e·s the u's ers of the· agricultural
technology, mainly farmers. User .awareness; · adaptation and adoption qf .
improved technology
.
frorri vadous.
,I
sources
. . .
'a ffect
' . . ·.
fat"rm~tevel
. . . .
produdivity
. .
and
.
.:
profitability and economic growth at the · national leveL ·Interaction and .
feedback between users are: research and transfer . organiZ~tions improve :
cooperation and the relevance of technology: The .policy component relates to··
the government development goals and strategies; 'ir'i'arket and price polides
and the levels of resources investment in the system.'. : · · ·

Factors that can impede or influence the flow of technology and information in agricultural
technology syste1n: · ··

A. Macrofactors

a. Agroecoiogica/~ differences in te~perature, rainfall, soil types, evapo-:

i transpiration, etc. are reflected in the diversity of farwing condi.t ions and
production systems. · · · · · ". ·

I b. Political-Economic- the perceritage of reso·u rce-p6or siriallholder farmers ·

influences the fype oftechnologytohe.tpmsferred:·Highturnoverof top ._ .·· ·
managers undermin.es ma:nagemei1t expedence aii.ct :'c'ontiriufry Hi leadership. · .
c. Socio~cultural-Language differences ai1d.illiteracy can hnpede the · . , .
communication of improved technology; Th~ divisioi{ Of Iabor between s~xe·s ·
can dirfer along cultural lines :anct 'irifluen.ces the:natui¢ qf farmhig systems in . .
different regions." · .· .· -. ' : · · · .. ' · ".'.; '.,:J • : · · .~ · ·

d. Policy- Policy-making bodies\ofthe_governmerit sef de\Telopment goals and ' .

objectives such asachie'vi~g food security or sit'rplus agricultural production
to stimulate economiC growtn :or ·prpvicHng health c~rcYor''ed"ucation for rural .
1

development. · ' · ' '·· · · ·. ·

!
· · AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION .AND COMMUNICATION 203
\

I
 e. Infrastructure- Farmers in areas that carinotbe reached by road or transport
vehicles are difficult to reach with in1proved technology, and they will have
problems transporting inputs and farm prnduce.

B. Institutional
' ' ~ .

. I a. Research- these include lack of financial .resources, acute shortages.of well~

trained scie11tists, lack offarrrier feedback to .ensure relevance or research
. results, lack of acce~s tci eXt:ernal sources o(kno'wleage·, inadequate operating
budgets, staff incentives and remuneration . ... · · · - · ·
b. Education and Training-content of the curricula of universities and. training
institutes, numbers and qual'ifications of their :graduates are lirniting or
enabling in any country. . · · · · · . ·· . · ·
I . c. . Input Supply- availability Or new plant .~nd anfrrtal vai·ieties with higher yfolds
. or resistance to pests and ·d iseases; ava'i labilify.o(agrochernicals and other
inputs,atthefarmlevel. . · . · '• .; ' ~. ,)' · . . ··.
I. to
d. Credit~ Facilitates farmer's ayailability purchase inputs such as improv:ed
variety/breed and fertilizeri understanding.i 9vernn1.e ntanci bank poHcies,
availabilit}r of credit andJhe institutionalfelationstiips involved in credit .
delivery. . · · ·· · · ! ., •· · · ··

e. Farmers Organizations and other NGOs- agreement should be reached with the
. private sectors both nonprofit and commercial organizations so that .
duplication of effort is minimized and conflicting messages to farmers are
. avoided; Farmer organizatio.n s offer an effedive channel for extension contact
· with lar·ge nui:nber of farmers~ Feedback onfarmer needs, production
problems and the results bf adoption from such groups will be increasingly
important considerations . .

