Biological Psychology 12Th Edition Kalat Test Bank Full Chapter PDF

Biological Psychology 12th Edition
Kalat Test Bank

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True / False
1. A striated muscle controls movement of the body in relation to the environment.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand
REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movements
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 - List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.
TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement
2. In skeletal muscles, every axon releases dopamine.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
3. Taking a drug that blocks acetylcholine receptors would be helpful for a person with myasthenia gravis.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze
4. Activation of the Golgi tendon organs results in contraction of the muscle.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
5. Infants have several reflexes not seen in adults.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
REFERENCES: Units of Movement
6. Most types of movement can be clearly classified as voluntary or involuntary.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
7. Central pattern generators are most likely to be found in the spinal cord.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
8. A fixed sequence of movements is called a motor program.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
9. The motor cortex can become active when imagining movement.

a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 - Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its
inhibition.
TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement
10. People with severe spinal cord injury continue to produce normal activity in the motor cortex when they want to
move.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
inhibition.
11. The prefrontal cortex plans movements according to their probable outcomes.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
inhibition.
12. The supplementary motor cortex is mainly active when preparing for an organized sequence of movements.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
inhibition.
13. Mirror neurons are active both during preparation for a movement and while watching someone else perform the same
or a similar movement.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
inhibition.
14. Brain transplants for Parkinson's patients have generally been very successful.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 - Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.
TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders
15. In Huntington's disease, earlier onset is associated with slower deterioration over time.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
REFERENCES: Huntington's Disease
Multiple Choice
16. What type of muscle controls movements of the heart?

a. smooth
b. striated
c. cardiac
d. antagonistic
ANSWER: c
REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement
17. What type of muscle controls movements of internal organs?

a. smooth
b. striated
c. cardiac
d. antagonistic
ANSWER: a
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA BIOP.16.07.01 - List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them
18. What type of muscle is responsible for the movement of your body through the environment?
a. smooth
b. striated
c. cardiac
d. syncarpous
ANSWER: b
19. What is the relationship between the motor neuron axons and muscle fibers?
a. Each axon innervates only one muscle fiber.
b. The more muscle fibers a single axon innervates, the more precise the movements.
c. The more axons which innervate a single muscle fiber, the more precise the movements.
d. The fewer muscle fibers a single axon innervates, the more precise the movements.
ANSWER: d
20. The eye muscles can be moved with greater precision than the biceps muscles because ____.
a. biceps have only slow-twitch muscles
b. biceps have only fast-twitch muscles
c. biceps are opposed by an antagonistic muscle; the eye muscles are not
d. eye muscles have a lower ratio of muscle fibers to axons
ANSWER: d
21. What is the name given to the synapse where a motor neuron's axon meets a muscle fiber?
a. neuromuscular junction
b. polar junction
c. muscle spindle
d. neurofiber synapse
ANSWER: a
22. Moving a leg or arm back and forth requires opposing sets of muscles called ____.
a. extensor muscles
b. flexor muscles
c. cardiac muscles
d. antagonistic muscles
ANSWER: d
23. The absence of acetylcholine will cause a muscle to ____.

a. relax
b. contract
c. fatigue
d. stretch
ANSWER: a
24. Which muscle is "antagonistic" to a flexor muscle in the right arm?

a. a flexor muscle in the right arm
b. an extensor muscle in the left arm
c. an extensor muscle in the right arm
d. another flexor muscle in the right arm
ANSWER: c
25. The eye muscles have a ratio of about ____ axon(s) per ____ muscle fiber(s).
a. two; three
b. one; three
c. three; two
d. three; one
ANSWER: b
26. The biceps muscles of the arm have a ratio of ____ to more than a hundred fibers.
a. four
b. three
c. one
d. two
ANSWER: c
27. In movement, the ____ muscle straightens the arm.

a. flexor
b. striated
c. extensor
d. skeletal
ANSWER: c
28. A fish will adjust to lower water temperatures by ____.
a. activating more action potentials
b. increasing the amplitude of its action potentials
c. recruiting different muscle fibers
d. returning to its basal metabolic rate
ANSWER: c
29. Which muscles are especially important when running up a flight of stairs at full speed?
fast-twitch muscles
a.
b. slow-twitch muscles
c. smooth muscles
d. intermediate muscles
ANSWER: a
30. If a new species were found with legs composed almost completely of fast-twitch muscles, what could we infer about
its behavior?
a. It could chase prey over long distances.
b. It could chase prey only over short distances.
c. It probably travels constantly.
d. It probably moves slowly and grazes on vegetation.
ANSWER: b
31. During aerobic exercises such as dancing, as glucose is used by the muscles, ____.
a. fast-twitch fibers absorb more glucose
b. slow-twitch muscles produce glucose anaerobically
c. glucose use increases
d. glucose use decreases
ANSWER: d
32. Exercising at a high altitude where there is less oxygen is most likely to affect ____.
a. intermediate fibers
b. anaerobic contraction
c. fast-twitch fibers
d. slow-twitch fibers
ANSWER: d
33. Vigorous use of fast-twitch fibers results in fatigue because the process is ____.
a. aerobic
b. anaerobic
c. anabolic
d. abolic
ANSWER: b
34. A proprioceptor is sensitive to the ____.

a. degree of relaxation or contraction of smooth muscle tissue
b. position and movement of a part of the body
c. percentage of fibers that are contracting within a muscle bundle
d. degree of fatigue in a muscle
ANSWER: b
35. The stretch reflex ____.

a. results in a stretch
b. is caused by a stretch
c. inhibits motor neurons
d. sends a message for a muscle to relax
ANSWER: b
36. A boxer’s ability to sense the position of his arm and hand before planning a punch is dependent on the sense of ____.
a. proprioception
b. somatosensation
c. pain
d. vision
ANSWER: a
37. A muscle spindle responds to the ____.

a. oxygen level in the muscle
b. acetylcholine concentration at the nerve-muscle junction
c. fatigue of the muscle
d. stretch of the muscle
ANSWER: d
38. A sudden stretch of a muscle excites a feedback system that opposes the stretch. This message starts in the ____.
a. dorsal root ganglion
b. cerebellum
c. Pacinian corpuscles
d. muscle spindles
ANSWER: d
39. A Golgi tendon organ responds to ____.

a. increases in muscle tension
b. decreases in muscle tension
c. increases in muscle spindles
d. decreases in muscle spindles
ANSWER: a
40. The role of the Golgi tendon organs is to ____.

a. prevent extreme muscle contractions
b. guard against fatigue of muscles
c. produce rapid repetitive movements such as finger tapping
d. regulate blood flow to the tendons and muscles
ANSWER: a
41. Muscle spindles respond to changes in muscle ____; Golgi tendon organs respond to changes in muscle ____.
a. tension; fatigue
b. fatigue; tension
c. stretch; tension
d. tension; stretch
ANSWER: c
42. Activity of a muscle spindle is to ____ as activity of the Golgi tendon organ is to ____.
a. contraction; inhibition of contraction
b. inhibition of contraction; contraction
c. inhibition of contraction; inhibition of contraction
d. contraction; contraction
ANSWER: a
43. What experience is similar to losing proprioception?

a. losing your sense of equilibrium
b. walking on a leg that has "fallen asleep"
c. having a phantom limb
d. teeth chattering in the cold
ANSWER: b
44. A physician who asks you to cross your legs and then taps just below the knee is testing your ____ reflexes.
a. constriction
b. slow
c. stretch
d. fast
ANSWER: c
45. A ballistic movement ____.

a. is a rhythmic alternation between two movements
b. is guided by feedback during the course of the movement
c. proceeds automatically once it has been triggered
d. tends to overcorrect itself
ANSWER: c
46. Central pattern generators ____.

a. contribute to rhythmic patterns of movement
b. generate movement which is unresponsive to environmental stimulation
c. constrict the pupils in response to bright light
d. control all reflexes in adult humans
ANSWER: a
47. A motor program is a ____.

a. mechanism that guides movement on the basis of sensory feedback
b. mechanism that produces an alternation between two movements
c. plan for training a brain-damaged person to walk
d. movement that, once triggered, continues automatically until its completion
ANSWER: d
48. Which action is an example of a motor program in chickens with featherless wings?
a. flapping wings if suddenly dropped
b. learning to fly
c. stretching its wings but not flapping them
d. flapping its wings while eating
ANSWER: a
49. Which behavior is most likely to result from the activity of central pattern generators?
a. a dog shaking itself to dry off
b. a child catching a baseball
c. a child playing the piano
d. an adult yawning
ANSWER: a
50. Which activity is an example of a motor program in a human?

a. yawning
b. making a list
c. taking your first steps
d. learning how to drive
ANSWER: a
51. In order to elicit movement, the motor cortex ____.

a. has direct connections to the muscles
b. sends axons to the brainstem and spinal cord
c. controls isolated movement in a single muscle
d. relies on feedback from individual muscle fibers
ANSWER: b
inhibition.
52. The posterior parietal cortex ____.

a. is the main area for touch and other body information
b. keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world
c. is active during preparations for a movement and less active during movement itself
d. responds to lights, noises, and other signals for a movement.
ANSWER: b
inhibition.
53. People with posterior parietal damage ____.

