Hydrometry 2005/06

Chapter Six

1. Introduction

Stream flow is caused by the runoff of precipitation and it is the combined result of all climatologically and
geographical factors that operate in a drainage basin. It is the only phase of the hydrological cycle in which
the water is contained in the well-defined channels, which permit accurate measurements to be made of the
quantities involved. On a natural undeveloped river system the fluctuations in stage and discharge result
from variations in the duration, frequency, intensity and areal cover of precipitation and in the catchment
characteristics, which control the rate and, amount of runoff.

Over any given region the quantity of water flowing in streams can vary widely in both time and space, and
knowledge of these variations and of the total quantities involved is essential for the proper development of
man’s activities. Records of floods are required for the design of river structures such as bridges, dams, and
flood banks and for the operation of flood warning systems. Records of low flows are needed for the
evaluation of drought conditions, the control of abstractions and the design of water conservation measures.
Records of long term mean flows one necessary for the design of power production and water resource
systems.

It is universally recognized that the problems created as a result of the continually increasing demand for
water for domestic, industrial and agricultural use can only be solved by the adoption of extensive water
conservation measures. Good water management is founded on reliable stream flow information and the
final reliability of the information depends on the initial field measurements. The hydrologist making these
measurements has, therefore, the responsibility of ensuring raw data of acceptable quality are collected.

There are many different uses of stream flow data within the broad context of water management, such as
water supply, pollution control, irrigation, flood control, energy generation and industrial water use. The
importance placed on any one of these purposes may vary from country to country; it may also change over
short or longer periods of time. What appears to be axiomatic, however, is that none of these needs can be
met without reliable stream flow data being available at the right time, the right place and the right quantity.

The type of stream flow information required may be classified in to two distinct categories. The first is that
required for planning and design while the second is that required for current use. i.e operation and
management.

Stage Data:
The stage data is often presented in the form of a plot of stage against chronological time (Fig. below) -
known as stage hydrograph. In addition to its use in the determination of stream discharge, stage data itself
is of importance in flood warning and flood - protection works. Reliable long-term stage data
corresponding to peak floods can be analyzed statistically to estimate the design peak river stages for use in
the design of hydraulic structures, such as bridges, weirs etc. Historic flood stages are invaluable in the
indirect estimation of the corresponding flood discharges. In view of these multifarious uses, the river stage
forms an important hydrologic parameter chosen for regular observation and recording.

Lecture note 1
Hydrometry 2005/06

Stage

Time

Figure Stage Hydrograph

1.2 Measurement of Stage

A gauging station is a site on a river, which has been selected, equipped and operated to provide the basic
data from which systematic records of water level and discharge may be derived. The stage of a stream is
the height of the water surface above an established datum plane. The water surface elevation referred to
some arbitrary or predetermined gauge datum is known as the gauge height. The determination of stage is
one of the most important measurements in hydrometry. It is required for all methods of flow measurement
in open channel or closed conduits with a free water surface including sewers. The reliability of the relation
b/n stage and discharge or head and discharge, depends on how accurate the determination of stage or head,
can be made and it is the base to which all other measurements of flow are related.

Stage measuring instruments may be conveniently separated in to two types, direct reading and indirect
reading

1.2.1 Direct reading gauges

The significant feature of direct-reading gauges is that the stage measurement is made directly in units of
length without any intervening influences.

Reference gauge

The non- recording reference gauge is the basic instrument for the measurement of stage whether at a
regular flow measuring station or at a site where only casual observations are made.
It can be sited as an outside gauge to allow a direct reading of water level in the stream or as an inside gauge
to indicate the level in a stilling well, and is used for setting and checking the water level recorder, for
indicating the stage at which discharge measurements are taken, and for emergency readings when the
recorder is out of action. The disadvantage of a non- recording reference gauge in this case are the need for
an observer and the loss of accuracy of the estimated continuous graph of stage unless observations are
taken many times a day. The reference gauge is normally either a vertical staff gauge or an inclined (ramp)
gauge.

Lecture note 2
Hydrometry 2005/06

Staff gauges

Vertical staff gauges usually consist of standard porcelain enameled iron plated sections each about 150mm
wide and 1m long and graduated in units of 10mm. The sections are screwed to a backing board, which is
fastened to a suitable support.

A staff gauge is seldom a stable construction and is often exposed to movement or damage especially during
floods. In order to be able to reset the gauge to its correct datum, one and preferably two bench marks are
required at a gauging station constructed entirely detached from the staff gauge or its support and secure
against movement or destruction. Bridge abutments or piers are generally unsuitable locations. It is designed
to be mounted on a vertical plate or backing board which is securely anchored to a foundation extending
below the ground surface to a level free of disturbance by frost.

Where the range of water levels exceeds the capacity of a single vertical gauge section, additional sections
are installed on the line of the cross-section normal to the direction of flow.

Staff
Abutment
Gauge

(a) Vertical Staff Gauge b) Sectional staff Gauge

Inclined gauge

An inclined or ramp gauge usually consists of heavy timber securely attached to a permanent foundation.
An inclined gauge is installed to follow the contours of the bank; sometimes a gauge with a single slope is
adequate but more usually it is necessary to install an inclined gauge on several sections each with a
different slope. An inclined gauge is calibrated in-situ by accurate leveling from the station benchmark by
means of a surveyor’s level. Reading of the gauge may be improved by the use of a small portable stilling
box, which helps to dampen wave action. A properly designed inclined gauge is less prone to damage than a
staff gauge and normally allows more accurate readings of water level to be made because of its better
resolution and its convenience on reading.

Crest- stage gauges

Lecture note 3
Hydrometry 2005/06

Crest- stage gauges are used to obtain a record of the peak level reached during a flood when other methods
of recording levels can’t be used. Peak discharges nay be calculated from the water levels of two gauges
installed some distance apart in a stretch of channel, provided that the time lag b/n measurements is
negligible. Basically they may be a tube about 50mm internal diameter, down the center of which runs a
rod. The tube is perforated to permit rising water to enter. The top of the tube must be closed to prevent the
entry of rain, but it should have an air vent to permit water to rise up the tube with significant delay.
Powdered cork in the bottom of the tube floats on the surface of the floodwater being deposited on the
center tube as the water recedes. Alternatively the center tube is coated with a paint whose color is
permanently affected by water.

The float-tape gauge

The float-tape gauge is used mainly as an inside stilling well reference gauge for a water level recorded and
consists of a float attached to a counter weight by means of a graduated stainless steel tape and an index
pointer. The float pulley consists of a wheel about 150mm in diameter is grooved on the circumference to
accommodate the tape and is mounted on a support. The tape is fastened to the upper side of the float and
runs over the pulley. It is kept fight by a counter weight at the free end. The stage fluctuations, sensed by the
float, position the tape with respect to the pointer.

A float gauge must be positioned directly above the water surface and should be housed in a stilling well to
protect the float from water surface oscillations and the tape from the effects of wind.
Flush Tank
Walk way
Records
Manhole
Counter
weight
Float
Intake
Staff Gauge

Wire-weight gauges

The wire weight gauge consists of a drum wound with a single layer of cable, a bronze weight attached to
the end of the cable, a graduated disc and a counter all within a cast-aluminum box. The disc is permanently
connected to the counter and to the shaft of the drum. The diameter of the drum of the reel is such that each
complete turn represents 0.3m movement of the weight.

