LECTURE ONE

COMMUNICATION
 DEFINITION
 Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas
from one person to another; it involves a sender transmitting an idea,
information, or feeling to a receiver. Effective communication occurs
only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the
sender intended to transmit.

 Communication is the production and exchange of information and

meaning by use of signs and symbols. It involves encoding and
sending messages, receiving and decoding them, and synthesizing
information and meaning.

 All means of symbolic or verbal means (newspapers, mail, email,

telephones, television, radio, etc.) that people and machines use to
make contact and share information.
 What are the basic Steps leading to
effective communication?
1. Generation/Production of information
2. Encoding the information.
3. Determination of a medium of exchange of information,
4. Transmitting the information,
5. Receiving the information,
6. Decoding the information,
7. Making a meaning and a
8. Feedback.
 Communication is a process, a chain of understanding, that integrates
members of an organization from top to bottom, bottom to top, and
side to side and it is one of the most important attributes to human
existence.

 Many of the problems that occur in an organization are either the direct
result of people failing to communicate and/or processing information,
which leads to confusion and can cause good plans to fail.
 Communication is critical to our lives because it:
 Enables a person to sell oneself, eg at an interview, during a
presentation,
 Enables product, an institution, ideas and programmes to sell
themselves,
 Enables Computers and technology in general to function,
 Establishes entities and sustained them,
 Is the Hall mark of Leadership,
 Ensures harmony among people,
 Enables institutions, organizations and communities survive, tick and
grow; and
 Is the livewire of human existence and interaction.
 Communication plays a very crucial role in any organization. In fact,
communication is the reason for human existence.

 There are different forms of communication through which the

intentions of people and animals and even plants alike can be
passed across to one another.

 Without communication, life will be very difficult and in fact, will be

full of chaos.
 THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION
Harold Lasswell and Berelson have succinctly expressed the idea of
communication as a question. Lasswell's essential question is timeless
(1949): "Who says what in what channel to whom with what effects?"
Berelson said: "Some kinds of communication, on some kinds of issues,
brought to the attention of some kinds of people, under some kinds of
conditions, have some kinds of effects." (1949).
 Shannon and Weaver produced a general model of communication
known after them as the Shannon- Weaver Model.

 It involved breaking down an information system into sub-systems so

as to evaluate the efficiency of various communication channels and
codes.

 They propose that all communication must include six elements:

 Source - Encoder – Channel - Message – Decoder - Receiver
 While transmitting the message, communication permeates all levels
of human experience.

 It is central to understanding human behaviour, fostering positive or

negative behaviour change among individuals, populations,
organizations, communities, and societies.

 As human beings and not animals, we should focus on positive

behaviour outcome that emanate from our communication with
those we relate to.
 CONTENT AND CONTEXT IN COMMUNICATION
 Importantly, two elements are received during communication. These are
content and context.
Content are the actual words or symbols of the message that is known as
language — the spoken and written words combined into phrases that
make grammatical and semantic sense. Since we all use and interpret
meanings of words differently, simple messages can be understood or
misunderstood. Many words have different meanings and able to confuse
the issue even more.

Context is the way the message is delivered — it is the nonverbal elements in

speech such as;
 the tone of voice, the look in the sender's eyes, body language, facial
expressions hand gestures, and; State of emotions (anger, fear,
uncertainty, confidence, etc.) that can be detected.

 Context often causes messages to be misunderstood as we believe what

we see is more than what we hear. Contexts are powerful
communicators that help us to understand each other. Indeed, we often
trust the accuracy of nonverbal behaviour more than verbal behaviour.
 As observed context can be positive or negative to understanding and
perceiving communication.
 FEEDBACK IN COMMUNICATION

 A message has NOT been communicated unless it is understood by

the receiver (decoded).The question arises as to how one knows
communication has been properly received? Understanding of
communication is by two-way communication or feedback. This
feedback tells the sender that the receiver understood the message,
its level of importance, and what must be done with it.
Communication is an exchange, not just a give, give, give, as all
parties must participate to complete the information exchange.
 The Shannon-Weaver Model is one of the earliest and best models of
communication and feedback.
Feedback:
 Makes communication meaningful.
 It is the end-result of an idea and makes communication continuous.