a. can see an object, but are unable to describe it
b. have good hand-eye coordination only if they close one eye
c. have difficulty accurately locating and approaching a sound
d. will not step over an obstacle, although they can accurately describe it
ANSWER: d
inhibition.
54. People with posterior parietal damage ____.

a. cannot walk toward something they hear
b. have trouble converting vision into action
c. can walk toward something they see but cannot reach out to grasp it
d. cannot accurately describe what they see.
ANSWER: b
inhibition.
55. The prefrontal cortex ____.

d. responds to lights, noises, and other signals for a movement.
ANSWER: d
inhibition.
56. The premotor cortex ____.

d. responds to lights, noises, and other signals for a movement
ANSWER: c
inhibition.
57. Damage to the prefrontal cortex is most likely to result in ____.

a. an inability to move
b. the loss of somatosensory experiences
c. poorly planned movements
d. no effect on movement
ANSWER: c
inhibition.
58. The part of the cortex that is most active during preparations for a movement and less active during the movement
itself is the ____.
a. premotor cortex
b. somatosensory cortex
c. inferior temporal cortex
d. tabes dorsalis
ANSWER: a
inhibition.
59. In contrast to people with posterior parietal damage, people with damage to certain parts of the occipital cortex outside
the primary visual cortex ____.
a. cannot locate the source of sounds
b. lose their ability to see everything
c. can accurately describe what they see but cannot reach out to grasp it
d. cannot accurately describe what they see but can reach out to grasp it
ANSWER: d
inhibition.
60. When are the cells in the premotor cortex (in contrast to the primary motor cortex) most active?
a. in preparation for movements
b. during movements
c. at or after the end of movements
d. during inhibition of movements
ANSWER: a
inhibition.
61. The part of the cortex that responds mostly to the sensory signals that lead to a movement is the ____.
a. premotor cortex
b. prefrontal cortex
c. supplementary motor cortex
d. tabes dorsalis
ANSWER: b
inhibition.
62. Cells in the prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and ____ prepare for a movement, sending messages to the primary
motor cortex.
a. posterior parietal cortex
b. secondary motor cortex
c. somatosensory cortex
d. supplementary motor cortex
ANSWER: d
inhibition.
63. The supplementary motor cortex becomes active ____.

a. during the second or two after a movement
b. during the second or two prior to a movement
c. only during a movement
d. only after a movement
ANSWER: b
inhibition.
64. Damage to the ____ impairs the ability to organize smooth sequences of activities.
a. premotor cortex
b. prefrontal cortex
c. supplementary motor cortex
d. tabes dorsalis
ANSWER: c
inhibition.
65. Just thinking about the intention to put your arm around your attractive date would activate which motor areas?
a. posterior parietal lobe
b. primary motor cortex
c. premotor cortex
d. supplementary motor cortex
ANSWER: d
inhibition.
66. Watching another person shoot a basketball is most likely to activate ____ neurons in the brain of the person who is
watching.
a. primary motor cortex
b. spinal cord
c. mirror
d. observational
ANSWER: c
inhibition.
67. Mirror neurons are active when ____.

a. viewing mirror images
b. watching others perform movements
c. identifying ourselves in the mirror
d. playing the piano
ANSWER: b
inhibition.
68. The motor cortex produces a kind of activity called a(n) ____ before any voluntary movement.
a. readiness potential
b. action potential
c. evoked potential
d. motor potential
ANSWER: a
inhibition.
69. Studies on conscious decisions regarding voluntary movements suggest that ____.
a. we are conscious of our decision before brain activity is generated for movement
b. voluntary movements are the result of free will
c. brain activity for the movement begins before we are conscious of our decision
d. we are unable to judge when we make conscious decisions
ANSWER: c
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.05 - Evaluate the evidence regarding the role of consciousness in
planning a movement.
70. People with damage to the parietal cortex appear to lack ____ related to voluntary movements. a feelings of intention
a. feelings of intention
b. the ability to make conscious decisions
c. a sense of timing
d. muscle strength
ANSWER: a
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 - Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial
corticospinal tracts.
71. Paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord are called the ____.
a. pyramidalspinal tracts
b. horizontalspinal tracts
c. dorsospinal tracts
d. corticospinal tracts
ANSWER: d
72. Axons of the lateral corticospinal tract extend to what area?
a. cerebellum
b. cerebral cortex
c. spinal cord
d. thalamus
ANSWER: c
73. The lateral tract cross over point is in the ____.

a. pyramids of the medulla
b. spinal cord
c. reticular formation
d. vestibular nucleus
ANSWER: a
74. Lateral tract axons are responsible for movements in the ____.
a. arms, hands, and toes
b. trunk
c. face and head
d. internal organs
ANSWER: a
75. Most of the axons of the medial tract go to which side of the body?
a. contralateral
b. ipsilateral
c. bilateral
d. dorsolateral
ANSWER: c
76. Movements near the midline of the body, such as bending and turning of the trunk, are controlled by which motor
system?
a. dorsolateral tract
b. medial tract
c. supplementary
d. hippocampal
ANSWER: b
77. What is the relationship between the lateral tract and the medial tract?
a. Most movements are controlled by one or the other, but not both.
b. Most movements rely on both, which work in a cooperative fashion.
c. Most movements that are initiated by one are terminated by the other.
d. One is excitatory while the other is inhibitory.
ANSWER: b
78. If you have trouble with rapid, ballistic movement sequences that require accurate timing, you probably have suffered
damage to the ____.
a. reticular formation
b. cerebellum
c. hippocampus
d. hypothalamus
ANSWER: b
REFERENCES: The Cerebellum
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 - Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia
TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Moveme
79. Speaking, piano playing, athletic skills, and other rapid movements would be most impaired by damage to which
structure?
a. reticular formation
b. cerebellum
c. ventromedial hypothalamus
d. parasympathetic nervous system
ANSWER: b
80. Damage to the cerebellum is most likely to interfere with ____.

a. lifting weights
b. the ability to remember a series of events
c. rapid movements that require timing
d. chewing and swallowing
ANSWER: c
81. What is the name of the rapid eye movement occurring when a person moves his or her eyes from one focus point to
another?
a. gyration
b. sclerosis
c. slide
d. saccade
ANSWER: d
82. A saccade is initiated by impulses from the ____.

a. spinal cord
b. hypothalamus
c. cerebellum
d. hippocampus
ANSWER: c
83. After damage to the cerebellar cortex, an individual has trouble with which part of the finger-to-nose test?
a. The initial rapid movement to the nose
b. The second step involving the hold function
c. The third step which involves the finger moving to the nose by a slow movement
d. Both the second and third steps
ANSWER: a
84. The nuclei of the cerebellum (as opposed to the cerebellar cortex) are most important in ____.
a. moving a finger rapidly toward a target
b. holding a finger in a steady position
c. using the hands to lift heavy weights
d. coordinating the left hand with the right hand
ANSWER: b
85. The cerebellum is most important for any process that requires ____.
a. precise timing
b. control of muscle strength
c. comparison between the left and right hemispheres
d. detecting the intensity of a stimulus
ANSWER: a
86. Purkinje cells are ____.

a. proprioceptors
b. flat cells in sequential planes
c. nuclei in the central cerebellum
d. axons parallel to one another
ANSWER: b
87. How do parallel fibers in the cerebellum control the duration of a response?
a. By determining the number of Purkinje cells that fire in sequence
b. By altering the velocity of action potentials from Purkinje cells
c. By determining which one of all the available Purkinje cells becomes active
d. By passing information back and forth between one Purkinje cell and another
ANSWER: b
88. Which widely branching cells are responsible for all of the output from the cerebellar cortex to the nuclei of the
cerebellum?
a. parallel fibers
b. Purkinje cells
c. putamen cells
d. saccade cells
ANSWER: b
89. The greater the number of Purkinje cells activated, the ____.
a. less the collective duration of the response
b. greater the collective duration of the response
c. greater the strength of the response
d. less the strength of the response
ANSWER: b
90. The structure composed of the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus is the ____.
a. basal ganglia
b. limbic system
c. cerebellum
d. sympathetic nervous system
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: The Basal Ganglia
91. Most of the output from the globus pallidus to the thalamus releases ____.
a. glutamate
b. ACh.
c. dopamine
d. GABA
ANSWER: d
92. Which basal ganglia structure(s) is/are important for receiving input from sensory areas of the thalamus and the
cerebral cortex?
a. globus pallidus and putamen
b. globus pallidus and caudate nucleus
c. caudate nucleus and putamen
d. globus pallidus
ANSWER: c
93. The basal ganglia are most critical for learning ____.
a. motor habits that are difficult to describe in words
b. repetitive motor behaviors like cutting with a knife
c. motor skills that include an element of balance
d. fine motor skills such as sewing
ANSWER: a
REFERENCES: Brain Areas and Motor learning
94. Cerebellum is to ____ as basal ganglia are to ____.

a. clumsy; paralysis
b. initiation; stopping
c. gross muscle function; fine motor coordination
d. timing; voluntary movements
ANSWER: d
95. What is one of the main symptoms of Parkinson's disease?