The gauge is set so that when the bottom of the weight is at the water surface the gauge height is indicated
by the combined reading of the counter and the graduated disc. The wire-weight gauge is used as an outside
reference gauge mounted normally on bridge parapet, well or pier. Their operating range is usually 25m or
more.

Hook and point gauge

Lecture note 4
Hydrometry 2005/06

Hook and point gauges or needle gauge are generally more often used in the laboratory or in research
stations and for measurement of evaporation tank. There are two basic types of needle gauge.
a) The hook gauge with a tip which is immersed and approaches the free water surface from above; and
b) The hook gauge with a tip, which is immersed and approaches the free water surface from below.

Needle gauges have high measuring accuracy, but also have the disadvantage of a limited measuring range,
the length of the movable scale being usually 1m. This disadvantage can be overcome, however, by
installing datum plates at different levels throughout the range in stage to be measured.

Electric tape gauge

The electric-tape gauge, like the float tape gauge, is used as either an outside or inside reference gauge. It is
commonly used at measuring structures as an outside gauge to measure the head over a weir or through a
flume where it is operated from a datum plate set in to an abutment wall.

A typical hand-held gauge consists of a graduated reel of steel tape and a 9V battery. The gauge is lowered
until it makes contact with the water surface, which completes an electric circuit and causes a buzzer to
sound.

1.2.2 Indirect- reading gauges

Indirect-reading gauges include those devices, which convert a pressure or acoustic signal to an output,
which is proportional to the water level.

Pressure Transducers
Pressure transducers utilize the principle that the hydrostatic pressure at a point in a water column is
proportional to the height of the water column above that point. The transducer converts changes in water
pressure into changing electrical signals, which are logged remotely from the point of measurement. There
are several types of pressure transducer distinguished in the way that they convert the mechanical pressure
signal into an electrical output. Typically, an electrical pressure transducer may be considered as having two
main components, the force summing device, which responds to water pressure, and the sensor, which
converts the output into an electrical signal, which can be conveniently connected to a chart recorder or
solid-state logger.

If the pressure sensor can be located at or below the point, the pressure can be transmitted directly.
However, if the sensor is located above the point, the direct method is usually not satisfactory because
gasses entrained in the water accumulate in the line and can create air locks. Additionally, if the water is
highly corrosive or contains sediment, it is undesirable to bring it into contact with the sensor.

Gas purge (bubbler) gauges

In the bubbler technique, a small discharge of non-corrosive gas-nitrogen or compressed air for example- is
allowed to bleed into a tube, the free end of which has been lowered into the water and fixed at a known
elevation below the water column to be measured. The sensor, which is located at the opposite end, detects
the pressure of the gas required to displace the liquid in the tube, this pressure being directly proportional to
the head of liquid above the orifice of the gauge. This technique may be used when the elevation of water
column is below the elevation of the pressure sensor; and since the sensor does not come in contact with the
water, it is suitable for use in highly corrosive waters.

Lecture note 5
 Hydrometry 2005/06

The servo-manometer and the servo-beam balance are both pressure sensors that convert the pressure sensed
to a rotational- shaft poison proportional to the height of the column of the water. Both systems usually have
incorporated either automatic or manual methods for correcting for changes in the density of water. Such
changes occur with changes in temperature, dissolved-solid content, and suspended-solid content.

2
Instrument Room 4
1 5

P = H
3
1. High pressure Bottle
H 2. Gas adjustment
Gas Circuit
unit
3. To pressure point
4. Mercury
manometer
Pressure Point
Reference Level
Figure Bubble Gauge

The bubble gauge has certain specific advantages over a float operated water stage recorder and these can be
listed as under:
1. There is no need for costly stilling wells ;
2. A large change in stage, as much as 30m, can be measured;
3. The recorder assembly can be quite far away from the sensing point; and
4. Due to constant bleeding action there is less likelihood of the inlet getting blocked or choked.

Acoustic-level gauges or ‘look down’ non-contact ultrasonic gauges

The principle of the ‘lookdown’ ultrasonic water level gauge (Acoustic-level) is based on the transmission
of an acoustic pulse to the water surface and the reception of the return pulse, the time difference between
the outward and return signal being directly related to the distance from the transducer to the water surface.
The time of travel from the transmission to reception is electronically measured by instrument.

The distance from the origin to the water surface is computed using the formula:-

H=C * t/2 where h is the distance above the water

C is the velocity of sound in air
T is the duration of travel time

As can be seen from the above formula, h is directly proportional to the velocity of sound in air, which in
turn varies with changes in both temperature and humidity. Hence, such gauges are not highly accurate.

Lecture note 6
 Hydrometry 2005/06

1.4 Measurement of velocity

1.4.1 Current meters
The use of current meters to measure stream velocities is universal. Indeed, current meters are probably used
at 90% of the world's stream flow stations to determine velocity in stage discharge measurements or for
checking or calibraining purpose at ultransonic station, electromagnetic stations or other open channel or
closed conduct stations.

It consists essentially of rotating element that rotates due to the reaction of the stream current with an
angular velocity proportional to the stream velocity. Historically, Robert Hooks (1663) invented a propeller
- type current meter to measure the distance traversed by a ship. The present - day cup type instrument and
the electrical make - and - break mechanisms were invented by Henry in 1868.

The principle is based up on the relation between the speed of the water and the resulting angular velocity of
the rotor. By placing a current meter at a point in a stream and counting the number of revolutions of the
rotor during a measured time internal, the velocity of the water at that point can be determined. The number
of revolutions of the rotor is obtained by various means depending on the design of the meter but normally
this is achieved by an electric circuit through the contact chamber. In all types of design the electrical
impulses produce either a signal, which registers a unit on a counting device or an audible signal in a
headphone. Intervals of time are measured by a stopwatch or by an automatic timing device.

Current meters can be classified generally in to those having vertical axis rotors known as cup- type current
meters and those having horizontal axis rotors known as propeller-type current meters.

The cup-type current meter consists of a rotor revolving about a vertical shaft and hub assembly, bearings,
mainframe, a contact chamber containing the electrical contact, tail fin and means of attaching the
instrument to rod or cable suspension equipment. The rotor is generally constructed of six conical cups fixed
at equal angles on a ring mounted on the vertical shaft.

The propeller-type current meter consists of a propeller revolving about a horizontal shaft, ball- bearings in
an oil chamber, the body containing the electrical contact, a tailpiece with or without a vane and a means of
attaching the instrument to the suspension equipment. The meter may be supplied with one or more
propellers, which differ in pitch, and diameter and therefore may be used for various flow speeds. There is
generally no significant difference b/n the accuracies of the velocities required by cup-type and propeller-
type meters.

Hoist Fin for Stabilization

Counting
Mechanism

Cup Assembly
E cups on a
vertical Axis

Lecture note 7
Sounding Weight
Hydrometry 2005/06

Figure Vertical - axis Current Meter

Hoisting Electrical Connection

Propeller Sounding Fin for Stabilization

Weight

Figure Horizontal - axis Current Meter

A current meter is so designed that its rotation speed varies linearly with the stream velocity V at the
location of the instrument. A typical relationship is.

V = a NS + b

Where V = Stream Velocity at the instrument location in m/s, Ns = revolutions per second of the meter and
a & b = constants of the meter.

In small streams of shallow depth current meter is held at the requisite depth below the surface in a vertical
by an observer who stands in the water. The arrangement, called wading is quite fast but is obviously
applicable only to small streams.