Extension workers

Roles are an important dimensfon ii1 inerea:·s ing organizational effectiveness. Roles
and functions of the extension worker are as follows: ~nabler; educator, mediator, farmer
aid and facilitator. ·
The goals of extension inc;lud~ the transferring of knowledge froni researchers to
farmers, advising farmers in their decision making and edticating farmers on how to make
better uecisions, enabling farmers to clari(y their own goals and possibilities, and .
stimulating desirable agricultural developnients (Van derBan an.d Hawkins, 1996).
The services provided by extension h~ve- significarit i:»ublic-good attributes; there are
at least 800,000 official extension worke1~s· worldwide, and si:mie 80% of the world's .
extension servic.e s ate publicly funded and cl~livered bfdvil servants (Feder. Wiliett arid
Zijp, 2001). Universities, autonomous public organizat.ions,:and NGO.s deliver about 12% of
extension services, and the private sector delivers another.5°,!o:.There is a corresponding .
large volume of public budget allocated to' extension activities (In i 988, for example, over
six billion us dollal's worldwide cws·; 2003)): .. ' .. . ·.· ' '' :. . . .·. ~ .. .
From a developrnent policy perspective, the irivestfnent in extension services or the .
facilitation of non-government extension, are potentiallyim'poi:-tant tools for improving
agricultural productivity and increasing farmers' Incomes. More than 90% of the world's

204 Aggie Board Heviewer

\
)
I

extension personnel are located in developing countries (Umali and:Schwarts, 1994); where ·
majority of the world's farmers are loc<:lted. · ..
. Prodi1ctivity improvements are possible oriiy if a qfffere~tial exi.s ts between the
actual productivity on the farms and what could potentially be produced with better ·
knowhow, subject as always to farmers' preferences and resource constraints.The .
productivity differential is a manifestation of the.difference inthe knowledge that farm_ers
possess and the best-practice knowledge that-exists at any point in'. time~ Best practice is .
often, though not always, an embodiment of thelatestscience-b~sed developments
·a ddressed to overcome the limit?-tions imposed by traditional technology and practices and
thereby enhancing productivity.' , · .. · . · · '. . ., ·
. . . . · · ~ . .. .
Ex tension helps to reduce the differential between.potential.and actual yields in farmers' " .
fields by accelerating technology transfer and. helping farmers become better farm
managers. It also has a1_1 important role to playin helping the research establishment tailor
technology to the agro-ecological and resource circumstances offar·mer~. Extension .
facilitates both the adoption and adaptatimtoftec:hnology,to loca) :.c onditfons. Adoption of ,
technology involves translating information fromthe store of knowledge and from new . :. •··
research to farmers. Adaptation of technology to local condition is by helping to articulate
for research systems the problems and constraints faced by farmers. ·

Objectives of Agricultural Extension . ·• .

The hierarchy of extension objeetives ,.,

. Neils Roling. 1988

Ultimate objectives
(From analysis of societal problem) ,
. ~ - .'

Intervention objectives .
(Based on analysis of causes) . · , . .

Conditiont for effect . ... ,

(based on determinants of voluntary behav'.ior) .·; .
. ·..i ·. ·.·.'.. .. '·.... :.'. ·.' .
Activities · . . ·
(prog1;amming, iniplementation)
. . .i. . , ..
..Means ,
f ·. ' "1
I

(resources, management, organization) : ·:. . - '

When asking a group of t~ainees or extensio~ workers what c~mes: t~ rheir;_ ~inds when the ·..
is
term agricultural ex.tension uttered, the ariswers:will l.1sually cover.a wide range of . . . .
subjects based on what is the pi·oblem of the society like: raising the standard ofiiving oftbe
farmers, gaining their trust, changing mentality, reducing hungerf increasfog ,crop yields, '. .
increasing income, using inputs more efficiently, enhancing food securicy; collecting the data

AGRIC\JLTURAL EXTENSION AND (OMMUNICATION 205

\
·-- -- --- .. ,. - - ;:c Q#4!J$I ~
I .. about: the farmers' needs, producingmore,.carrying out fieldtfials, reducing poverty, etc. All
th ese examples ;:\re objectives of extension work. When one tries to organize these . ·
obj ectives in a causal chain~ one may reach the following diagram: ' . ·