 Forms of feedback
 The response (feedback) thus given may be verbal or non-verbal,
that is, in words or mere smile, glance, clap, an action, etc.
 While feedback could be instantaneous as in the case of verbal
conversation between two people on telephone conversation or
internet instant messaging, it is delayed in certain instances before
the response is given to allow the receiver to think and take time to
consider the response to give.
 While instance response is common to an informal communication,
delayed response goes with formal communication via letters,
memo, etc. Feedback could also be in written form or in oral form or
both. It could be also in the form of demonstration e.g. body
movement, paralanguage, gesture, posture, etc.
 At one time or another, people are seen been frustrated as a result
of the refusal of another person to give response to their message or
letter. In organizations delay in communication from subordinates
could result in insubordination especially in a formal setting.
 To lovers, it means life itself. Refusal to communicate one's intentions
may mar the whole relationship. All these explain the importance of
feedback in communication.
 Importance of Feedback
 The following are some of the importance of feedback in
communication either in a formal or informal setting:
1. It completes the whole process of communication and makes it
continuous.
2. It sustains the communication process.
3. It makes one know if one is really communicating or making sense.
4. It is a basis for measuring the effectiveness of communication.
5. It is a good basis for planning on what next to be done especially for
statistical reporting.
6. Communication will be useless without feedback.
7. Feedback paves way for new idea generation.
 Feedback is the livewire of communication as communication is the livewire of
human existence and interaction. Thus, feedback should be carefully considered
due to its significance.

 Feedback should deliver both bad and good news. Criticism of poor
performance as feedback is akin in many instances to organizations. But
feedback also can, and should, be about giving good news from superiors to
subordinates. The reality seems to be that it isn’t often done.

 Whether giving or receiving, feedback starts at the top, with the business owner,
the manager, even with the team leader. It means stepping back from the
immediate action to look at the bigger picture, at the business from a leader’s
perspective.

 What do leaders ideally do? They do things that inspire people to follow them, to
help them build entities through communication. People in organizations need to
know exactly what they have to do, or not to do, and how well they are
progressing. They need feedback – and so do the subordinates.

 As a leader you should provide more positive feedback. Delivering negative

feedback should be in a constructive manner and also encourage feedback for
you. This kind of give and take builds a communication culture that encourages
employees while it builds your business.
 Five-Step Process to Building a
Communication Culture
 Developing a feedback culture in your workplace really isn’t difficult.
Once you change your thinking from manager to leader the rest is
easy. Very simply, it takes a five-step process to build more effective
employee relationships. The process below guides your reflection as a
leader.
 Think and act like a leader : Learn why you need to be a leader,
what people want from a leader, what it takes to be a leader and
how feedback is an essential part of leadership.
 Clarify what you want: Clarify your vision for the business or
department and decide what needs to be done to achieve it.
 Understand staff needs: Learn from research what all staff wants;
then apply some practical strategies for improving your own
workplace relationships and business.
 Plan, discuss, agree, and commit : Turn your staff into a team and
have fun, whether you own the business or manage a team or
department.
 Give and get feedback: Deal with the ‘hard stuff’ constructively,
knowing what to say and how to say it. Then encourage staff to
give you feedback.
 Developing a communication culture means encouraging people to
feel comfortable about giving and receiving feedback about their
performance – in the interests of better business and their own
personal development.
 Feedback doesn’t have to be negative; indeed there are far more
occasions when positive feedback should be given. As a leader, you
can seek those occasions using the above simple five-step process.
 Your presentation will be more successful if you understand and utilize
basic concepts of communication. If you leave out any aspect of the
process, your communication may fail.
 Inter Personal Communication
 To deliv er the full impact of a message, use nonverbal behaviors to raise the channel of
interpersonal communication:
 Eye contact: This helps to regulate the flow of communication. It signals interest in others and
increases the speaker's credibility. People who make eye contact open the flow of
communication and conv ey interest, concern, warmth, and credibility.