In rivers flowing in narrow gorges in well-defined channels (e.g. Blue Nile Rivers) a cable way is stretched
from bank to bank well above the flood level. A carriage moving over the cable way is used as the
observation platform. Bridges, while hydraulically not the best locations, and advantageous from the point
of view of accessibility and transportation. Hence, railway and road bridges are frequently employed as
gauging stations. The velocity measurement is performed on the downstream portion of the bridge to
minimize the instrument damage due to drift and knock against the bridge piers.

For wide rivers (eg. Barro river), boats are the most satisfactory aids in current meter measurement. A
cross-sectional line is marked by distinctive land markings and buoys. The position of the boat is
determined by using two theodolites on the bank through an intersection method.

Sounding Weights:
Current meters are weighted down by lead weights called sounding weights to enable them to be positioned
in a stable manner at the required location in flowing water. These weights are of streamlined shape with a
fin in the rear and are connected to the current meter by a hangar bar and pin assembly. Sounding weights
come in different sizes and the minimum weight is estimated as
Lecture note 8
Hydrometry 2005/06

W =50 { V̄ d ¿
Where W = minimum weight in N and d = depth of flow at the vertical in m.
1.4.2 Electro-magnetic current meter
Electro-magnetic current meter employs the Faraday principle of electro-magnetic induction where by a
magnetic field (in the velocity sensor) induces an electro potential in a moving conductor (the water). The
motion of water flowing in a river cuts the vertical component of the earth's magnetic field and on
electromotive force (e.m.f) is induced in the water. This e.m.f can be sensed by electrodes at each side of the
river and is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the average velocity of flow in the
cross-section. The electromagnetic system performs integration over the entire cross-section. To induce a
measurable potential in the electrodes a vertical magnetic field is generated by means of a large coil buried
beneath the riverbed through which an electric current is driven.

Rating of current meters

In order to determine the velocity of the water from the revolutions of the rotor of the rotating element
current meter, a relation is established between the angular speed of the rotor and the speed of the rotor and
the speed of the water, which causes it to turn. This relation is known as the current meter rating. Ratings
may be individual ratings or group ratings. Generally meters on an individual rating require to be re-rated
each year or more often depending on usage. A group rating, on the other hand, is established from a group
of meters and although the confidence limits may be wider than for an individual rating, the uncertainty is
acceptable for stream flow measurement.

1.4.3 Ultrasonic (acoustic) velocity meters

The acoustic- velocity meter is based upon the principle that the velocity of a sound pulse in moving water
is the algebraic sum of the acoustic propagation rate (c) and the component of water velocity parallel to the
acoustic patch.

In operation, transducers that are capable of transmitting and receiving acoustic pulses are positioned on
either side of the river. It is necessary to stagger the transducers along the riverbank so that there is a time
difference b/n pulses traveling down stream and those traveling up stream.

The measurement of water velocity by the determination of travel time of sound pusses moving in both
directions along a path diagonal to the flow. The travel time of an acoustic path, originating from a
transducer at point A and traveling in opposition to the stream flow along path AB, is expressed as

L
t AB=
C−V p Where c is the velocity of sound on still water.
L is the length of acoustic path AB.
TAB is the travel time for a pulse traveling from A to B
Similarly TBA is the travel time for a pulse traveling from B to
L
t BA =
C+V p
Vp is the average water velocity parallel to path AB
VL the average water velocity along the streamline of flow

Lecture note 9
Hydrometry 2005/06

Q is the angle of departure b/n the streamline of flow and acoustic path.

Combining these two equations and solving for Vp,

V p=
(
L 1
−
1
2 T BA T AB )
And as Vp= VL cos

then V L=
L
(
1
−
1
2 cosθ T BA T AB )
Acoustic-velocity meters have been manufactured with path lengths of less than 1m to measure a local
velocity to path lengths of several hundred meters to measure the mean velocity across a stream on the
acoustic path.

1.4.4 Floats

A floating object on the surface of a stream when timed can yield the surface velocity by the relation

S
V S=
t

Where S = distance traveled in time t. This method of measuring velocities while primitive still finds
applications in special circumstances, such as: (i) a small stream in flood, (ii) small stream with a rapidly
changing water surface and (iii) preliminary or exploratory surveys. While any floating object can be used,
normally specially make leak proof and easily identifiable floats are used. A simple float moving on stream
surface is called surface float. It is easiest to use and the mean velocity is obtained by multiplying the
observed velocity by a reduction coefficient. However, surface floats are affected by surface winds. To get
the average velocity in the vertical directly, special floats in which part of the body is under water are used.
Rod floats, in which a cylindrical rod is weighed so that it can float vertically, belongs to this category.

In using floats to observe the stream velocity a large number of easily identifiable floats are released at
fairly uniform spacing on the width of the stream at an upstream section. Two sections on a fairly straight
reach are selected and the time to cross this reach by each float is noted and the surface velocity calculated.

Floats, although after frowned upon, nevertheless serve a useful purpose in gauging rivers in flood when the
velocities may be two high for other methods or when ice floes are present, or even sometimes when the
velocity is too low for current metering. However, the method is not easy to apply successfully unless care
is exercised in the choice of section, in the tracing and timing of the floats, on the choice of floats and on the
computation of the data.

2. Methods of Measuring discharge and computation of discharge

Discharge in streams can be measured directly by:
a) Area - velocity method
b) Moving - Boat method
c) Dilution or chemical method
d) electromagnetic method
Lecture note 10
Hydrometry 2005/06

e) Ultrasonic method

Of which the area-velocity method is simple, cheap and common.

2.1.1 Area - Velocity Method

The discharge equations for flow in open channels and pipes are based on the velocity area principle
Q=V*A where Q is discharge, A is wetted area and V is velocity. The procedure, therefore, is one of
estimating velocity and area either directly or indirectly. The velocity area method for the determination of
discharge in open channels consists of measurements of stream velocity, depth of flow and distance across
the channel b/n observation verticals. The velocity is measured at one or more points in each vertical. The
discharge is derived from the sum of the product of mean velocity, depth and width b/n verticals.

Spacing of verticals
In order to describe the bed shape and the horizontal and vertical velocity distributions completely an
infinite number of verticals would be necessary; for practical reasons, however, only a finite number is
possible. In practice, therefore, the cross-section is divided in to segments by spacing verticals at a sufficient
number of locations across the channel to ensure an adequate sample of both velocity distribution and bed
profile.

The spacing and number of verticals is critical for an accurate measurement of discharge and for this reason
b/n 20 and 30 verticals are normally used. This practice applied to rivers of all widths except where the
channel is so narrow that 20 –30 verticals would be impractical. But generally the spacing as in table below
is recommended.

Table Recommended spacing of verticals

Channel width (m) Number of verticals

0- 0.5 3-4
0.5- 1 4-5
1- 3 5-8
3- 5 8-10
5- 10 10-20
>10 >20

The spacing of the verticals may be considered from the following three criteria

a) Equidistant b) segments of equal flow c) bed profile

The choice will depend largely on the flow conditions, the geometry of the cross-section and width of river.
For very wide rivers (over 300m) for example, it is sometimes convenient to make the verticals equidistant,
for rivers having an asymmetrical horizontal velocity distribution or a significant variation in the horizontal
velocity distribution, it is normally advisable to space the verticals in such a manner as to achieve segments
of equal flow over the required range; for rivers having abnormalities in the bed profile, the verticals are
spaced so as to make allowance for depressions or obtrusions and general irregularities of the bed.