This general diagram is very simple. It .c an be made more complex by distinguishing

between direct, core and result objectives. No results as they appear in the. upper part of the
di agr am can be attained unless the ones undel·neath have been-reached. In other words, no
RESULT objectives can be obtained tmless the CORE objectives have been realized. This area
is ca ll ed core becau se when asking the questions "who producesi', "who iii creases crop .
yields?", etc. the answer is «is t he farmers themselves'' and therefore emphasizes·the client-
cen tered ap proach, in whi ch all the efforts.of extension are geared towards changing .
elem e nts r elat ed to the client system, or the .farmers. The DIRECT objectivesrelateto what
is
the exte nsion system trying to achieve in terms of specific activities that will hope(ully
bring about the CORE objectives. .. ·

Thi s lc1tter - \ N ill hop efully - bri11g about the RESULTS objectives. Another way Of looking at .
of
t his con cept is the m easure of control or lack of it from the point view of the extensiori
p la nn e rs a nd practitioners. The control lessens as we go up the causal ladder, For example,
brin g ing ab ou t 31.1 increase iri yield will noti1ecessar1ly mean' an increase in inco'n ie (due to
pri ce flu ctu atio ns or wastage of res8urcr.s) and irfrrease in incorrie does notnecessarily _
result in irn prnvccl living' stc.Jncl ards (i.e buying luxury Consumer goodsfostead of tackling •
more b asic needs like health, sanitation or improved nutrition): Therefore, agricoltural
· extens ion sho uld preferably be within the framework of a more general development plan,
w hich will take into account community and social devel~pment aspects.
·, I f

Farm er!:>'
----··T oattain equilibriu1n and sustain~bility of productivity.far~ers must have a holistic
p ersp ective of agriculture because they are cultivators and managers of the "farm tht;y .
op era tes. As a cultivator, he p·repares the seedbed, sows the crop, eliminates the weeds,
ma na ges the soil moisture an·d measures for the control of pes,t s and diseases. And as a
manage r, t h e skill s of their cultivation ar:e mostly skills.of the hand, the muscles and the eye;
th e skills ofm anagcmen.t involve activities of the mind backed by the will. They involve
decisio n making and choosing alternatives as a soiution for a problem ·
Th f~ fa rm er should be viewed as soinebo_d ywho has pbtentials and not as somebody
w ho h a s a p roblem that must be solved. They must be seen as possessing nun-iber of ·
cap a bilities w hich can be tapped in promoting productivity. becaus~
. farmers have.extensive
exp e rience in agriculture. They. have low formal education attainment but farming wise, ·
th ey a re kn owl etlgeabl e and many things could be learned from' them. It is important not ·
only t o r e co gnize his beliefs, but they _m ust be respected as well. ·
Fa rm ers have th e attitude and practice that could be attributed to the general belief
t h at Natur e, as th e wo rk of God sl~ould be respected; and this m~an_s bowing to the .
in evitabl e and th e immutabl e in nature. Many farmer respondents would study nature yet
I c\v \·v ould ('Xploit it to the full es t for the improvernent of their lives.for this could be
la nt:am o trn l l u t a1r1 p0ring with th e works of God, The psychological disposition of the ·
far mer s u nrl ergoes a process of challenge; validation and confirmation. It is also important
to kno w the tech n ology but at the same ti~e delineate its relation and interaction with the
componeri \!; o r ih <:dr b elief systems ..

206 l\ggi e Bo,'.i rd Revi ewer

 . . . . . . . . . .. . . .

. Farmers, in general do not do things in frial and erro~. They are very rational in _the ·.
way they manage their farms. In short, there are valid reasons ,\.vhy farmers do what they dp.
These reasons are derived from thefr historical experience: It would.be an asset in
increasing the success of technology transfer to incorporate the historical experience of our
furme~. ·· · ·
. ~

Raising the standard of living of the' farmer

Enhancing food security/ · ' .. ~· . , ·.

}.

· ·.Results
t -" ~
Reduce hunger Reduce poverty
. . . . .: . ·_,/. ' ,.;
~ - ·. " "}
.. lilcreasing income , . ·. ',· ·..: }.
i . ' -. ~ }
Increasing crop yields
) .
.·Producing
.. •. . t ..more
.. :. ..· · Core

' l .·~ . -)
:. I·. .~ ~ .. .~:. .