 Facial Expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits happiness, friendliness, warmth, and
liking. So, if you smile frequently you will be perceiv ed as more likable, friendly, warm and
approachable. Smiling is often contagious and people will react fav orably. They will be more
comfortable around you and will want to listen more.

 Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking you may be perceiv ed as boring and stiff. A liv ely
speaking style captures the listener's attention, makes the conv ersation more interesting, and
facilitates understanding.

 Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous messages by the way you talk and
mov e. Standing erect and leaning forward communicates to listeners that you are approachable,
receptiv e and friendly. Interpersonal closeness results when you and the listener face each other.
Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be av oided as it
communicates disinterest, disrespect, shyness/timidity or fear.

 Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with others. You should
look for signals of discomfort caused by inv ading the other person's space. Some of these are:
rocking, leg swinging, tapping, and gaze av ersion.
 Vocal: Speaking can signal nonverbal communication when you
include such vocal elements as: tone, pitch, rhythm, timbre, loudness,
and inflection. For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these
six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms of many speakers
is that they speak in a monotone voice. Listeners perceive this type of
speaker as boring and dull.

When speaking or trying to explain something, ask the listeners if they are
following you.
 Ensure the receiver has a chance to comment or ask questions.
 Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes — consider the feelings of
the receiver.
 Be clear about what you say.
 Look at the receiver.
 Make sure your words match your tone and body language
(nonverbal behaviors).

 Vary your tone and pace.

 Do not be vague, but on the other hand, do not complicate what you
are saying with too much detail.
 Do not ignore signs of confusion.
 EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
 In today's world of business, an organization's survival depends on
employee communication. When communication is ineffective, the
organization suffers. There are 3 types of communication within the
organization – Top down; Bottom up, and lateral or horizontal.

 All communication is complex and multidimensional with plenty of room

for conflict and misunderstandings. Organizational communication is no
different with organizational issues often adding unique complications to
the mix during the communication process. For an organization to be
successful, it must have employees capable of sending and receiving
information quickly, clearly, effectively, and error free. Mistakes caused
by miscommunication cost organizations thousands of dollars due to
missed deadlines, lost time, and wasted product.
 In order to have effective employee communication in the workplace,
one must understand organizational communication structure and how
that communication structure facilitates internal communication. With a
basic understanding of organizational communication, one will be able
to improve communication skills and recognize communication problems
that arise during employee communication in the workplace.
 Organizational Communication Structure
 This is a network or system of pathways through which messages
flow. This structure is how an organization communicates
information to employees. The two types of organizational
communication structure are
 Formal and Informal. Both formal and informal types are used for
employee communication throughout the entire organization.
 A formal communication structure utilizes specific authorized
channels for information to flow between organization positions. The
three categories in a formal communication structure are:
 o Downward Communication,
 o Upward Communication, and
 o Lateral Communication.

 Downward is top to bottom communication such as CEO to VP of

Operations. Upward is bottom to top communication such as
Department Supervisor to Regional Manager. Lateral
Communication crosses employees horizontally such as two people
of same rank from different divisions.
 An informal communication structure uses relaxed communication
channels that are not specifically used for organizational information.
This includes employee communication “through the grapevine” that
comes from social and personal interests rather than formal organization
requirements. The four categories in informal communication structure
are
 o Scheduled Communication,

 o Intended Communication,
 o Opportunistic Communication, and
 o Spontaneous Communication.

 Scheduled is planned communication such as a division lunch outing.

Intended Communication is when an employee seeks out other to
discuss topic. An example would be finding co-worker for specific
information on issue. Opportunistic Communication happens when
employee sees someone and remembers to discuss issue such as
passing co-worker in hallway and remembering something.
Spontaneous Communication occurs between two people by chance
that starts a conversation such as two employees out for a drink see a
news report about an issue they are dealing with at work and they start
to talk about it.
 Internal Communication
 Organizational communication encompasses many aspects of
communication including internal and external communication.
Internal communication refers to communication used mostly by
employees inside the organization. External communication is
communication through media and with customers or the general
public and includes marketing, public relations, investor relations,
and corporate advertising.