Irrespective of which criterion is followed, it is an advantage if the spacing of the verticals is arranged so
that no segment contains more than 10% of the total flow. The best measurement is normally one having no
segment with more than 5% of the total flow.
Lecture note 11
Hydrometry 2005/06

The uncertainty associated with the number of verticals used is the largest single uncertainly in the current
meter measurement of discharge. Based on a sample of 193 current meter measurements in river widths
varying from 5 to 600 m in the USA, Herschy (1978) found the uncertainties expressed at the 95%
confidence level as in table below.

Table uncertainties associated with the number of verticals used in a gauging

Number of verticals 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
%Uncertainty at 95% level 20 10 7 5 5 3 3 3 3 3

Measurement of mean velocity

The mean velocity in each vertical is determined by current meter observations by any of the following
methods.

I) Velocity distribution method

In this method velocity observations are on each vertical at a sufficient number of points distributed b/n the
water surface and bed to define effectively the vertical velocity curve, the mean velocity being obtained by
dividing the area b/n the curve and the plotting axes by the depth. The number of points required depends on
the degree of curvature, particularly in the lower part of the curve, and usually varies b/n 6 and 10. This
method is the most accurate if done under ideal, steady stage conditions but is not considered suitable for
routine gauging due to the length of time required for the field observations and for the ensuring
computation. It is used mainly for checking velocity distribution when the station is first established.

The velocity distribution in a stream across a vertical section is logarithmic in nature. In a rough turbulent
flow the velocity distribution is given by

V =5.75V ¿  log  

10 (30Ksy ) (6.2)

Where V = Velocity at a point y about the bed, V* = Shear velocity, Ks = Equivalent sand - grain roughness.

To accurately determine the average a velocity in vertical section, one has to measure the velocity at a large
number of points on the vertical. As it is time - consuming, certain simplified procures have been overruled.

II) The 0.6 Depth Method

In shallow streams of depth up to about 3.0 m, the velocity measured at 0.6 times the depth of flow below
the water surface is taken as the average velocity in the vertical.
This assumption is based both on theory and on results of analysis of many vertical velocity curves, which
showed that in the majority of cases the 0.6 methods produce results of acceptable accuracy.

III) The 0.2 and 0.8 Depth method

Velocity is observed for moderately deep streams at two points at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth from the surface
and the average of the two readings is taken as the mean for the vertical. Here again this assumption is based

Lecture note 12
Hydrometry 2005/06

on theory and on the study of vertical velocity curves, and experience has confirmed its essential accuracy.
Generally the minimum depth flow should be about 0.75 m when the 0.2 and 0.8 depth method is used.
IV) Six –point method

Velocity observations are made by taking current meter readings on each vertical at 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 of
the depth below the surface and as near as possible to the surface and bed. The mean velocity may be found
by plotting in graphical form and using a planimeter, or from the equation

V =0. 1 ( V surface +2 V 0 . 2 +2 V 0. 4 +2 V 0 .6 +2 V ¿ )

where V is the velocity.

V) Five- point method

Velocity observations are made by taking current meter readings on each vertical at 0.2, 0.6 and 0.8 of the
depth below the surface and as near as possible to the surface and bed. The mean velocity may be found by
plotting in graphical form and using a planimeter, or from the equation

V=0.1( Vsurface+3V0.2+3V0.6+2V0.8+Vbed)

VI) Three-point method

Velocity observations are made by taking current meter readings on each vertical at 0.2, 0.6 and 0.8 of the
depth below the surface. The average of the three values may be taken as the mean velocity on the vertical.
Alternatively the 0.6 measurements may be weighted and the mean velocity obtained from the equation

V= 0.25(V0.2+2V0.6+V0.8)-

2.2 Computation of discharge (Area-Velocity method)

2.2.1 Arithmetic method

MID SECTION METHOD

In the mid-section method of computation it is assumed that the velocity sampled at each vertical represents
the mean velocity in a segment. The segment area extends laterally from half the distance from the
preceding vertical to half the distance to the next, and from the water surface to the sounded depth as shown
by the hatched area in fig below. The segment discharge is then computed for each segment and these are
summed to be the total discharge. Referring the same figure, which shows diagrammatically the cross-
section of a stream channel, the discharge passing through segment 5 is computed as

−− (( b5 −b 4 ) +( b6 −b5 ) )
q 5= V ∗d 5
2

( b 6−b4
)
−−
=V d5
2

Lecture note 13
Hydrometry 2005/06

Where q5= discharge through segment 5

V5=mean velocity in vertical 5
b4b5b6= distances from an initial point on the bank to verticals 4,5,and 6
d5 =depth of flow at vertical 5

For the end segment 1, shown hatched, the discharge may be computed as

(b −b
)
q 1=V 1 2 1 d , and
2

The end segment , n ,, as q n=V n

2 (
bn −b n−1
∗d n )
In the above figure q1 is zero because the depth at vertical 1 is zero. However, when the cross-section
boundary is vertical at the edge of the water, the depth is not zero and the velocity at the end vertical may or
may not be zero.

MEAN-SECTION METHOD

Segment discharges are computed b/n successive verticals. An example of one such segment is shown
hatched in fig below. The velocities and depths for successive verticals are each averaged, the segment
discharge being the product of the two averages. Refining the same figure, the discharge passing though
segment 5-6 is computed as

q 5−6 = ( 2 )(
V 5 +V 8 d 5 +d6
∗
2 )
∗( b 6 −b5 )
Where
q5-6= discharge through segment 5-6

Lecture note 14
Hydrometry 2005/06

V 5 ,V 6 = mean velocities in verticals 5 and 6

d5,d6= depth of flow at verticals 5 and 6
b5,b6= distance from an initial point on the bank to verticals 5 and 6

2.2.2 Graphical Method

A velocity-Depth Integration method

In this method if sufficient current meter observations have been made in the verticals a curve of mean
velocity times depth of flow (area of vertical velocity curve) may be drawn over the cross-section. The area
of this curve represents the total discharge.

Referring to fig below the produce is as follows

a) Draw the vertical velocity curve for each vertical by plotting the velocity observations against
their corresponding depths of flow.
b) Measure the area contained by each curve by planimeter
c) Plot these areas over the water surface line of the cross-section and draw a smooth curve through
the points. The area enclosed b/n this curve and the water surface line represents the total
discharge.

Lecture note 15
Hydrometry 2005/06

B. Velocity contour method

This is also a graphical method and like the velocity depth method described above requires a number of
current meter observations in the verticals.

Referring to fig below, the procedure

a) Vertical velocity distribution curves are drawn for each vertical

b) These curves are interpolated for convenient intervals of velocity ( eg. 0.25, 0.5 0.75 m/s)
c) Curves or contours of equal velocity (isovels) are drawn
d) Starting from the maximum, the areas enclosed by successive velocity contours are measured by
planimeter and plotted on a diagram with the ordinate indicating velocity and the abscissa
indicating the corresponding area enclosed by the respective velocity contour. The summation of
the area enclosed by this curve represents the total discharge.

Of the four methods of computation of discharge described above the midsection and mean section methods
are used almost universally. The two graphical methods are normally employed on special studies and on
the investigation of velocity distribution. The use of graphical methods, however, doesn’t relax the rule for
the number of spacing verticals.

b) Moving - Boat method:

Discharge measurement of large alluvial rivers, such as the Barro River, by the standard current meter
method is very time - consuming even when the flow is low or moderate. When the river is in spate, it is
almost impossible to use the standard current meter technique due to the difficulty of keeping the boat
stationary on the fast - moving surface of the stream for observation purposes. It is in such circumstance that
the newly developed moving boat techniques prove very helpful.