Using inputs more efficiently . .- · ]

t ~ - -· . . •.
. -._ __.
..·, ... ' 'l
Changing their mentality .... : .· .
\~-

. t· ·.. j. .;~,' · . ,· :· Direct

. ... ..~ · - .]
.J " .· ·,;· 1
Gaining farmers'.trust · ·.
l
I " . ·
..._·r. .· ' · ·: · :
:]
. Carrying out field trials .
. . ._·. . : . .· r . : .· :,·· y·. - ] .·
. . . . . .~ . ' . ,· :. ' .·.: .°.:': .: ' i:::.:~..· .. .:: .~ .. ',

...
... ,._ \ , Collecting data,about th~ f arm'ers '\n~·eds
, i, '

. ·. ' •·'. 1 · ' '. , . :.. · •

. ' t . . !•''• . · '! '• . .

AGmcuL TURAL EXTENSION AND CoMMUNICATION · 207

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 1:.:..- · - · · -.-,-~·- -· ·---

/ '

1· Poli.c.ies • . ' '

. • . I

All national governments should develop and periodkallyieview their agricultural ·

I extension policy. Thepolicy should include the goals of agricultural extension, the . .
responsible agencies and personnel, the clientele to be served, the broad programmatie area
to be addresses and other relevant guidelines. . ·. · ·
·.,
· Philippine Agriculture over the years

1. During the Spanish Era

• Spaniards offered local and foreigi1 scholarships grants arid endowment fund for
a professorial chair in agriculture and establish an academy of design. ·
• Introduced and acclimatized the myrrh birds (rnartinez) from China_to fight . ·
against migratory locust infestation in the Philippines; ·.· :· ·
• Plan General Economico included the income generating monopolies of tobacco,
jareca nut, spfrituous Iiquors ·a nd exiJlosives. · · - · ··
• Gave incentives by award.ing _cash prizes.and medals of recognition for_ excellence
in farming indigo, spices, cotton, cultivating mulberryJor silk production and bee-
keeping.

2. During the.American Occupation

• Created the then Department of Agriculture and Manufacturing through a
presidential proclamation .on June23, l898. .· .. .
0 A homestead Law was passed, giving every Filipino citizen.the opportunity to ·
. acquire at least 24 hectares Of land. All titles to cultivated lands owned by pr~vate
persoi1s were safeguarded by the Torrens.Act .. Foreign capitalists and
. corporations wei·e restricted in purchasing or leasing public lands. This is done to
preserve the public lands of the Philippines for·the IWipinos. · . . '
• In 1902, the Bureai.t of Agriculture, now the Bureau of Plant Industry was created
to promote agriculture. Experimei1tal ahd modelJarmswere established, plant
pests were gradually exterminated, modern tractors an.d farm machinery were
introdnced and the people w_e re tal1ght rilodel·n methods ·o f cultivation.
• Philippine exports especially hemp/sugar, tobacco; ccipra and embroideries ·
flowed to the-fr.ee markets of the United States. Althol.tgh .free trade with the ·
United States was productive ofcomlnercial prospedty, it.made the Philippines
economically dependent on the United States. Neglecting.the trade with China,
Japan and England. . . .· . . · . · . .. . · . .
.. Domestic trade was controlle.d by the foreigners bec~use the Filipinos did not pay
as much attentioi1 to their local trade as they did to their overseas with America.
• The _w orldwide depression of 1929-32 and the tho1igh of i.n evitable Joss of tpe '
free market of the United States when indeperideilce_.·shall have been achieved, .
made the Filipino people realize the need for. a greate~·industrialization. Toward
I
1·
the year 1935 the governmerii:exerted greater·efforts not only in the · · .
diversification of crops bu·t also in the promotion of manufacturing industries.

I
208 Aggie Board Reviewer
 3. The time of President Manuel L Quezon
• · People '"' ere encouraged to go into agricultural business especia1ly people in .
Mindanao where favorable
. . . ' . is available
climatic .condition .. . . since
. . food is highly
~

needed during these times. , . . .. . .. . .

c Due to financiai shortage, information \l\'ei·e not passed an'd shatl:)d to farme,rs.
• Trading of agricultural products betweei1 the· Phllippiries and US increased: .
• Divi sio n of Soil Survey was created to uri~ertake soil and agronomical survey.' .