a. rapid fatigue of the muscles
b. loss of saccadic eye movements
c. difficulty initiating movements
d. inability to coordinate speech with movements
ANSWER: c
96. Parkinson's disease is caused by degeneration of a pathway of neurons that releases which neurotransmitter?
a. acetylcholine
b. substance P
c. serotonin
d. dopamine
ANSWER: d
97. In Parkinson's disease, which pathway in the brain degenerates?

a. basal ganglia to cerebellum
b. substantia nigra to caudate nucleus and putamen
c. cerebellum to spinal cord
d. cerebral cortex to spinal cord
ANSWER: b
98. The role of heredity in late-onset Parkinson's disease ____.

a. equals that of early onset Parkinson's disease
b. is probably not as great as with early onset Parkinson's disease
c. is greater for DZ twins that MZ twins
d. is greater for females than males
ANSWER: b
99. Genetic factors have their greatest impact on Parkinson’s disease in cases that involve ____.
a. early onset of the disease
b. late onset of the disease
c. first-born children
d. children with older brothers and sisters
ANSWER: a
100. What is the effect of MPTP?

a. It kills the neurons that release dopamine.
b. It suppresses activity of the immune system.
c. It is converted in the brain to dopamine.
d. It inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.
ANSWER: a
101. It is believed that exposure to herbicides and pesticides is ____.

a. the primary cause of Parkinson's disease
b. a contributing factor in some cases of Huntington's disease
c. the primary cause of myasthenia gravis
d. a contributing factor in some cases of Parkinson's disease
ANSWER: d
102. What is the most common drug in the treatment for Parkinson's disease?
a. haloperidol
b. physostigmine
c. Dilantin
d. L-dopa
ANSWER: d
103. A dopamine pill is ineffective for treating Parkinson's disease because it ____.
a. is already present in too large an amount
b. does not cross the blood-brain barrier
c. would have to be the size of a baseball to be effective
d. is too expensive
ANSWER: b
104. What is a limitation of using L-dopa for Parkinson's disease?

a. It only helps those who are in the later stages.
b. It does not cross the blood-brain barrier.
c. It can contribute to a greater loss of dopamine neurons.
d. It blocks glutamate receptors.
ANSWER: c
105. L-Dopa, a common treatment for Parkinson's disease, is a drug that ____.
a. inhibits activity of the immune system
b. increases the brain's production of dopamine
c. blocks the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
d. facilitates the passage of sodium across neuron membranes
ANSWER: b
106. As an option for treating Parkinson’s patients, transplantation of stem cells appears to be ____.
a. the most effective technique
b. more effective in late stages of the disease
c. modestly effective, as with other treatments
d. not at all effective
ANSWER: c
107. Early symptoms of Huntington's disease usually include ____.

a. paralysis
b. jerky arm movements and body tremors
c. rapid fatigue
d. difficulty coordinating the left hand with the right hand
ANSWER: b
108. What is a common symptom of Huntington's disease?

a. rapid fatigue of the muscles
b. loss of both sensation and motor control in certain limbs
c. twitches, tremors, and writhing that interfere with voluntary movement
d. impairment of saccadic eye movements and rapid alternating movements
ANSWER: c
109. Which parts of the brain deteriorate most strongly in Huntington's disease?
a. Pathways of neurons containing the neurotransmitter dopamine
b. The cerebellum and medulla
c. The caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus
d. The hippocampus and amygdala
ANSWER: c
110. The psychological disorders that accompany Huntington's disease could be mistaken for which of the following?
a. schizophrenia
b. dissociative identity disorder
c. antisocial personality disorder
d. bipolar disorder
ANSWER: a
111. What is the usual age of onset for Huntington's disease?

a. 5-7 years old
b. 12-20 years old
c. 30-50 years old
d. 65 years or older
ANSWER: c
112. What is the relationship of genetics to Huntington's disease?

a. It is caused by a dominant gene on the X chromosome.
b. It is caused by a dominant gene on chromosome 4.
c. It is caused by a recessive gene on one of the autosomal chromosomes.
d. There is no evidence linking Huntington's disease to any gene.
ANSWER: b
113. In its normal form, part of the gene that controls Huntington's disease repeats its sequence of bases ____.
a. under ten times
b. between approximately 11-24 times
c. at least 36 times
d. approximately 75 or 80 times
ANSWER: b
114. The presymptomatic test for Huntington's disease enables one to predict not only who will get the disease but also
____.
a. the approximate age of onset
b. what other diseases the person will contract
c. which drugs will best alleviate the disease
d. which symptoms will become prominent first, and which ones later
ANSWER: a
115. Which of the following would be the most promising treatment for Huntington’s disease?
a. enhancing formation of glutamine chains
b. increasing production of huntingtin
c. blocking formation of glutamine chain clustering
d. decreasing production of BDNF
ANSWER: c
Essay
116. Describe the areas and major functions of the primary motor cortex (include the relevant areas near to the motor
cortex).
ANSWER:
Since the pioneering work of Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig (1870), neuroscientists have
known that direct electrical stimulation of the primary motor cortex—the precentral gyrus of
the frontal cortex, just anterior to the central sulcus—elicits movements. The motor cortex
does not send messages directly to the muscles. Its axons extend to the brainstem and spinal
cord, which generate the impulses that control the muscles. In most mammals, these axons
connect only to interneurons, which in turn control motor neurons. In humans and other
primates, some axons go directly from the cerebral cortex to motor neurons, presumably
giving us greater dexterity. Human movements depend on both the axons to motor neurons
and axons to interneurons.
The motor cortex is just anterior to the somatosensory cortex, and the two match up nicely.
That is, the brain area that controls the left hand is near the area that feels the left hand, the
area that controls the left foot is near the area that feels the left foot, and so forth. You need to
feel a body part to control its movement accurately.
The primary motor cortex is important for making movements, but not for initial planning.
One of the first areas to become active in planning a movement is the posterior parietal cortex
which monitors the position of the body relative to the world. The prefrontal cortex and the
supplementary motor cortex are also important for planning and organizing a rapid sequence.
The premotor cortex is most active immediately before a movement. It receives information
about the target to which the body is directing its movement, as well as information about the
body’s current position and posture. The prefrontal cortex, which is also active during a delay
before a movement, stores sensory information relevant to a movement. It is also important
for considering the probable outcomes of possible movements.
inhibition.
117. Describe the significance of mirror neurons.

ANSWER: O
f discoveries in neuroscience, one of the most exciting to psychologists has been mirror
neurons, which are active both during preparation for a movement and while watching
someone else perform the same or a similar movement. Mirror neurons were first reported in
the premotor cortex of monkeys and later in other areas and other species, including humans.
These neurons are theoretically exciting because of the idea that they may be important for
understanding other people, identifying with them, and imitating them. For example, mirror
neurons in part of the frontal cortex become active when people smile or see someone else
smile, and they respond especially strongly in people who report identifying strongly with
other people. Many people have speculated that people with autism—who fail to form strong
social bonds—might lack mirror neurons. However, one study using fMRI found normal
mirror neuron responses in autistic people, so we need to look elsewhere to explain autism.
Mirror neurons are activated not only by seeing an action, but also by any reminder of the
action. Certain cells respond to hearing an action as well as seeing or doing it. Other cells
respond to either doing an action or reading about it.
The possibilities are exciting, but before we speculate too far, an important question remains:
Do mirror neurons cause imitation and social behavior, or do they result from them? Put
another way, are we born with neurons that respond to the sight of a movement and also
facilitate the same movement? If so, they could be important for social learning. However,
another possibility is that we learn which visible movements correspond to movements of our
own. Then seeing others’ actions reminds us of our own, and activates brain areas responsible
for those actions. In that case, mirror neurons are not responsible for imitation or
socialization.
The answer may be different for different movements. Some newborn infants imitate a few
facial movements, especially tongue protrusion. That result implies built-in mirror neurons
that connect the sight of a movement to the movement itself. However, in both monkey and
human infants, many mirror neurons do not respond to observations of others’ movements
until after the infant has practiced making those movements itself. A mirror neuron cannot be
essential for learning to imitate a movement if you have to practice the movement before that
neuron develops its mirror properties.
Also, researchers identified mirror neurons that responded both when people moved a certain
finger, such as the index finger, and when they watched someone else move the same finger.
Then they asked people to watch a display on the screen and move their index finger
whenever the hand on the screen moved the little finger. They were to move their little finger
whenever the hand on the screen moved the index finger. After some practice, these “mirror”
neurons turned into “counter-mirror” neurons that responded to movements of one finger by
that person and the sight of a different finger on the screen. In other words, at least some
mirror neurons modify their properties by learning, and therefore it is possible that they
developed their original properties by learning also.
inhibition.
118. Describe the relationship of conscious decisions and movements. What may this relationship reveal about
consciousness?
ANSWER: Each of us has the feeling, “I consciously decide to do something, and then I do it.” That
sequence seems so obvious that we might not even question it, but research casts doubt on
this assumption. Research indicates that the brain activity responsible for the movement
apparently began before the person’s conscious decision to move. The results seem to
indicate that your conscious decision does not cause your action. Rather, you become
conscious of the decision after the process leading to action has already been underway for
about 300 ms. None of these results deny that you make a voluntary decision. The
implication, however, is that what we identify as a conscious decision is the perception of a
gradual brain process. It probably begins with unconscious processes that build up to a
certain level before they become conscious.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.05 - Evaluate the evidence regarding the role of consciousness in
planning a movement.
119. Briefly describe the cellular organization of the cerebellum.