 Downward Communication is communication that flows from upper

to lower levels of organizational structure. This type of internal
communication provides job related information and gives
direction.
 Downward Communication is used daily by managers to guide and
provide information to employees so they can complete tasks.
Memos, Employee handbooks, policy manuals, training materials,
and organization mission are examples of Downward
Communication.
 As internal communication flows downward, it gets more specific at
each level with the most detailed information at the bottom.
 Upward Communication is internal communication that flows from
lower to upper. This communication most likely originates with the
front line workers. The messages and information communicated
upward relate to:
 o compliance
 o job related problems
 o task competition
 o fellow employees
 o Requisitions

 This type of internal communication helps superiors see how well

employees follow direction and understand instruction from
Downward Communication. As internal communication flows
upward, there’s less detail at each level providing an overview or
summary to top person.
 Lateral Communication is when information flows between peers
who are equal or on the same level. Its main purpose is coordination.
Employees use lateral communication to coordinate with others to
finish tasks, make decisions, and share information. This type of
internal communication is voluntary and both employees have to
want to communicate to be mutually beneficial.
 Becoming familiar with organizational communication structure and
internal communication is the first step in understanding and
developing business communication skills.
 Effective employee communication in the workplace does not just
happen. It takes practice and hard work to improve internal
communication but doing so will build better workplace relationships
and increase career success.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 Step 1: The sender expresses the message
 The first step in the process of communication occurs when the
sender expresses a message. Communication always has a purpose,
goal, or objective. If you don't know what that is, you can't express
the message clearly. Common objectives are:
 To motivate (to work harder or smarter)
 To inform (about the results of a process or facts needs to make a
decision)
 To teach
 To persuade (to make a certain decision, to buy a product)
 To entertain
 To inspire
 Step 2: Media can be:
 Oral/spoken or written
 physical (printed matter)
 electrical (television set, telephone set, radio set)
 Or electronic (e-mail).

 Media can be in words or images. When you deliver a PowerPoint

presentation, you're using oral and electronic media of transmission,
usually with both words and images.
 For best communication, you want to choose the best medium.
Sometimes, PowerPoint is not the best option. I've seen cartoons
about a young man proposing marriage to a young woman with a
PowerPoint presentation. "Nice PowerPoint, but no." You get the idea
 Step 3: The recipient interprets the message
 The people who hear the message do not always interpret it the way
you would like. In fact, ask three people what they heard at a
presentation and you will get three different answers.
 First, you construct and deliver the message with the audience in
mind. What do they want to hear? What do they need to hear? How
much do they already know? What perspectives do they bring with
them? In other words, you need to craft the message for the
audience.
 Second, you try to remove any obstacles to clear understanding. In
communication theory, this is often called noise. Noise can be any of
the following:
 Distractions, such as an overly exciting or irrelevant background on
your slides
 Discomforts, such as hard chairs or a cold room.
 Prejudices that people bring with them. You may need to state your
assumptions or explain why certain assumptions are not valid.

 Finally, you get feedback.

 Feedback ensures that the recipient understood the message by
sending the recipient's interpretation back to the sender. The
recipient becomes the sender and the sender becomes the recipient,
completing the communication loop.
 When you deliver a PowerPoint presentation, you get feedback by
asking for it. You can have a question and answer period, ask for
opinions throughout, or include a feedback form in a hand-out. Note
that if you do the latter, you won't be able to start the cycle again right
away. Instead, you will have to initiate a later round of communication
(such as an e-mail) to correct any misunderstandings.

 Depending on the circumstances and your objective, you may be able

to create a discussion after the presentation to allow ideas to move
among the audience as well as between them and you.

 In an educational setting, you might think that the exam is the

feedback, but you do not want to wait until the test to find out that the
students did not understand the lesson. So teachers should also ask for
questions to allow for on-the-spot clarification.