4. President Jose P. Laurel (The Japanase Occupation) ·· ·

" . This peri.o cl was called "the rude awakening" because it was realized that the
Philippines did not r~ise enoughfoo¢1 forJhe people and have been dependent all
along upon other countries for its deficiency In rice and othercei·eals.
.• He tried to have a gradual but determined reorientation-of the economy from
dep endence upon raw materials exports tb increasin_g relianc~ tip on the home
market. ' · · · .·., ·
I
\ 5. President Manual A Roxas . . " ! . ·; .

• Giving padty rights tc) the Americans: - the dispo:Sitirn~, expipitatiort; deyelopment
) and utilization of all agricultural, timberand mineral lands of the public domain, .·
I
waters, niinerals, coal, petroleum~· and other natural resources of the Philippines
• Established the Rehabilitation Finance·Corporation (Rf1C,·l'<ite·r changed to .
I Development Bank of thePhilippines)..for_the rehabilitation and development of
agriculture am()ilg others. .. . . , ·_ ·:.·; · " ·
·. ..... ..·.· .

6. Presid e nt Elpiclio Quirino . . . . · , · · •.. ' , . ...

• Th e Bureau of Agricultural Extension "'as•c.stablished. He'. 1nade the ~rice industry . · ·
· t he first i:ommodity sector to have anintegrated national planning'There was an
in tensive rehabilitation of the rice; corn, toba'cco, fiber; sugar,
livestock, fishery
and mining ihdustl".ies begun. · · . · ,. · . .. . ' " · :. '. " · '·· .
• Congress passed the Rtiral Bank Act in' 19:2 which authorizeP, tl:i e organization of
a system of rural banks with substantiai' c~p.ital parHcipation'of the government
• Congress also created the Agricultural C'i·editand Co.o perative.Financing
Administratfon (/\CCFA) which was ·authoi"izedto o:rgahize'. the Farri1ers .
· ·· · ! ·
to
Cooperative Marketing Associatimi~ (Fi\COMAS) arid exfond)ow co~t'loans
th eJTi. · ·
to

7. Pi·esident Ramon Mag~aysay . •.. .· .· . · . "'; .· · .· ·

" The Philippines actively pursued art impott-sti}?stitudon· :5t~ategy to .achieve , ..
higher employment, reduce ·d<.'tinesdc inflation· ;;ind market interest rates with the
go<ll of creating stronger economic gr:owth an~ !accele'ratingri1odernization and
industrialization.' , :. . . · ,. ,., . · ·
• The PhilipjJines beca1~e ·a meinber 'o'fthe•:Unitecl'Natidns: Fooda~dAgriculture .
Qrganizat:ion. . ' . · · · · / :. ·. ·: '.. '·.: ··. • · · : •. · • · .· · · · .
~ Nati on al RiCe and Corn Produqion Pr°ogr'am:were Jatinched'coupied .w ith the .
cre:•::1Uon of the Rice ~nd Corl1 Co~rtlt~1ating C~·tl~cil, the' rc»re~hnner ofthe National
Food ;:1nd Agricultu.re Coundl (NFACJ~hic}?-Js now tne:Nati(),nal Agricultural and .
Fishery Council (NAFCJ; , : .·. - . .· . . " .. ·, .. < .

AGRICULTURAL. E~TENSION AND COMMUNICATION 209

,,
.I
1

\
 8. President Carlos P. Garcia . . .
.. Austery Program·· urged the people.to lead simpJ:e lives and do away with
luxurious lifestyles. He emph<~sized theyalues, wis'e S,p~ndi~1g; industry, thrift,
· trustworthiness, integrity and honesty. Goverrin1ent.dffidahand employees were
reminded that .the public office is a public trnst aiid that·gr.aft and corruption 'was .
totally eliminated but his efforts were timely in strengthening·the people's·faith
and confidence in the democratic process. . .
• The Filipino First Polity- encour..a ged the people to pati-on'ize Philippine-inade
pi·oducts and to promote FilipiliqJabor. . · .... · ..
.. Cultural Revival
· .· '

9. President Diosdado Macapagal ·· ·' ·

• . Believed.that research will make full and q>mpreheri'sive solution to our rice
\ problem. It IS for this reason that he allowed th'e establishment of the

I International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in ol1rla~d. ~. - . ..