In this method a special propeller type current meter, which is free to move about a vertical axis, is towed in
a boat at a velocity Vb at right angles to the stream flow. If the flow velocity is V f the meter will align itself
in the direction of the resultant velocity VR making an angle  with the direction of the boat. Further, the
meter will register the velocity VR. If Vb is normal to Vf,

Lecture note 16
Hydrometry 2005/06

Vb = VR Cos and Vf = VR Sin

If the time of transit between two verticals is t, then the width between the two verticals is W = Vbt

The flow in the sub area between two verticals i and i + 1 where the depths are y i and yi + 1 respectively,
by assuming the current meter to measure the average velocity in the vertical, is

ΔQi= ( )
yi +yi+1
yi +yi+1 2 2
W V
i+1 f

ΔQi= ( 2 )
V R Sinθ.Cosθ.Δt

Vb VR
Verticals
Flow wi+1 
wi
Vf

Section Line
Figure:- Moving - boat method
Thus by measuring the depths yi , velocity VR and  in a reach and the time taken to cross the reach t, the
discharge in the sub - area can be determined. The summation of the partial discharges Qi over the whole
width of stream gives the stream discharge:
Q = Q

In field application a good stretch of the river with no shoals, islands, bars, etc. is selected. The cross -
sectional line is defined by permanent land marks so that the boat can be aligned along this line. A
motorboat with different sizes of out board motors for use in different river stages is belated. A special
current meter of the propeller type, which the velocity and inclination of the meter to the boat direction  in
the horizontal plane can be measured, is selected. The current meter is usually immersed at a depth of 0.5m
from the water surface to record surface velocities. To mark the various vertical sections and know the
depths at these points, an echo-depth recorder is used.

In a typical run, the boat is started from the cross - sectional line. When the boat is insufficient depth of
water, the instruments are lowered. The echo-depth recorder and current meter are commissioned. A button
on the signal processor when pressed marks a distinctive mark line on the depth us time chart of the echo -
depth recorder. Further, it gives simultaneously a sharp audio signal to enable the measuring party to take
simultaneous headings of the velocity VR and the inclination . A large number of such measurements are
taken during the traverse of the boat to the other bank of the river. The operation is repeated in the return
journey of the boat. It is important that the boat is kept aligned along the cross - sectional line and this

Lecture note 17
Hydrometry 2005/06

requires considerable skill on the part of the pilot. Typically, a river of about 2 km stretch takes about 15
min for one crossing. A number of crossings are made to get the average value of the discharge.

The surface velocities are converted to average velocities across the vertical by applying a coefficient. The
depths yi and time intervals t are read from the echo - depth recorder chart. In practical are additional
coefficients may be needed to account for deviations from the ideal case and these depend upon the actual
field conditions.

c) Dilution Technique of stream flow Measurement:

The dilution method is generally used for purposes of calibration or for spot gauging mainly because of the
costs of performing a gauging and a chemical analysis of the tracer samples. Nevertheless the method can
often provide very accurate results given a suitable reach of river. The outstanding advantage of the dilution
technique is that it is an absolute method because discharge is computed from volume and time only. Tracer
concentrations need be determined only in dimensionless relative readings. This method is likely to be
successful at the first attempt in well-defined channels such as sewers, and in pipe flowing full of water. In
rock-strewn shallow streams or when rivers are in extreme conditions of flood or drought, the dilution
method may provide the only effective means of estimation flow. The main disadvantages of the method are
the difficulties in containing complete mixing of the tracer without loss of tracer and the problem of
obtaining permission in some countries to inject tracers in to rivers.
The basic principle of the dilution method is the addition of suitably selected tracer to the flow. Downstream
of the injection point, when dispersion throughout the flow is effected, the discharge may be calculated from
the determination of the dilution of the tracer.
If this tracer was present in the flow before the injection, the increase in concentration of tracer due to the
injection is known as the concentration of added tracer.
There are two basic injection techniques:- : the sudden - injection (gulp or integration) method and the
constant rate injection method.

CONSTANT RATE INJECTION METHOD

Solution of concentration C 1 of a suitably chosen tracer is injected at constant rate, q , in to a cross-section

located at the beginning of the assuring reach of the channel in which the discharge, Q , remains constant for
the duration of the gauging. At a second cross-section downstream from this reach, at a sufficient distance

for the injected solution to be uniformly diluted, the concentration is measured for a sufficient period of
time and at a sufficient number of points to enable a check to be made that good mixing has been obtained

and that the concentration of at section two, C 2 has attained a constant value Under these conditions, if all

Lecture note 18
Hydrometry 2005/06

of the tracer injected passes through the sampling cross-section, the mass rate of tracer at the injection point
is equal to that passing thought the sampling cross-section.
Section 1
C1

Section 2
Concentration Background
Conc.
C2
CO
O

Time
Figure (2.1) Constant rate injection Method
The mass rate at which the tracer enters the test reach is
qC 1 +QC o (2.1)
Similarly the rate at which the tracer leaves the test reach is
(Q + q )C 2 (2.2)
Equation these two rates
qC 1 +QC o =(Q + q )C 1 (2.3)
C1 − C2
Q=( ¿ ) )q ¿
C 2 −C o
from which ¿ (2.4)

Where: q and Q are in liter s –1 or m3s –1, and C1and C2 are in mg liter –1 or kg m-3
The discharge can therefore be determined by comparing the concentration of the injected solution with that
measured at the sampling cross-section C1/C2 is termed the dilution ratio, N.
INTEGRATION (GULP OR SUDDEN INJECTION) METHOD
A volume V of a solution of concentration C1 of a suitably chosen tracer is injected, often by a simple,
steady emptying of a flask of tracer solution, over a short period into a cross-section located at the beginning
of the measuring reach, in which the discharge Q remains constant for the duration of the gauging . At a
second cross-section downstream from this reach, beyond the mixing length, the concentration of a tracer,
C2. is determined over a period of time sufficiently long to ensure that all the tracer has passed through the
second (sampling) cross-section.
If the entire tracer injected passes through the sampling cross-section the discharge is calculated from the
following equation.

Lecture note 19
Hydrometry 2005/06

C1 Sudden injection of
volume  , at sec. 1

Conc. at sec. 2

CO C2

t1 t t2
Time
Figure Sudden Injection method
∞
M 1 =V 1 C1 =Q∫ C2 −C 0 (t )dt
t
(2.5)
where M is the mass of tracer injected;
V is the volume of injected solution;
C1 is the concentration of tracer in the injected solution;
Q is the river discharge;

C2(t ) is the concentration of the solution at the fixed sampling point over the time interval dt ;
t is the elapsed time, taking as the origin the instant at which the injection started;
t o is the time interval of the first molecule of tracer at the sampling cross-section.
Equation (2.5) required that the value of the integral
∞
∫ (C 2−C 0)(t )dt
t°
(2.6)
be the same at every point of the sampling cross-section. This condition is satisfied if the injected solution
is well mixed with the flow in the river. In practice, the presence of the tracer is on longer detectable at any
t°
point in the sampling cross-section at a certain time 0 + T . The value of T is known as the time of
passage of the tracer cloud through the sampling cross-section.
1 T
C 2= ∫ C −C (t )dt .
T t0 2 0
Let (2.7)

The practical condition of good mixing is the

C 2 is identical at all points in the cross-section. Hence from
equations (2.5) and (2.7)