ANSWER: The cerebellum receives input from the spinal cord, from each of the sensory systems by way
of the cranial nerve nuclei, and from the cerebral cortex. That information eventually reaches
the cerebellar cortex, the surface of the cerebellum.
• The neurons are arranged in a precise geometrical pattern, with multiple repetitions
of the same units.
• The Purkinje cells are flat (two-dimensional) cells in sequential planes, parallel to
one another.
• The parallel fibers are axons parallel to one another and perpendicular to the planes
of the Purkinje cells.
• Action potentials in parallel fibers excite one Purkinje cell after another. Each
Purkinje cell then transmits an inhibitory message to cells in the nuclei of the
cerebellum (clusters of cell bodies in the interior of the cerebellum) and the
vestibular nuclei in the brainstem, which in turn send information to the midbrain and
the thalamus.
• Depending on which and how many parallel fibers are active, they might stimulate
only the first few Purkinje cells or a long series of them. Because the parallel fibers’
messages reach different Purkinje cells one after another, the greater the number of
excited Purkinje cells, the greater their collective duration of response. That is, if the
parallel fibers stimulate only the first few Purkinje cells, the result is a brief message
to the target cells; if they stimulate more Purkinje cells, the message lasts longer. The
output of Purkinje cells controls the timing of a movement, including both its onset
and offset.

120. Briefly describe the nature of Parkinson’s disease. Include a discussion of its causes and possible treatments.
ANSWER:
The main symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (also known as Parkinson disease) are rigidity,
muscle tremors, slow movements, and difficulty initiating physical and mental activity. It
becomes more common as people age, striking 1 percent to 2 percent of people over age 65.
Early symptoms usually include loss of olfaction and psychological depression. Many but not
all Parkinson’s patients have cognitive deficits, which may include problems with attention,
language, or memory. The immediate cause of Parkinson’s disease is the gradual loss of
neurons in the substantia nigra and therefore a loss of dopamine-releasing axons to the
striatum (part of the basal ganglia). With the loss of this input, the striatum decreases its
inhibition of the globus pallidus, which therefore increases its inhibitory input to the
thalamus. The result is less vigorous voluntary movements. People with Parkinson’s disease
are still capable of movement, and sometimes they move normally in response to signals or
instructions, such as when following a parade. However, their spontaneous movements are
slow and weak.
What causes the damage to the substantia nigra? An early study reported that having a
monozygotic twin with early-onset Parkinson’s disease greatly increased your probability of
getting it, but having a monozygotic twin with late-onset disease had no effect. That result
implied that genes make little or no contribution to late-onset Parkinson’s disease. Later
studies have found less extreme results, indicating that genes do influence the late-onset
disease, though less strongly than they impact early-onset disease. So far, researchers have
identified more than 20 genes that apparently increase the risk of Parkinson’s disease,
although the results vary from one study to another, and one population to another.
The results agree, however, that none of these genes by itself produces a high risk. An
accidental discovery implicated exposure to toxins as another factor in Parkinson’s disease.
In northern California in 1982, several young adults developed symptoms of Parkinson’s
disease after using a drug similar to heroin. Before the investigators could alert the
community to the danger, many other users had developed symptoms ranging from mild to
fatal. The substance responsible for the symptoms was MPTP, a chemical that the body
converts to MPP+, which accumulates in, and then destroys, neurons that release dopamine,
partly by impairing the transport of mitochondria from the cell body to the synapse.
Postsynaptic neurons react to the loss of input by increasing their number of dopamine
receptors.
People are sometimes exposed to hazardous environmental chemicals that damage cells of
the substantia nigra. Many studies have shown increased risk of Parkinson’s disease among
people with much exposure to insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, including paraquat,
rotenone, maneb, and ziram. The disease is more common in farmers and other rural dwellers
than in city dwellers, presumably because of increased exposure to these chemicals. Exposure
to these chemicals increases the risk especially among people with any of the genes that
predispose to Parkinson’s. If someone also had a traumatic head injury, the risk goes up even
more. In short, most cases result from several influences combined, not just one.
What else might influence the risk of Parkinson’s disease? Researchers compared the
lifestyles of people who did and didn’t develop the disease. One factor that stands out
consistently is cigarette smoking and coffee drinking: People who smoke cigarettes or drink
coffee have less chance of developing Parkinson’s disease.
Because Parkinson’s disease results from a dopamine deficiency, a logical goal is to restore
the missing dopamine. A dopamine pill would be ineffective because dopamine does not
cross the blood–brain barrier. Physicians in the 1950s and 1960s reasoned that L-dopa, a
precursor to dopamine that does cross the barrier, might be a good treatment. In contrast to all
the medicines that were discovered by trial and error, this was the first drug in psychiatry or
neurology, and one of the first in all of medicine, to emerge from a plausible theory. Taken as
a daily pill, L-dopa reaches the brain, where neurons convert it to dopamine. L-dopa is still
the most common treatment for Parkinson’s disease. However, L-dopa treatment is
disappointing in several ways. It increases dopamine release in all axons, including those that
had deteriorated and those that were still functioning normally. It produces spurts of high
release alternating with lower release. Even if it adequately replaces lost dopamine, it does
not replace other transmitters that are also depleted. It does not slow the continuing loss of
neurons. And it produces unpleasant side effects such as nausea, restlessness, sleep problems,
low blood pressure, repetitive movements, and sometimes hallucinations and delusions.
A potentially exciting strategy has been “in the experimental stage” since the 1980s. In a
pioneering study, M. J. Perlow and colleagues (1979) injected the chemical 6-OHDA (6-
hydroxydopamine, a chemical modification of dopamine) into rats to damage the substantia
nigra of one hemisphere, producing Parkinson’s-type symptoms on the opposite side of the
body. After the movement abnormalities stabilized, the experimenters transplanted substantia
nigra tissue from rat fetuses into the damaged brains. Most recipients recovered much of their
normal movement within four weeks. Control animals that suffered the same brain damage
without receiving grafts showed little or no recovery. This is only a partial brain transplant,
but still, the Frankensteinian implications are striking.
If such surgery works for rats, might it also for humans? Ordinarily, scientists test any
experimental procedure extensively with laboratory animals before trying it on humans, but
with Parkinson’s disease, the temptation was too great. People in the late stages have little to
lose and are willing to try almost anything. The obvious problem is where to get the donor
tissue. Several early studies used tissue from the patient’s own adrenal gland. Although that
tissue is not composed of neurons, it produces and releases dopamine. Unfortunately, the
adrenal gland transplants seldom produced much benefit.
Another possibility is to transplant brain tissue from aborted fetuses. Fetal neurons
transplanted into the brains of patients with Parkinson’s sometimes survive for years and
make synapses with the patient’s own cells. However, the operation is expensive and
difficult, requiring brain tissue from four to eight aborted fetuses, and the benefits to the
patient have been small at best.
A related approach is to take stem cells—immature cells that are capable of differentiating
into other cell types—guide their development so that they produce large quantities of L-
dopa, and then transplant them into the brain. The idea sounds promising, but researchers will
need to overcome several difficulties before this might become an effective treatment.
REFERENCES: Parkinson's Disease
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uses; and that according to the various purposes they are applied,
&c. Therefore, indeed, a Letter-Cutter should have a Forge set up,
as by Numb. 1. But some Letter-Cutters may seem to scorn to use a
Forge, as accounting it too hard Labour, and Ungenteel for
themselves to officiate at. Yet they all well know, that though they
may have a common Black-Smith perform their much and heavy
Work, that many times a Forge of their own at Hand would be very
commodious for them in several accidental little and light Jobs,
which (in a Train of Work) they must meet withal.
But if our Letter-Cutter will have no Forge, yet he must of necessity
accommodate himself with a Vice, Hand-Vice, Hammers, Files,
Small and Fine Files (commonly called Watch-makers Files) of these
he saves all, as they wear out, to smooth and burnish the Sides and
Face of his Letter with, as shall be shewed; Gravers, and Sculpters
of all sorts, an Anvil, or a Stake, an Oyl-stone, &c. And of these,
such as are suitable and sizable to the several Letters he is to Cut.
These, or many of these Tools, being described in Numb. 1. I refer
my Reader thither, and proceed to give an account of some Tools
peculiar to the Letter-Cutter, though not of particular use to the
Common Black-Smith.
Plate 10.
¶. 2. Of the Using-File.
This File is about nine or ten Inches long, and three or four Inches
broad, and three quarters of an Inch thick: The two broad sides must
be exactly flat and straight: And the one side is commonly cut with a
Bastard-Cut, the other with a Fine or Smooth Cut. (See Numb. 1.
Fol. 14, 15.) Its use is to Rub a piece of Steel, Iron, or Brass, &c. flat
and straight upon, as shall be shewed hereafter.
In chusing it, you must see it be exactly Flat and Straight all its
Length and Breadth: For if it in any part Belly out, or be Hollow
inwards, what is Rubbed upon it will be Hollow, Rubbing on the
Bellying part; and Bellying, Rubbing on the Hollow part. You must
also see that it be very Hard; and therefore the thickest Using-Files
are likeliest to prove best, because the thin commonly Warp in
Hardning.
¶. 3. Of the Flat-Gage.
The Flat-Gage is described in Plate 10. at A. It is made of a flat piece