• Dissected the problem of the sugar industry: · ·· >

10. President Ferdinand Marcos . . . · · · ··· . ·. ·

• Agricultural Republic"Act 6389 - automatic conversion ofsh~1retenancy to
· leasehold and a retention rate ,o f 75 to' 24 hectar_es· must be lowered and the
creation of DAR. A failure because it provide'd for. the right to eject the lessee
for having failed to adopt proven farm practice. Risk minimizer rather than
profit maximizer.
. '• . . . .. . . .. .
.
.. ' :', ' '
• Abalanced Agro-Industrialized Economy . ·..; .: "· :\">
• Farmers without land were resettled in agricultural settlements owned by°' the
government. Average farm lot is 6 Jias. · . . : · ,· . . . .·
• Breakthrough to self sufficiency for about 2 years only through MASAGANA
99, a massive dispersal of a modern package of tedinology (HYV's, fertilizers ,
and pesticides), the cxt:en'sion of supervised ctedit without collateral, " .
dispersal of agriculturcil extension workers to facilitate technology transfer, .
utilization of mass media to ·clissemiriate info1~matiori' and total coordinated . ., .
government management of the program. . . . . . . . ... •'
• Sugar industry provides the country wi a stable .flow.of foreign exchange
earnings and employmentfor·a :great riu'rriber of Filipinos. ·
• Replanting program for coconut .
!i
· ... . . . . ~- .' :: .. .

11. President Corazon C. Aquino . . - . . . . >.

" Comprehensive and genuine agrarian reform program with some supports as
credit, marketing and technology . .. ·. . .. · ·
• Uplift the farmers from poverty, ignorance and stagm\tion ·. ·
• Make the farmers useful, dig1iified,·responsibleand progressive partne'r s in
nation building · · · · · · .· · · . . ' :.
0 Distribute portions of public l<tr1ds through resettlement·
• Lend idle private Jaricls to the landless
·---------------·- --- ' ..
21 O Aggie Board Heviewer

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 ··-- ---
/

• Encourage voluntary land sharing protecti~n . ..

• Short liyed due to.the destabilizing .e ffect ofthe,vari9us military coups
moul).ted against Aquino Adminis~ration; . · . ·. · ;· :. : ::, :,. .• ..•·.. ·: . · ·. ,
• Nonetheless, Aquino government was able to lay the foundation for.which ,·:
· . succeeding
. .
adrriiriistrations
- .
could proceed
. . . .
to dev.
.
e lop ,t he. '
toµntryside.
.
· " ,;
·· : .·:· ' • : ·.,, ,··

12. President Fidel V. Ramos . __ , : : ,\ , .. .

• Too preoccupied with iµdustrializingthe econornyby the year 2000 that it ·.
failed to give the appropriate finandalsuppphand arten.t ion on developing ·
the Philippine Agriculture for .the.World Trade. . . ·: ... · . . .
• Except for livestockand exp.a rt .crops sud1 as banana ~n,d pineapple all .
agricultural commodities suffered a dedinejn productiyity. . . . . . . . : ,.
• Initiated the MTADP (Medium Te,n1:r.Agricultur~l Development Plan) -in 4 .. ·
programs . .., ..:· ·: · ;, 7 . ,. • ,, .
o GPEP ~· Grains Prodtic!i6n Enh.a ncement Program , , ·...
o KCCDP ... Key CommercialCrops .Qevelop:m ent Program : . : .·
o · MTLDP -Medium Term Livestock Development Program ·
o .MTFMDP- MediumTerm Fisheries Manageme~t Development
Program ..
• Intensified Delivery of Support Ser:vice · · . ..
• Adopted GATT Safety Measures . .. !
. I
i
!
13. President Joseph E. Estrada ...· .;
• Continue the program of President.Ramos . . .
• . More focused on crime prevention and on constitutional correction foi· .
development (CONCORD) · '· , , ! . ·.: .. ,. ., ·