 The important point is that you should use feedback to restart the cycle.
Did someone misunderstand a point? Then explain it again in different
words. See if the feedback is more accurate the second time.

 If you follow these steps, you should go far toward becoming a great
communicator.
 NOISE
 The word 'Noise' in communication theory is a barrier to communication that
may weaken or destroy a message that is intended to be relayed. There are a
number of ways to classify noise. It can be subdivided according to:
 type,
 source,
 effect,
 or relation to the receiver, depending on circumstances.

 In order to make the classification more compact, noise sources can be divided
into two main groups:
 Communication noise refers to influences on effective communication that
influence the interpretation of conversations. While often looked over,
communication noise can have a profound impact both on our perception of
interactions with others and our analysis of our own communication proficiency
 Noise whose sources are external to the receiver (External Noise), and
 Noise source created within the receiver itself (Internal Noise)

 Communication scholars classify four types of noise i.e.: physical, psychological,

physiological and semantic.
 Physical Noise is external to the speaker and listener. It includes things
such as the creaking sound of the ceiling fan in your room, or the
sounds of road construction outside your window that make it difficult
to hear what is being said.
 Psychological Noise is mental interference that prevents you from
listening. If your mind is wandering when someone is speaking to you,
the noise in your head is preventing communication.
 Physiological Noise is any physiological issue that interferes with
communication. For example, if you have a migraine, it may be
difficult to speak to others or listen to them when they speak to you.
 Semantic Noise occurs when there is no shared meaning in a
communication. This often occurs when someone is dealing with
medical professionals, lawyers, scientists or others who use
terminology that lay people may not understand.
 Some Barriers to communication
 What makes communication complex, difficult, and frustrating are
the barriers we put in the way. Here are the 7 top barriers.
1. Physical Barriers
 Physical barriers in the workplace include: Marked out territories,
empires and fiefdoms into which strangers are not allowed.
Closed office doors, barrier screens, and separate areas for people of
different status.
Large working areas or working in one unit that is physically separate
from others.

 Research shows that one of the most important factors in building

cohesive teams is proximity. As long as people still have a personal
space that they can call their own, nearness to others aids
communication because it helps us get to know one another.
 2. Perceptual Barriers
 The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the
world differently. If we didn't, we would have no need to
communicate: something like extrasensory perception would take its
place.
 The following anecdote is a reminder of how our thoughts,
assumptions and perceptions shape our own realities:
 A traveller was walking down a road when he met a man from the
next town. "Excuse me," he said. "I am hoping to stay in the next town
tonight. Can you tell me what the townspeople are like?"
 "Well," said the townsman, "how did you find the people in the last
town you visited?"
 "Oh, they were an irascible bunch. Kept to themselves. Took me for a
fool. Over-charged me for what I got. Gave me very poor service."
 "Well, then," said the townsman, "you'll find them pretty much the
same here."
 3. Emotional
One Barriers
of the chief barriers to open and free communications is
emotional barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and
suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our
childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful of what
we said to others.
 Example we often say"Children should be seen and not heard". As a
result many people hold back from communicating their thoughts
and feelings to others.
 They feel vulnerable. While some caution may be wise in certain
relationships, excessive fear of what others might think of us can stunt
our development as effective communicators and our ability to form
meaningful relationships.
 4. Cultural
When we join a Barriers
group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we
need to adopt the behaviour patterns of the group. These are the
behaviors that the group accepts as signs of belonging.
 The group rewards such behaviour through acts of recognition,
approval and inclusion. In groups which are happy to accept you,
and where you are happy to conform, there is a mutuality of interest
and a high level of win-win contact.
 Where, however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a
high level of game-playing replaces good communication.
 5. Language Barriers
 Language that describes what we want to say in our terms may
present barriers to others who are not familiar with our expressions,
buzz-words and jargon.
 When we couch our communication in such language, it is a way of
excluding others. In a global market place the greatest compliment
we can pay another person is to talk in their language.