of Box, or other Hard Wood. Its Length is three Inches and an half,
its Breadth two Inches and an half, and its Thickness one Inch and
an half. This is on the Flat, first made Square, but afterwards hath
one of its Corners (as h) a little rounded off, that it may the easier
comply with the Ball of the Hand. Out of one of its longest Sides, viz.
that not rounded off, is Cut through the thickness of it an exact
Square, whose one side b f, c g is about an Inch and three quarters
long; and its other side b d, c e about half an Inch long. The Depth of
these Sides and their Angle is exactly Square to the top and bottom
of the upper and under Superficies of the Flat-Gage.
Its Use is to hold a Rod of Steel, or Body of a Mold, &c. exactly
perpendicular to the Flat of the Using-File, that the end of it may rub
upon the Using-File, and be Filed away exactly Square, and that to
the Shank; as shall more at large be shewed in §. 2. ¶. 3.
¶. 4. Of the Sliding-Gage.
The Sliding-Gage is described in Plate 10. at Fig. B. It is a Tool

commonly used by Mathematical Instrument-Makers, and I have
found it of great use in Letter-Cutting, and making of Molds, &c. a a
the Beam, b the Tooth, c c the Sliding Socket, d d d d the Shoulder
of the Socket.
Its Use is to measure and set off Distances between the Sholder and
the Tooth, and to mark it off from the end, or else from the edge of
your Work.
I always use two or three of these Gages, that I need not remove the
Sholder when it is set to a Distance which I may have after-use for;
as shall in Working be shewed more fully.
¶. 5. Of the Face-Gages, marked C in Plate 10.
The Face-Gage is a Square Notch cut with a File into the edge of a
thin Plate of Steel, Iron, or Brass, the thickness of a piece of
common Latton, and the Notch about an English deep. There be
three of these Gages made, for the Letters to be cut on one Body;
but they may be all made upon one thin Plate, the readier to be
found, as at D. As first, for the Long Letters; Secondly, for the
Assending Letters; And Thirdly, for the Short-Letters. The Length of
these several Notches, or Gages, have their Proportions to the Body
they are cut to, and are as follows. We shall imagine (for in Practice
it cannot well be perform’d, unless in very large Bodies) that the
Length of the whole Body is divided into forty and two equal Parts.
The Gage for the Long-Letters are the length of the whole Body, viz.
forty and two equal Parts. The Gage for the Assending Letters,
Roman and Italica, are five Seventh Parts of the Body, viz. thirty
Parts of forty-two, and thirty and three Parts for English Face. The
Gage for the Short-Letters are three Seventh Parts of the whole
Body, viz. eighteen Parts of forty-two for the Roman and Italica, and
twenty two Parts for the English Face.
It may indeed be thought impossible to divide a Body into seven
equal Parts, and much more difficult to divide each of those seven
equal Parts into six equal Parts, which are forty-two, as aforesaid,
especially if the Body be but small; but yet it is possible with curious
Working: For seven thin Spaces may be Cast and Rubb’d to do it.
And for dividing each of the thin Spaces into six equal Parts, you
may Cast and Rub Full Point . to be of the thickness of one thin
Space, and one sixth part of a thin Space: And you may Cast and
Rub : to be the thickness of one thin Space, and two sixth parts of a
thin Space: And you may Cast and Rub , to be the thickness of one
thin Space, and three sixth parts of a thin Space: And you may Cast
and Rub - to be the thickness of one thin Space, and four sixth parts
of a thin Space: And you may Cast and Rub ; to be the thickness of
one thin Space, and five sixth parts of a thin Space.
The reason why I propose . to be Cast and Rubb’d one sixth part
thicker than a thin Space, is only that it may be readily distinguished
from : , - ; which are two sixth parts, three sixth parts, four sixth
parts, five sixth parts thicker than a thin Space. And for six sixth parts
thicker than a thin Space, two thin Spaces does it.
The manner of adjusting these several Sixth Parts of Thicknesses is
as follows. You may try if six . exactly agree, and be even with seven
thin Spaces; (or, which is all one, a Body) for then is each of those
six . one sixth part thicker than a thin Space, because it drives out a
thin Space in six thin Spaces. And you may try if six : be equal to a
Body and one thin Space; for then is each : two sixth parts thicker
than a thin Space. If six , be equal to nine thin Spaces, then each , is
three sixth parts of a thin Space thicker than a thin Space. If six - be
equal to ten thin Spaces, then each - is four sixth parts of a thin
Space thicker than a thin Space. If six ; be equal to eleven thin
Spaces, then each ; is five sixth parts of a thin Space thicker than a
thin Space.
Now, as aforesaid, a thin Space being one seventh part of the Body,
and the thin Space thus divided, you have the whole Body actually
divided into forty and two equal parts, as I have divided them in my
Drafts of Letters down the Sides, and in the Bottom-Line.
Though I have thus shewed how to divide a thin Space into six equal
Parts, yet when the Letter to be Cut proves of a small Body, the thin
Space divided into two equal Parts may serve: If it prove bigger, into
three or four equal Parts: And of the largest Bodies, they may be
divided into six, as aforesaid.
If now you would make a Gage for any number of thin Spaces and
Sixth Parts of a thin Space, you must take one thin Space less than
the number of thin Spaces proposed, and add . : , - ; according as
the number of sixth Parts of a thin Space require; and to those
complicated Thicknesses you may file a square Notch on the edge of
the thin Plate aforesaid, which shall be a standing Gage or Measure
for that number of thin Spaces and sixth Parts of a thin Space.
All the Exception against this way of Measuring is, that thin Spaces
cast in Metal may be subject to bow, and so their Thicknesses may
prove deceitful. But, in Answer to that, I say, you may, if you will,
Cast I for two thin Spaces thick, e for three thin Spaces thick, S for
four thin Spaces thick, L for five thin Spaces thick, D for six thin
Spaces thick, or any other Letters near these several Thicknesses,
as you think fit; only remember, or rather, make a Table of the
number of thin Spaces that each Letter on the Shank is Cast for. And
by complicating the Letters and Points, as aforesaid, you will have
any Thickness, either to make a Gage by, or to use otherwise.
On the other Edge of the Face-Gage you may file three other
Notches, of the same Width with those on the former Edge, for the
Long, the Assending, and Short-Letters. But though the two sides of
each of these Notches are parallel to each other, yet is not the third
side square to them, but hath the same Slope the Italick hath from
the Roman; as you may see in the Figure at b b b.
¶. 6. Of Italick, and other Standing Gages.