Lecture note 20
Hydrometry 2005/06

V 1 C1
1
Q=
T C2 (2.8)
There are three main types of tracer used in dilution gauging: (i) Chemicals (common salt & sodium
dichromate) (ii) Fluorescent dyes (iii) Radioactive materials

The length of reach depends upon the geometric dimensions of the channel cross-section, discharge and
turbulence levels. There are a number of empirical equations for estimating the mixing distance L. All of
them are approximate and are normally used for preliminary surveys. The length of the reach (sampling
station), if possible, to be as short as possible but may be as much as several kilometers in some large rivers.
In any event the reach must be of a length at least equal to the mixing length. It is necessary to choose a
reach where the river is as narrow and as turbulent as possible, where there are no dead water zones, and
where there are numerous traverse currents to promote good lateral mixing. Vegetated zones and zones
where the river separates (bifurcates) into branches are avoided.
The following empirical equations, however, have been used successfully in many instances:
1
3
I) L=bQ (2.9)

Where:- L=distance b/n the injection site and the sampling station (mixing length) (m)
b= 14 for mid-stream injection
b= 60 for injection from one bank
Q= stream discharge (m3/s)

II) An empirical formula suggested by Rimmed (1960) for estimation of mixing length for point injection of
a tracer in a straight reach is
0.13B2 C ( 0.7C+2√ g)
L=
gd
Where L = mixing length (m), B = average width of the stream (m), d = average depth of the stream (m), c
= Chezy coefficient of roughness and g = Acceleration due to gravity.

The value of C varies from about 1 km for a mountain stream carrying a discharge of about 1.0 m 3/s to
about 100 km for river in a plain with a discharge of about 300m3/s.

Example : A 25g/l solution of a florescent tracer was discharged into a stream at a constant rate of 10
cm3/s. The background concentration of the dye in the stream water was found to be zero. At a downstream
section sufficiently far away, the dye was found to reach an equilibrium concentration of 5 parts per billion.
Estimate the stream discharge.
Solution:
For the constant - rate injection method;

q = 10 cm3/s = 10 x 10-6 m3/s

C1 = 0.025g/ml, C2 = 5 x 10-9 g/ml, Co = 0
Q = (0.025 - 5 x 10-9)/(5*10-9) = 50 m3/s

d) Electromagnetic Method:

Lecture note 21
Hydrometry 2005/06

This is based on the Faraday’s principle that an emf is induced in the conductor (water in the present case
when it cuts a normal magnetic field. Large coils buried at the bottom of the channel carry a current I to
produce controlled vertical magnetic fields. Electrodes proceeded at the sides of the channel section
measure the small voltage produced due to flow of water in the channel. It has been found that the signal
output E will be of the order of millivolts and is related to the discharge Q as

( )
n
Ed
Q=K 1  +K 2
I

Where d = depth of flow, I = Current in the coil, and n, k, & k2 are system constants.
Expensive but advantageous in tidal and changing channels

f) Ultrasonic Method:

This is essentially an area - velocity method with the average velocity being measured by using ultrasonic
signals.

g) Indirect Methods:

The two broad classifications are:

1. Flow measuring structures, and (Q = f(H) Q = KHn for weir

2. Slope area methods Q = 1/n AR2/3 S1/2 based on the energy equation.

3. Rating Curve
3.1 Stage-discharge relation

Both the stage and the discharge of a stream vary most of the time. In order to obtain a continuous record of
discharge the stage is recorded and the discharge computed from a correlation of stage and discharge. This
correlation or calibration is known as the stage- discharge relation. It is assumed that a unique relation does
exist, and where the station has been sited in accordance with the criteria set out for proper selection of a
gauging station.

For an open river station calibrated by the velocity area method, the stage- discharge relation is the epitome
of all the characteristics of the reach of the stream in which the station is situated. This relation is
determined by correlating measurements of discharge with the corresponding observations of stage, the
correlation being done manually by various combinations of graphical and mathematical means or directly
by computer techniques. This relation will hold good only so long as no significant alteration takes place in
the characteristics of the reach, and since most stream channels are continuously in the course of
development and are inherently unstable. It is essential to keep such a relation continuously under review to
ensure either that its validity is maintained or that it is redetermined when it is shown to have been altered.

The operations necessary to develop the stage- discharge relation at a gauging station include making a
sufficient number of discharge measurements and developing a rating curve by plotting the measured
discharges against the corresponding stages and drawing a smooth curve of the relation b/n the two
quantities. Discharge measurements are carried out over the range of stage variation in order to establish the
rating curve as quickly as possible. Normally the lower and medium stages present little difficulty but
Lecture note 22
Hydrometry 2005/06

discharges at the higher stages may take some time and resort may require to be made to careful
extrapolation until such time as the higher discharges are available to be measured. It is therefore the
stability of the stage- discharge relation that governs the number of discharge measurements that are
necessary to define the relation at any time.

3.1.1 THE STATION CONTROL

An analysis of the stage—discharge relation and the construction of the rating curve require an appreciation
of the functioning of the channel control.
In order to have a permanent and stable stage—discharge relation the stream channel at the gauging station
must be capable of stabilizing and regulating the flow past the station so that for a given stage the discharge
through the section will always be the same. The shape, reliability and stability of the stage—discharge
relation are normally controlled by a section or reach of channel at, or downstream from, the gauging station
and known as the station control. The geometry of the station control eliminates the effects of all other
downstream features on the discharge at the measuring section. The channel characteristics forming the
control include the cross-sectional area and shape of the stream channel, the channel sinuosity (meanders
and loops), the expansions and restrictions of the channel, the stability and roughness of the streambed and
banks, and the vegetation cover, all of which collectively constitute the factors determining the channel
conveyance.
In terms of open channel hydraulics, a station control is a critical depth control, generally termed a section
control if a critical flow section exists a short distance downstream from the gauging station, or a channel
control if the stage—discharge relation depends mainly on channel irregularities and channel friction over a
reach downstream from the station. A control is permanent if the stage—discharge relation it defines does
not change with time, otherwise it is impermanent and generally called a shifting control. From the
standpoint or origin, a control is either artificial or natural, depending on whether it is man-made or not.
A shifting control exists where the stage- discharge relation changes frequently, either gradually or abruptly,
because of changes in the physical features that form the station control. The controlling features may be
modified by a number of factors, of which the principal ones are:
(a) scour and fill in an unstable channel;
(b) growth and decay of aquatic (weed) growth;
(c) formation of ice cover;
(d) variable backwater in a uniform channel;
( e) variable backwater submerging a control section;
(f) rapidly changing discharge;
(g) over bank flow and ponding in areas adjoining the stream channel. The corresponding stage-discharge
curves for the above hydra conditions are given in Fig. below and a brief discussion of each follows

Lecture note 23
Hydrometry 2005/06

Permanent control
If the control is a permanent one, occasional discharge measurement need to be made for verification. The
stage - discharge relation for a permanent control can be expressed as a simple exponential function.
Sand-bed channel
The movement of fluvial sediment, particularly in channels in alluvium, affects the conveyance, the
hydraulic roughness, the channel sinuosity and the energy slope. This makes the determination of a stage-
discharge relation difficult. In addition, since the movement is erratic determination of the temporal
variation of the stage-discharge relation is complex.
Aquatic vegetation (weeds)
The growth of weeds decreases the conveyance of the channel and changes the roughness with the result
that the stage for a given discharge is increased. The converse is true when the weeds die and the stage —
discharge relation gradually returns to its original condition. The change in weed growth is closely observed
over the growing season and determined by a series of discharge measurements. Normally the development
of a family of stage—discharge curves for different conditions of weed growth presents the best means of
gauging rivers with prolific weed growth.
Ice cover
Ice in the measuring section increases the hydraulic radius and the roughness and decreases the cross-
sectional area. As with weed growth, the stage for a given discharge is increased. The effect of ice formation
and thawing is complex and the temporal stage— discharge relation can only be determined by a series of
discharge measurements, using stage, and temperature and precipitation records as a guide for interpolation
between measurements.