• Little evidence that the agricultural ~ policies <:tnd institutions .'\Nere moving in
. right directions because he further: ceritralize tli_e distr:-ibution often ts and _.
dispensation .of political
.
favors which
.
perpetuateineffechve
. . ' ·.. .
~.
govern.me.n t . '. ' '

programs .. ; .. . · , .·.. 1:., :·../.,•• :1·· · ·

• Agrikulturang Makamasa ~ continue the a~tivities ofGlntong Ani.
• · Approved .the implementation ()f Biot¢clu~ology;_in the coµntry; ..
. · . · ·. ,'
. ' ·: ·.. ..; : ~ '~ . '

14.PresidentGloriaM.Arroyo .. ; ., . : . : . >- :1,.::'.-,; ..; . . . ·;·:

• Ensured the .yearly funding ofAFMA (includes.yearly logh releases of more ··
thanPIOBfromLBP. . . . . . ..;" · · , . ·. ' : .....
· • GfylA-CARES (Ginintuang Masaganang Al)i:-oCouotry\;vid~ :Assistal)~e for Rural,:·
Employment and ServicesJ proyiqe sustainable credit fo'r;~s:rriall borrowers and .
marginalized groups in thec0tintry.: · · . '_' , . , · .' ) ':,;'-i ·. '.' · ·: . ' ", . -: > . .·
• Hybrid RiC:e Commercialization .Program - tq promote widespread ·use of
hybrid rice seeds in the counfryih or_d er.to enhance farrners.' productivity and
income and to generate employment in the rllral area.s: .h~: . . . .
• Commodity Programs · : , :\'·., ,. , · ·:.'. •· .. .

i · In the Philippines, it dates back to the fir~tf~r.m sch~~i Li'G~arija,:in

J.n Negros during .
~ the Spanish time. But the contemporary cqncept ofpublic exte11siori d~tes back fo the early
1950's with the establishme~t of the Bureau of Agricultural E:xtension~ Shortly after the turn .

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
. . AND ' COMMUNICATION ~
211

I
 ·1
.J

. of the 20th century the current concept of extension was preceded by the creation of a ·. J
Bureau of Agriculture, which had one ofitsfurictions the ' dissem~nation~of agricultural . "l
,i
l
info!'mation. The end of World War II ·for the :Philippines Was the beginriii:lg of a.conscious l
effort to modernize and develop agriculhtre to· feed its growing:iJC)pulatidri, to be a source of . :j
raw materials for industrialization and to incre·a se export earnings~ Inspired by the . . l
~
successful experience of the USA in .1ts modernizatiOrt and devel'opinent'of agriculture, the ·.··
Philippines adopted the interventionist: ap1)rcach td agdcult:Ural mod~rnization and
development using as major.policy instrmi1ents agricultiiral ed'ticati011; re.s e.a rch and 1
extension. This led to the creation of agritultunil schools and coHeges, tht~ cstnbllsh nwnt of .
agdcultural research stations, and the establishinent of commoditY authorities (i.e. .
National Tobacco Administration, Philippine.Coconut Authority; ~tc~ induded.the functions
of research and extension for their respective cornmodity resp.o nsibility. Furthermore, .·
influenced by the experience of Land Grant Agrictiltural _Co'lleges in the United States, the
functions of research and extension were' added to the teaching function of ari agricultural .
. college which started in the then UP College of Agricultur~ in th1fl:~~e. l960's. .
., '

Non government orgimiiation (NGO} .. '· . '-'. ··. · .