These Gages are to measure (as aforesaid) the Slope of the Italick
Stems, by applying the Top and Bottom of the Gage to the Top and
Bottom Lines of the Letters, and the other Side of the Gage to the
Stem: for when the Letter complies with these three sides of the
Gage that Letter hath its true Slope.
The manner of making these Gages (and indeed all other Angular
Gages) is thus.
Place one Point of a Pair of Steel Dividers upon the thin Plate
aforesaid, at the Point c or d (in Fig. D in Plate 10.) and with the
other Point describe a small fine Arch of a Circle; as, e f or g h. In
this Arch of the Circle must be set off on the Gage a 110 Degrees,
and on the Gage b 70 Degrees, and draw from the Centres c and d
two straight Lines through those numbers of Degrees: Then Filing
away the Plate between the two Lines, the Gages are finished.
To find the Measure of this, or any other number of Degrees, do
thus; Describe a Circle on a piece of Plate-Brass of any Radius (but
the larger the better) draw a straight Line exactly through the Centre
of this Circle, and another straight Line to cut this straight Line at
right Angles in the Centre, through the Circle; so shall the Circle be
divided into four Quadrants: Then fix one Foot of your Compasses
(being yet unstirr’d) in one of the Points where any of the straight
Lines cuts the Circle, and extend the moving Foot of your
Compasses where it will fall in the Circle, and make there a Mark,
which is 60 Degrees from the fixed Foot of the Compasses: Then fix
again one Foot of your Compasses in the Intersection of the straight
Line and Circle that is next the Mark that was made before, and
extend the moving Foot in the same Quadrant towards the straight
Line where you first pitch’d the Foot of your Compasses, and with
the moving Foot make another Mark in the Circle. These two Marks
divide the Quadrant into three equal Parts: The same way you may
divide the other three Quadrants; so shall the whole Circle be divided
into twelve equal Parts; and each of these twelve equal parts contain
an Arch of thirty Degrees: Then with your Dividers divide each of
these 30 Degrees into three equal Parts, and each of these three
equal Parts into two equal Parts, and each of these two equal Parts
into five equal Parts, so shall the Circle be divided into 360 equal
Parts, for your use.
To use it, describe on the Centre of the Circle an Arch of almost a
Semi-Circle: This Arch must be exactly of the same Radius with that
I prescribed to be made on the Gages a b, from e to f and from g to
h; then count in your Circle of Degrees from any Diametral Line 110
Degrees; and laying a straight Ruler on the Centre, and on the 110
Degrees aforesaid, make a small Mark through the small Arch; and
placing one Foot of your Compasses at the Intersection of the small
Arch, with the Diametral Line, open the other Foot to the Mark made
on the small Arch for 110 Degrees, and transfer that Distance to the
small Arch made on the Gage: Then through the Marks that the two
Points of your Compasses make in the small Arch on the Gage,
draw two straight Lines from the Centre c: and the Brass between
those two straight Lines being filed away, that Gage is made. In like
manner you may set off any other number of Degrees, for the
making of any other Gage.
In like manner, you may measure any Angle in the Drafts of Letters,
by describing a small Arch on the Angular Point, and an Arch of the
same Radius on the Centre of your divided Circle: For then, placing
one Foot of your Compasses at the Intersection of the small Arch
with either of the straight Lines proceeding from the Angle in the
Draft, and extending the other Foot to the Intersection of the small
Arch, with the other straight Line that proceeds from the Angle, you
have between the Feet of your Compasses, the Width of the Angle;
and by placing one Foot of your Compasses at the Intersection of
any of the straight Lines that proceed from the Centre of the divided
Circle, and the small Arch you made on it, and making a Mark where
the other Foot of your Compasses falls in the said small Arch, you
may, by a straight Ruler laid on the Centre of the divided Circle, and
the Mark on the small Arch, see in the Limb of the Circle the number
of Degrees contained between the Diametral, or straight Line and
the Mark.
If you have already a dividing-Plate of 360 Degrees, of a larger
Radius than the Arch on your Gage, you may save your self the
labour of dividing a Circle (as aforesaid,) and work by your dividing-
Plate as you were directed to do with the Circle that I shewed you to
divide.
In these Documents I have exposed my self to a double Censure;
First, of Geometricians: Secondly, of Letter-Cutters. Geometricians
will censure me for writing anew that which almost every young
Beginner knows: And Letter-Cutters will censure me for proposing a
Rule for that which they dare pretend they can do without Rule.
To the Geometricians I cross the Cudgels: yet I writ this not to them;
and I doubt I have written superfluously to Letter-Cutters, because I
think few of them either will or care to take pains to understand these
small Rudiments of Geometry. If they do, and be ingenious, they will
thank me for discovering this Help in their own Way, which few of
them know. For by this Rule they will not only make Letters truer, but
also quicker, and with less care; because they shall never need to
stamp their Counter-Punch in Lead, to see how it pleases them;
which they do many times, before they like their Counter-Punch, (be
it of A A V v W w V W, and several other Letters) and at last finish
their Counter-Punch but with a good Opinion they have that it may
do well, though they frequently see it does not in many Angular
Letters on different Bodies Cut by the same Hand. And were Letter-
Cutting brought to so common Practice as Joynery, Cabinet-making,
or Mathematical Instrument-making, every young Beginner should
then be taught by Rules, as they of these Trades are; because
Letter-Cutting depends as much upon Rule and Compass as any
other Trade does.
You may in other places, where you find most Convenience (as at i)
make a Square, which may stand you in stead for the Squaring the
Face and Stems of the Punch in Roman Letters, and also in many
other Uses.
And you may make Gages, as you were taught before to try the
Counter-Punches of Angular Letters; as, A K M N V X Y Z, Romans
and Italicks, Capitals and Lower-Case. But then, that you may know
each distinct Gage, you may engrave on the several respective
Gages, at the Angle, A A 4 &c. For by examining by the Drafts of
Letters, what Angle their Insides make, you may set that Angle off,
and make the Gage as you were taught before, in the Gage for the
Slope of Italicks.
¶. 7. Of the Liner.
The Liner is marked E in Plate 10. It is a thin Plate of Iron or Brass,