Lecture note 24
Hydrometry 2005/06

Variable backwater — uniform channel

If the control reach for a gauging station has within it a weir or a dam, a diversion or a confluent tributary,
which can increase or decrease the energy gradient for a given discharge, variable backwater, is produced.
That is, the slope in a reach is increased or decreased from the normal.
Variable backwater — submergence
Some channel reaches below gauging stations contain local control sections such as falls, rapids or a dam
which determine the stage— discharge relation at low flows, but which may be submerged at times by
inflow from a tributary downstream or by the operation of a dam.
Rapidly changing discharge
At some stations, generally those of low energy slope, the stage— discharge relation is affected by the rate
of change of discharge. If the discharge is increasing rapidly, it will be greater than that for zero rate of
change and, conversely, if it is rapidly decreasing it will be less.
Out-of-bankflow (overbank) and ponding
At many gauging stations there may be significant out-of-bank flow and ponding areas on the flood plain
adjacent to the stream channel. During increasing discharge, a part of the flow goes into these areas,
increasing the slope and discharge relative to stage. Conversely, when the discharge decreases, water
returning to the channel from the flooded areas causes backwater and the discharge for a given stage is
significantly decreased. Each flood produces its own loop rating. No satisfactory method is available to
develop a single rating under these conditions. A loop rating is required for each flood and is determined by
series of discharge measurements for the channel flow and for the out-of-bank flow, the sum of the two
giving the total flow.
3.2 THE SIMPLE STAGE-DISCHARGE CURVE
The general procedure in establishing the stage—discharge curve is as follows. The discharge measurements
are plotted on arithmetic graph paper with discharge on the horizontal scale (abscissa) and the
corresponding gauge height on the vertical scale (ordinate). If a measurement of discharge was not made at
steady stage, the mean gauge height during the measurement is used. The plotted observations are labelled
in chronological order.
The relation should be defined by a sufficient number of measurements suitably distributed throughout the
range in stage, taking into account the shape of the stage-discharge relation. Ideally, the number and spacing
of the observations are made to conform to the relative frequency of flow at the various stages. That is, the
number of observations at various subranges is in proportion to the probable occurrence of discharge at
these same ranges, covering the whole range of discharge for which the relation is plotted. Nevertheless, in
practice, it is desirable to have as many observations as possible at the extreme ranges, both at the low flow
and at the high flood stages.
The curve of relation, the rating curve, is drawn evenly and smoothly through the scatter of plotted data
points.
Although all current meter discharge measurements are checked and considered correct before plotting,
observations, which plot more than, say, 5% in discharge off the curve, should again be checked for possible
uncertainties. Particular attention is paid to the need to adjust or weight the gauge height, to the correct
current meter rating, and to errors in the computation. With respect to the latter, it is useful to make a plot of
the cross-sectional area of flow and the mean velocity against gauge height for each discharge measurement.
Such plots reveal the presence of an error and where it is located in the computation, either in the velocity or
Lecture note 25
Hydrometry 2005/06

in the cross-sectional area. If no apparent error is found to be caused by the above, the condition of the
control is investigated before the measurement is discarded or a shift correction applied if applicable. From
the above it is evident that a copy of the stage—discharge curve is conveniently available in the instrument
house.

3.2.1 FITTING THE STAGE-DISCHARGE CURVE –

VISUAL ESTIMATION
There are several methods of fitting a median curve to observe or measure data points. This can be
performed, however, quite satisfactorily by visual estimation of the plot with the aid of drafting curves,
which usually are designed to conform to parabolic equations. Very often the trend of discharge
measurements plotted on graph paper follows a particular drafting curve due to the fact that stream
discharge tends to vary as some power of the depth of flow.
The criterion used when fitting a median curve to observations by visual estimation is that there are about
the same number of plus and minus deviations. A deviation is considered negative for a measurement lying
above the curve and positive when lying below the curve.

THE LOGARITHMIC METHOD

In many cases the stage—discharge curve may be established by plotting the logarithms of stage against the
logarithms of discharge. The use of logarithmic graph paper obviates the necessity of computing the
logarithms and the plotting of the observations is performed in the same manner as before. There are certain
important advantages in using the logarithmic method:
(a) The logarithmic form of the rating curve can be developed into a straight line, or straight-line segments,
by adding or subtracting a constant value (datum correction) to the gauge height logarithmic scale.
(b) The straight-line graph can be described by a simple mathematical equation that is easily handled by
pocket calculator or computer.
(c) The straight-line graph may be conveniently analyzed for uncertainties.
(d) A percentage distance off the curve is always the same regardless of where it is located. Thus a
measurement that is 10% off the curve at high stage will be the same distance away from the curve as a
measurement that is 10% off at low stage.
(e) It is easier to identify the range in stage for which different controls are effective.
(f) The gauge height scale may be conveniently altered by halving, doubling or adding a percentage to the
scale. The curve will merely shift position but retain the same shape.
(g) The curve can be easily extrapolated, if necessary, but caution is required in extrapolation at either the
top or the bottom end of the curve. If the curve is a single segment and the control is stable, then
extrapolation may be performed with more confidence than if the curve is made up of several segments.
The stage-discharge relation may be expressed by an equation of the form
Q = C(h + a)n (4.1)
which is the equation of a parabola where Q is the discharge, h is the gauge height, C and n are constants,
and a is the stage at zero flow (datum correction). This equation may be transformed by logarithms to
logQ logC + nlog( h + a) (4.2)
which is in the form of the equation of a straight line

Lecture note 26
Hydrometry 2005/06

y=nx+C (4.3)
Where n is the gradient and C is the intersection of the line on the y-axis. By plotting Q against (h + a),
therefore, on double logarithmic graph paper a straight line is obtained.
Often two or more straight lines may be required to fit the data and it is usually possible, initially, to decide
on the approximate location of the break points of each range by a careful investigation of the controls. The
actual break points may be determined by solving the two equations concerned for Q and h or by purely
graphical means. For very irregular channels, or for non-uniform flow, equation (4.1) cannot be expected to
apply throughout the whole range of stage. Sometimes the curve changes from a parabolic to a complex
curve or vice versa and sometimes the constants and exponents vary throughout the range. The logarithmic
rating equation therefore is seldom a single straight line or a gentle curve throughout the entire range of
stage at a gauging station. Even if the same channel cross-section is the control for all stages, a sharp break
in the contour of the cross-section causes a break in the slope of the rating curve. Also the other constants C
and a in equation (4.1) are related to the physical characteristics of the stage- discharge control.
If the control section changes at various stages, it may be necessary to fit two or more equations, each
corresponding to the portion of the range over which the control is applicable. If, however, too many
changes in the parameters are necessary in order to define the relation, it is possible that the logarithmic
method may not be suitable and a curve fitted by visual estimation can be employed as previously described.
The first derivative of equation (4.1) is a measure of the change in discharge per unit change in stage, that is
the first derivative gives the first-order differences of the discharge series. The first derivative is
dQ
dh
= Cn(h + a)n-1 (4.4)
Second-order differences are obtained by differentiating again. The second derivative is
d2 Q
dh2
= Cn(n — 1)(h + a)n-2 (4.5)
An examination of the second derivative shows that the second-order differences increase with stage when n
is greater than 2 (section control), and decrease with stage when n is less than 2 (channel control).
Normally in graphical analysis the dependent variable, Q in equation (4.1), would be plotted on the vertical
axis and the independent variable, h, plotted on the abscissa. It has been a tradition in stream gauging,
however, that this procedure is reversed while still retaining Q as the dependent variable and taking n, the
slope, as the cotangent instead of the tangent.
The geometry or shape of the channel section is reflected in the slope, n, of the stage-discharge equation
(4.1). This property is a useful indicator when carrying out a preliminary survey at a new site.
The following are approximate relations between n and channel sections:
• for a rectangular channel section, n = 3/2;
• for a concave section of parabolic shape, n = 2;
• for a triangular or semi-circular section, n = 5/2.
Changes in channel resistance and slope with stage, however, will affect the exponent n. The net result of
these factors is that the exponent in equation (4.1) for relatively wide rivers with channel control will