The term NGO, literally means any organization that is an initiative of private sector
. and not of government. NG Os in nature are non~profi~, their.focus bn
and-s.ervice to marginal
groups, flexibility in leade!·ship structures. They generallyhave fcfrmalregistration to ··
government agencies. Foundation register with the Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC), cooperatives with the Bureau of Cooperatives which is under the·Department of
Agriculture; social welfai·e types of groups with the .Bureau ci'f.Rtiral Workers under.the ... .·
Department of Labor and Employment. . ·. ·
The nori-profit nature of NGO means that surplus income'gerierated at the end of the
year are not divided among the in embers of the group. These are instead plowed back into
the operations qfthe orgariization for the nexfyea1;. ·.·. · ··· . :·..• .·.· ',. .· · .. · . .
· Another comrrion d1aracteristic ofNGOs ·istheir assisting:on ~he ·: different marginal
sectors in society.' These target groups c.il'e t:he'fanners; women, frlbal minorities, squatters,
youth, ctt. . . ·i :.: · .
NG Os can more easily adapt their s\:ruc.;tmes (lCcording to the needs of their · ·
programmes and ·activities thus m~king it a flexible organizatfon; These are of course cases
where there have been little or no changes fn top leadership of several·NGOs over the .years. ,
\ One of the significant characteristics to be ·mentionectis:their g.e.n erally voluntary .
nature and orientation. They do not 01:ierate'like business corporatiO'ns and much of the
services they rendered to their target groups or beneficiaries are free or minimally charged.
In terms of pet;coption of the worl(.soclal deVelopmenta·gericies believe in the
participation of people in the decisions ana pl·ote's se·s affecting them: The approach is
towards the self reliance of the communities or groups they work with and notthe
contii1ued depe11dence on the organization's' assistance . .· . ·.·' .• ·· ' · · . · ·. . .
A moving force ofNGOs i:S throtlgh;the comrriitted and inotfvated per.s onnelof i( ·: ..
Development workers have generally high iense Of motivation <ind commitment in their ·.
service lo their target groups despite a usually low:remuneratibn and some risks ii,w olved
with this type of work. .

212 Aggie Board Reviewer

·',.
I
GovgnuD~!llQrganiz;ill.QJ.LUElti9.m1U~Y.QD
The Department of Agriculture is the principcil agency of the· Philippine government.
responsible for the promotion of-agricultural development gl'owth. In pursuit of this, it •
provides the policy framework, helps direct public investments, and in partnership with .
local gove rnment units (LGUs) provides the support services necessary to make agrictJlture
and .agri-b<ised enterprises profitable and to help spread the }jc1icfits of development to the
poor, particularly those in rural areas. . . • .. . . . . . .
The department is stipported by five (5) AgriCultural Industry Extension Extension
Systems, four (4) Specialized Commodity Extension ,S ystems and two (2)Commodity
Research Institution Extension System. Each of these agencies and Bureaus have their own
· extension mandates, such as: · ·
.. Bureau of Animal Industry - to develOp a vibrant livestock and poultry
forming commu_nities for food security and global competitiveness
.. Bureai.1 of
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources -to develop cost-effective,
prcictical, and efficient extension services on a sustained basis, especially to ·
municipal fisher folk in underdeveloped areas. (RA 8550
" Bureau of Plant Industry . . .. . . .
" 8ureau of Post-Harvest Research and Extension - generate, extend a.nd
commercialize appropriate and problem-oriented post production technology
;1nd practices.
• Bureau of Soil and Water Management- to promote and disseminate
technology for the identification and packaging of appropriate rainwater
harvesting. · .
" Fib e r Industry and Development Authority -to promote the accelerated
growth and development of the Philippine fiber industry in all its nspccts:
resi~ arcb, production, processing, marketing and trade relation
• Natio nal Tobacco Authority- to improve the economic and living conditions
1rnd raise the quality of life of the ·tobacco farmers.
" Philippine Coconut Authority - to work directly with coconut farmers
• Sugar flegulatory Administration - to transfer sugar industry information and
the tec hnology generated by the 1;esearch wing of SRA and other agencies and ·
progressive farmers. · · . · ·

\ " PhilRice

Staj:g_lliliY.1'111Hi.~'5_ ,~ n d £.O 11 eg~_,<L(_S ll.Q

Under the AFMA of 1997, SlJCs do not deliver direct extension services but work
with DA ope ca ted extension. SUC play a significant role in addressing the shortage ofwell-
trained agricultural extension staff in the field level through trainings and non-degree
program s. Th1~y can revitalize the Agricultural Extension curriculum through smdent
internsh ips , field work as well as.interactions with ·allied disciplines such as agrict1ltural
education duveloprnent communication and rural sociology.

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AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND MARKETING . 213