whose Draft is sufficient to express the Shape. The Use of it is on
the under-edge a b (which is about three Inches long) and is made
truly straight, and pretty sharp or fine; that being applied to the Face
of a Punch, or other piece of Work, it may shew whether it be
straight or no.
¶. 8. Of the Flat-Table.
The Flat-Table at F in Plate 10. The Figure is there sufficient. All its
Use is the Table F, for that is about one Inch and an half square, and
on its Superficies exactly straight and flat. It is made of Iron or Brass,
but Brass most proper. Its Use is to try if the Shank of a Punch be
exactly Perpendicular to its Face, when the Face is set upon the
Table; for if the Shank stand then directly upright to the Face of the
Table, and lean not to any side of it, it is concluded to be
perpendicular.
It hath several other Uses, which, when we come to Casting of
Letters, and Justifying of Matrices, shall be shewn.
¶. 9. Of the Tach.
The Tach is a piece of Hard Wood, (Box is very good) about three
Inches broad, six Inches long, and three quarters of an Inch thick.
About half its Length is fastned firm down upon the Work-Bench, and
its other half projects over the hither Edge of it. It hath three or four
Angular Notches on its Fore-end to rest and hold the Shank of a
Punch steady when the End of the Punch is screwed in the Hand-
Vice, and the Hand-Vice held in the left hand, while the Workman
Files or Graves on it with his Right Hand.
Instead of Fastning the Tach to the Bench, I Saw a square piece out
of the further half of the Tach, that it may not be too wide for the
Chaps of the Vice to take and screw that narrow End into the Chaps
of the Vice, because it should be less cumbersome to my Work-
Bench.
¶. 10. Of Furnishing the Work-Bench.
The Workman hath all his great Files placed in Leather Nooses, with
their Handles upwards, that he may readily distinguish the File he
wants from another File. These Nooses are nailed on a Board that
Cases the Wall on his Right Hand, and as near his Vice as
Convenience will admit, that he may the readier take any File he
wants.
He hath also on his Right Hand a Tin Pot, of about a Pint, with small
Files standing in it, with their Handles downwards, that their Blades
may be the readier seen. These small Files are called Watch-makers
Files, and the Letter-Cutter hath occasion to use these of all Shapes,
viz. Flat, Pillar, Square, Triangular, Round, Half-Round, Knife-Files,
&c.
He also provides a shallow square Box, of about five Inches long,
and three Inches broad, to lay his small Instruments in; as, his
Gages, his Liner, some common Punches, &c. This Box he places
before him, at the further side of the Work-Bench.
He also provides a good Oyl-Stone, to sharpen his Gravers and
Sculpters on. This he places at some distance from the Vice, on his
left hand.
§. 13. ¶. 1. Of Letter-Cutting.
The Letter-Cutter does either Forge his Steel-Punches, or procures
them to be forged; as I shewed, Numb. 1. Fol. 8, 9, 10. in Vol. I. &c.
But great care must be taken, that the Steel be sound, and free from
Veins of Iron, Cracks and Flaws, which may be discerned; as I
shewed in Numb. 3. Vol. I. For if there be any Veins of Iron in the
Steel, when the Letter is Cut and Temper’d, and you would Sink the
Punch into the Copper, it will batter there: Or it will Crack or Break if
there be Flaws.
If there be Iron in it, it must with the Chissel be split upon a good
Blood-Red-Heat in that place, and the Iron taken or wrought out; and
then with another, or more Welding Heat, or Heats, well doubled up,
and laboured together, till the Steel become a sound entire piece.
This Operation Smiths call Well Currying of the Steel.
If there be Flaws in it, you must also take good Welding Heats, so
hot, that the contiguous sides of the Flaws may almost Run: for then,
snatching it quickly out of the Fire, you may labour it together till it
become close and sound.
Mr. Robinson, a Black-Smith of Oxford, told me a way he uses that is
ingenious, and seems rational: For if he doubts the Steel may have
some small Flaws that he can scarce discern, he takes a good high
Blood-Red Heat of it, and then twists the Rod or Bar (as I shewed,
Numb. 3. Vol. I.) which Twisting winds the Flaws about the Body of
the Rod, and being thus equally disposed, more or less, into the Out-
sides of the Rod, according as the Position of the Flaw may be,
allows an equal Heat on all sides to be taken, because the Out-sides
heat faster than the Inside and therefore the Out-sides of the Steel
are not thus so subject to Burn, or Run, as if it should be kept in the
Fire till the Middle, or Inside of it should be ready to Run. And when
the Steel is thus well welded, and soundly laboured and wrought
together with proper Heats, he afterwards reduces it to Form.
Now, that I may be the better understood by my Reader as he reads
further, I have, in Plate 10. at Fig. G described the several Parts of
the Punch; which I here explain.
G The Face.
a a, b b The Thickness.
a b, a b The Heighth.
a c, b c, b c The Length of the Shank, about an Inch and
three quarters long.
c c c The Hammer-End.
This is no strict Length for the Shank, but a convenient Length; for
should the Letter Cut on the Face be small, and consequently, the
Shank so too, and the Shank much longer, and it (as seldom it is) not
Temper’d in the middle, it might, with Punching into Copper, bow in
the middle, either with the weight of the Hammer, or with light
reiterated Blows: And should it be much shorter, there might perhaps
Finger-room be wanting to manage and command it while it is
Punching into the Copper. But this Length is long enough for the
biggest Letters, and short enough for the smallest Letters.
The Heighth and Thickness cannot be assign’d in general, because
of the diversity of Bodies, and Thickness of Letters: Besides, some
Letters must be Cut on a broad Face of Steel, though, when it is Cut,
it is of the same Body; as all Letters are, to which Counter-Punches
are used; because the Striking the Counter-Punch into the Face of
the Punch will, if it have not strength enough to contain it, break or
crack one or more sides of the Punch, and so spoil it. But if the
Letter be wholly to be Cut, and not Counter-Punch’d, as I shall
hereafter hint in general what Letters are not, then the Face of the
Punch need be no bigger, or, at least, but a small matter bigger than
the Letter that is to be cut upon it.
Now, If the Letter be to be Counter-punch’d, the Face of the Punch
ought to be about twice the Heighth, and twice the Thickness of the
Face of the Counter-Punch; that so, when the Counter-Punch is
struck just on the middle of the Face of the Punch, a convenient
Substance, and consequently, Strength of Steel on all its Sides may
be contained to resist the Delitation, that the Sholder or Beard of the
Counter-Punch sinking into it, would else make.
If the Letter-Cutter be to Cut a whole Set of Punches of the same
Body of Roman and Italica, he provides about 240 or 260 of these
Punches, because so many will be used in the Roman and Italica
Capitals and Lower-Case, Double-Letters, Swash-Letters, Accented
Letters, Figures, Points, &c. But this number of Punches are to have
several Heighths and Thicknesses, though the Letters to be Cut on
them are all of the same Body.
What Heighth and Thickness is, I have shewed before in this §, but
not what Body is; therefore I shall here explain it.
By Body is meant, in Letter-Cutters, Founders and Printers
Language, the Side of the Space contained between the Top and
Bottom Line of a Long-Letter. As in the Draft of Letters, the divided
Line on the Left-Hand of A is divided into forty and two equal Parts;
and that Length is the Body, thus: J being an Ascending and
Descending Letter, viz. a long Letter, stands upon forty-two Parts,
and therefore fills the whole Body.
There is in common Use here in England, about eleven Bodies, as I
shewed in §. 2. ¶. 2. of this Volumne.
I told you even now, that all the Punches for the same Body must not
have the same Heighth and Thickness: For some are Long; as, J j Q,
and several others; as you may see in the Drafts of Letters: and
these Long-Letters stand upon the whole Heighth of the Body.
The Ascending and Descending Letters reach from the Foot-Line, up
to the Top-Line; as all the Capital Letters are Ascending Letters, and
so are many of the Lower-Case Letters; as, b d f, and several others.
The Descending Letters are of the same Length with the Ascending
Letters; as, g p q and several others. These are contained between
the Head-Line and the Bottom-Line. The Short Letters are contained
between the Head-Line and the Bottom-line. These are three
different Sizes of Heighth the Punches are made to, for Letters of the
same Body. But in proper place I shall handle this Subject more
large and distinctly.
And as there is three Heighths or Sizes to be considered in Letters
Cut to the same Body, so is there three Sizes to be considered, with
respect to the Thicknesses of all these Letters, when the Punches
are to be Forged: For some are m thick; by m thick is meant m
Quadrat thick, which is just so thick as the Body is high: Some are n
thick; that is to say, n Quadrat thick, viz. half so thick as the Body is
high: And some are Space thick; that is, one quarter so thick as the
Body is high; though Spaces are seldom Cast so thick, as shall be
shewed when we come to Casting: and therefore, for distinction
sake, we shall call these Spaces, Thick Spaces.
The first three Sizes fit exactly in Heighth to all the Letters of the
same Body; but the last three Sizes fit not exactly in Thickness to the
Letters of the same Body; for that some few among the Capitals are
more than m thick, some less than m thick, and more than n thick;
and some less than n thick, and more than Space thick; yet for
Forging the Punches, these three Sizes are only in general
Considered, with Exception had to Æ Æ Q, and most of the Swash-
Letters; which being too thick to stand on an m, must be Forged
thicker, according to the Workman’s Reason.
After the Workman has accounted the exact number of Letters he is
to Cut for one Set, he considers what number he shall use of each of
these several Sizes in the Roman, and of each of these several
Sizes in the Italick; (for the Punches of Romans and Italicks, if the
Body is large, are not to be Forged to the same shape, as shall be
shewed by and by) and makes of a piece of Wood one Pattern of the
several Sizes that he must have each number Forged to. Upon every
one of these Wooden Patterns I use to write with a Pen and Ink the
number of Punches to be Forged of that Size, lest afterwards I might
be troubled with Recollections.
I say (for Example) He considers how many long Letters are m thick,
how many Long-Letters are n thick, and how many Long-Letters are
Space thick, in the Roman; and also considers which of these must
be Counter-punch’d, and which not: For (as was said before) those
Letters that are to be Counter-punch’d are to have about twice the
Heighth and twice the Thickness of the Face of the Counter-Punch,
for the Reason aforesaid. But the Letters not to be Counter-punch’d
need no more Substance but what will just contain the Face of the
Letter; and makes of these three Sizes three Wooden Patterns, of
the exact Length, Heighth and Thickness that the Steel Punches are
to be Forged to.
He also counts how many are Ascendents and Descendents, m
thick, n thick, and Space thick; still considering how many of them
are to be Counter-punch’d, and how many not; and makes Wooden
Patterns for them.
The like he does for short-letters; and makes Wooden Patterns for
them, for Steel Punches to be Forged by.
And as he has made his Patterns for the Roman, so he makes
Patterns for the Italick Letters also; for the same shap’d Punches will
not serve for Italick, unless he should create a great deal more Work
to himself than he need do: For Italick Punches are not all to be
Forged with their sides square to one another, as the Romans are;
but only the highest and lowest sides must stand in Line with the
highest and lowest sides of the Roman; but the Right and Left-Hand
sides stand not parallel to the Stems of the Roman, but must make
an Angle of 20 Degrees with the Roman Stems: so that the Figure of
the Face of the Punch will become a Rhomboides, as it is called by
Geometricians, and the Figure of this Face is the Slope that the
Italick Letters have from the Roman, as in proper place shall be
further shewed. Now, should the Punches for these Letters be
Forged with each side square to one another, the Letter-Cutter would
be forced to spend a great deal of Time, and take great pains to File
away the superfluous Steel about the Face of the Letter when he
comes to the Finishing of it, especially in great Bodied Letters. Yet
are not all the Italick Letters to be Forged on the Slope; for the
Punches of some of them, as the m n, and many others, may have
all, or, at least, three of their sides, square to one another, though
their Stems have the common Slope, because the ends of their
Beaks and Tails lie in the same, perpendicular with the Outer Points
of the Bottom and Top of their Stems, as is shewed in the Drafts of
Letters.
Though I have treated thus much on the Forging of Punches, yet
must all what I have said be understood only for great Bodied
Punches; viz. from the Great-Primer, and upwards. But for smaller
Bodies; as English, and downwards, the Letter-Cutter generally, both
for Romans and Italicks, gets so many square Rods of Steel, Forged
out of about two or three Foot in Length, as may serve his purpose;
which Rods he elects as near his Body and Sizes as his Judgment
will serve him to do; and with the edge of a Half-round File, or a
Cold-Chissel, cuts them into so many Lengths as he wants Punches.
Nay, many of these Rods may serve for some of the small Letters in
some of the greater Bodies; and also, for many of their Counter-
Punches.
Having thus prepared your Punches, you must Neal them, as I
shewed in Numb. 3. Vol. I.
¶. 2. Of Counter-Punches.
The Counter-Punches for great Letters are to be Forged as the

Letter-Punches; but for the smaller Letters, they may be cut out of
Rods of Steel, as aforesaid. They must also be well Neal’d, as the
Punches. Then must one of the ends be Filed away on the outside
the Shank, to the exact shape of the inside of the Letter you intend to
Cut. For Example, If it be A you would Cut; This Counter-Punch is
easie to make, because it is a Triangle; and by measuring the Inside
of the Angle of A in the Draft of Letters, as you were taught, §. 12. ¶.
6. you may make on your Standing Gage-Plate a Gage for that
Angle: So that, let the Letter to be Cut be of what Body you will, from
the least, to the biggest Body, you have a Standing Gage for this
Counter-Punch, so oft as you may have occasion to Cut A.
The Counter-Punch of A ought to be Forged Triangularly, especially
towards the Punching End, and Tryed by the A-Gage, as you were
taught to use the Square, Numb. 3. Vol. I. Yet, for this and other
Triangular Punches, I commonly reserve my worn- out three square
Files, and make my Counter-Punch of a piece of one of them that
best fits the Body I am to Cut.
Having by your A-Gage fitted the Top-Angle and the Sides of this
Counter-Punch, you must adjust its Heighth by one of the three
Face-Gages mentioned in §. 12. ¶. 5. viz. by the Ascending Face-
Gage; for A is an Ascending Letter. By Adjusting, I do not mean, you
must make the Counter-Punch so high, as the Depth of the
Ascending Face-Gage; because in this Letter here is to be
considered the Top and the Footing, which strictly, as by the large
Draft of A, make both together five sixth Parts of a thin Space:
Therefore five sixth Parts must be abated in the Heighth of your
Counter-Punch, and it must be but four thin Spaces, and one sixth
part of a thin Space high, because the Top above the Counter-
Punch, and the Footing below, makes five sixth Parts of a thin
Space, as aforesaid.
Therefore, to measure off the Width of four thin Spaces and one
sixth Part of a thin Space, lay three thin Spaces, or, which is better,
the Letter e, which is three thin Spaces, as aforesaid; and . which is
one thin Space and one sixth part of a thin Space, upon one another;
for they make together, four thin Spaces, and one sixth part of a thin
Space; and the thickness of these two Measures shall be the
Heighth of the Counter-Punch, between the Footing and the Inner
Angle of A. And thus, by this Example, you may couple with proper
Measures either the whole forty-two, which is the whole Body, or any
number of its Parts, as I told you before.
This Measure of four thin Spaces and one sixth part of a thin Space
is not a Measure, perhaps, used more in the whole Set of Letters to
be Cut to the present Body, therefore you need not make a Standing
Gage for it; yet a present Gage you must have: Therefore use the
Sliding-Gage (described in §. 12. ¶. 4. and Plate 10. at B.) and move
the Socket c c on the Beam a a, till the Edge of the Sholder of the
Square of the Socket at the under-side of the Beam stands just the
Width of four thin Spaces and one sixth part of a thin Space, from
the Point of the Tooth b; which you may do by applying the Measure
aforesaid just to the Square and Point of the Tooth; for then if you
Screw down the Screw in the upper-side of the Sliding Socket, it will
fasten the Square at that distance from the Point of the Tooth. And
by again applying the side of the Square to the Foot of the Face of
the Counter-Punch, you may with the Tooth describe a small race,
which will be the exact Heighth of the Counter-Punch for A. But A
hath a Fine stroak within it, reaching from Side to Side, which by the
large Draft of A, you may find that the middle of this cross stroak is
two Thin Spaces above the bottom of this Counter-Punch; and with
your common Sliding-Gage measure that distance as before, and set
off that distance also on the Face of your Counter-Punch. Then with
the edge of a Fine Knife-File, File straight down in that race, about
the depth of a Thin Space, or somewhat more; So shall the Counter-
Punch for A be finisht. But you may if you will, take off the Edges or
Sholder round about the Face of the Counter-Punch, almost so deep
as you intend to strike it into the Punch: for then the Face of the
Counter-Punch being Filed more to a Point, will easier enter the
Punch than the broad Flat-Face. But note, That if it be a very Small
Bodied A you would make, the Edge of a Thin Knife-File may make
too wide a Groove: In this case you must take a peece of a well-
Temper’d broken Knife, and strike its Edge into the Face of the
Counter-Punch, as aforesaid.
¶. 3. Of Sinking the Counter-Punches.
Having thus finisht his Counter-Punch, he Hardens and Tempers it,

as was taught Numb. 3. fol. 57, 58. Vol. I. And having also Filed the
Face of his Punch he intends to cut his A upon, pretty Flat by guess,
he Screws the Punch upright, and hard into the Vice: And setting the
Face of his Counter-Punch as exactly as he can, on the middle of
the Face of his Punch, he, with an Hammer suitable to the Size of
his Counter-Punch, strikes upon the end of the Counter-Punch till he
have driven the Face of it about two Thin Spaces deep into the Face
of the Punch. So shall the Counter-Punch have done its Office.
But if the Letter to be Counter-Puncht be large, as Great-Primmer, or
upwards, I take a good high Blood-red Heat of it, and Screw it
quickly into the Vice; And having my Counter-Punch Hard, not
Temper’d, because the Heat of the Punch softens it too fast: And
also having before-hand the Counter-Punch Screwed into the Hand-
Vice with its Shank along the Chaps, I place the Face of the
Counter-Punch as before, on the middle of the Face of the Punch,
and with an Hammer drive it in, as before.
Taking the Punch out of the Vice, he goes about to Flat and
Smoothen the Face in earnest; for it had been to no purpose to Flat
and Smoothen it exactly before, because the Sinking of the Counter-
Punch into it, would have put it out of Flat again.
But before he Flats and Smoothens the Face of the Punch, He Files
by guess the superfluous Steel away about the Face of the Letter,
viz. so much, or near so much, as is not to be used when he comes
to finish up the Letter, as in this present Letter A, which standing
upon a Square Face on the Punch, meets in an Angle at the Top of
the Letter. Therefore the Sides of that Square must be Filed away to
an Angle at the Top of the Face of the Punch. But great care must be
taken, that he Files not more away than he should: For he considers
that the left-hand Stroak of A is a Fat Stroak, and that both the left-
hand and the right-hand Stroak too, have Footings, which he is
careful to leave Steel enough in their proper places for.
The reason why these are now Fil’d thus away, and not after the
Letter is finisht, is, Because in the Flatting the Face there is now a
less Body of Steel to File away, than if the whole Face of the Punch
had remain’d intire: For though the following ways are quick ways to
Flatten the Face, yet considering how tenderly you go to Work, and
with what Smooth Files this Work must be done, the riddance made
will be far less when a broad Face of Steel is to be Flatned, than
when only so much, or very little more than the Face of the Letter
only is to be Flatned.
To Flat and Smoothen the Face of the Punch, he uses the Flat-
Gage, (described §. 12. ¶. 3. and Plate 10. at A.) thus, He fits one
convex corner of the Shank of the Punch, into the Concave corner of
the Flat-Gage, and so applies his Flat-Gage-Punch and all to the
Face of the Using-File, and lets the Counter-Puncht end, viz. the
Face of the Punch Sink down to the Face of the Using-File: And then
keeping the convex Corner of the Shank of the Punch close and
steddy against the Concave corner of the Flat-Gage, and pressing
with one of his Fingers upon the then upper end of the Punch, viz.
the Hammer-end, he also at the same time, presses the lower end of
the Punch, viz. The Face against the Using-File, and thrusts the Flat-
Gage and Punch in it so oft forwards, till the extuberant Steel on the

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Biological Psychology 12th Edition

Kalat Test Bank

1. A striated muscle controls movement of the body in relation to the environment.

2. In skeletal muscles, every axon releases dopamine.

4. Activation of the Golgi tendon organs results in contraction of the muscle.

5. Infants have several reflexes not seen in adults.

8. A fixed sequence of movements is called a motor program.

9. The motor cortex can become active when imagining movement.

16. What type of muscle controls movements of the heart?

17. What type of muscle controls movements of internal organs?

23. The absence of acetylcholine will cause a muscle to ____.

24. Which muscle is "antagonistic" to a flexor muscle in the right arm?

27. In movement, the ____ muscle straightens the arm.

34. A proprioceptor is sensitive to the ____.

35. The stretch reflex ____.

37. A muscle spindle responds to the ____.

39. A Golgi tendon organ responds to ____.

40. The role of the Golgi tendon organs is to ____.

43. What experience is similar to losing proprioception?

45. A ballistic movement ____.

46. Central pattern generators ____.

47. A motor program is a ____.

50. Which activity is an example of a motor program in a human?

51. In order to elicit movement, the motor cortex ____.

52. The posterior parietal cortex ____.

53. People with posterior parietal damage ____.

54. People with posterior parietal damage ____.

55. The prefrontal cortex ____.

56. The premotor cortex ____.

57. Damage to the prefrontal cortex is most likely to result in ____.

63. The supplementary motor cortex becomes active ____.

67. Mirror neurons are active when ____.

73. The lateral tract cross over point is in the ____.

80. Damage to the cerebellum is most likely to interfere with ____.

82. A saccade is initiated by impulses from the ____.

86. Purkinje cells are ____.

94. Cerebellum is to ____ as basal ganglia are to ____.

95. What is one of the main symptoms of Parkinson's disease?

97. In Parkinson's disease, which pathway in the brain degenerates?

98. The role of heredity in late-onset Parkinson's disease ____.

100. What is the effect of MPTP?

101. It is believed that exposure to herbicides and pesticides is ____.

104. What is a limitation of using L-dopa for Parkinson's disease?

107. Early symptoms of Huntington's disease usually include ____.

108. What is a common symptom of Huntington's disease?

111. What is the usual age of onset for Huntington's disease?

112. What is the relationship of genetics to Huntington's disease?

117. Describe the significance of mirror neurons.

119. Briefly describe the cellular organization of the cerebellum.

DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze

The Flat-Gage is described in Plate 10. at A. It is made of a flat piece

The Sliding-Gage is described in Plate 10. at Fig. B. It is a Tool

¶. 5. Of the Face-Gages, marked C in Plate 10.

¶. 6. Of Italick, and other Standing Gages.

The Liner is marked E in Plate 10. It is a thin Plate of Iron or Brass,

¶. 10. Of Furnishing the Work-Bench.

The Counter-Punches for great Letters are to be Forged as the

¶. 3. Of Sinking the Counter-Punches.

Having thus finisht his Counter-Punch, he Hardens and Tempers it,

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94. Cerebellum is to as basal ganglia are to .