Lecture note 27
Hydrometry 2005/06

generally vary from about 1.3 to 1.8. For relatively C narrow rivers with section control, the exponent n will
almost always be greater than 2 and may often exceed a value of 3.
THE STAGE OF ZERO FLOW
The datum correction a is the value of the stage at zero flow and corresponds to the lowest point on the low
water control. It is defined as the gauge height at which flow over the control ceases. Usually this stage does
not coincide with the zero of the gauge unless the zero of the gauge is specifically set to the lowest level of
an artificial control or the crest of a measuring structure. The point of zero flow is therefore easily
determined for artificial controls and in those cases where the control is well defined by a rock ledge.
The stage of zero flow is determined by subtracting the depth of water over the lowest point on the control
from the stage indicated by the gauge reading. If the gauge is at some distance from the control, an
adjustment is made for the slope The difficulty in determining the point of zero flow is in establishing the
lowest point on the control, as not all controls are easily identified. Generally a cross-section is surveyed
across the stream at the first complete break in the slope of the water surface below the measuring section.
This is usually the location of the upstream lip of the low water control. For a channel controlled gauging
station, the maximum depth directly opposite the gauge will give a reasonable approximation of the depth to
be subtracted from the gauge reading in order to obtain the stage of zero flow.
The position of the point of zero flow is best determined at time of low water when rivers can often be
waded. In those cases, however, where the control section is difficult to identify, it may be located by
surveying a close grid of spot levels or by running a sufficient number of cross-sections over the area of the
assumed control section or reach.
It should be noted that when a quantity has to be added to the gauge heights in order to obtain a straight line
a is taken as positive, that is the zero of the gauge is in this case positioned at a level above the point of zero
flow. Conversely when a quantity has to be subtracted from the gauge heights, a is taken as negative and in
this case the zero of the gauge is positioned at a level below the point of zero flow. When the zero of the
gauge coincides with the level of the point of zero flow then a is zero. The three cases are given in Fig. 4.7
There are four methods of estimating the datum correction a apart from making a field survey. However, if
at all possible, the estimates are verified by field investigation.
3.2.2 Determination of datum correction (the stage of zero flow (a))
The datum correction (a) is the value of the stage at zero flow and corresponds to the lowest point on the
low water control. It is defined as the gauge height at which flow over the control ceases. Usually this stage
does not coincide with the zero of the gauge unless the zero of the gauge is specifically set to the lowest
level of an artificial control or the crest of a measuring structure. The point of zero flow is therefore easily
determined for artificial controls and in those cases where the control is well defined by a rock ledge.
There are four methods of estimating the datum correction a apart from making a field survey. However, if
at all possible, the estimates are verified by field investigation.
Trial and error procedure
All discharge measurements are plotted on double logarithmic graph paper (‘log-log paper’) and a median
line is drawn through the scatter of observations. Usually this line will be a curved line. Various trial values,
one value for each trial, are added or subtracted to the gauge heights of the measurements until the plot
obtained forms a straight line. The trial value forming the straight line is the required value of a. All the
plotted observations may be used in the trial operation. However, it is better to use only a few points
selected from the median line first fitted to the points.

Lecture note 28
Hydrometry 2005/06

Arithmetic procedure
All discharge measurements are plotted on log-log paper. If the mean line drawn through the observations
results in a curve then a datum correction is required. Three values of discharge, Q 1, Q2 and Q3 are selected
in geometric progression, that is two values Q1 and Q3 are chosen from the curve and the third value Q 2 is
then computed according to
Q1 /Q2= Q2 /Q3
Then Q22= Q1 Q3
If the corresponding gauge heights read from the plot are h1, h2 and h3, then from
Q = C(h-a)n
(note that a is negative if the curve is ‘concave up’ a is positive if the curve is ‘concave down’) and
substituting for Q in the above equation
C2(h2- a)2n = C(h1 - a)n C(h3 - a)n .
Therefore
(h2- a)2= (h1 - a) (h3 - a)
h22-2ah2+a2=h1h3-ah3-ah1 + a 2
h22-2ah2=h1h3-a(h1+h3)
a(2h2-h1-h3)=h22-h1h3.
h1 h3 −h22
a= and Q 22=Q 1 Q 3
h1 +h 3−2h 2

If the curve is ‘concave down’ (a is positive) then proceeding as above since

Q = C(h + a)n,
h22 −h 1 h3
a=
h1 +h 3−2h 2

Graphical procedure
As above, three values of discharge in geometric progression are selected but this time from a plot on
arithmetic graph paper. Let the points be A, B and C as illustrated in Fig. below. Vertical lines are drawn
through A and B and horizontal lines drawn through B and C intersecting the verticals at D and E,
respectively. Let DE and AB meet at F. Then the ordinate of F is the value of (a) which takes the sign as
before.
Computer program procedure
If automatic data processing by computer is available the datum correction can be conveniently found by a
computer program, which essentially is designed to carry out an iteration procedure until the best straight
line is obtained. In the iteration program, different values of a are tested against the correlation coefficient
for the line of best fit. The value of a giving the maximum correlation coefficient is the value selected.
Usually about 20 or more iteration are necessary. This is purely mathematical procedure and probably gives
the best result but every endeavor is made to ensure that the result can be confirmed by a site investigation.
Lecture note 29
Hydrometry 2005/06

Estimating the constants C and n

After a straight-line plot of the discharge measurements on log—log graph paper has been obtained, the
constants C and n of the rating equation can be computed by any of three methods, namely arithmetically,
by a least squares procedure or graphically.
The stage—discharge relation is first analysed from a plot on log-log graph paper in order to establish
whether the rating curve is composed of one or more straight-line segments, each having its own constants
C and n. The constants for each separate segment are calculated separately.
Arithmetic procedure
A series of discharge measurements at a gauging station is give in Table below. The datum correction has
been computed as + 1.26 m. It is required to determine the constants C and n and therefore the rating
equation.
To the gauge heights of the measurements given in Table below, 1.26m is added and the observations
plotted on log—log graph paper, the gauge heights on the vertical scale and the discharges on the horizontal
scale. The plot defines a straight line. Select two, points on this line as far from each other as possible but
within the range of measured discharges. Let the two selected points (Q, h) be (97, 1.80) and (1300, 5 00).
Now the equation of the straight line passing through two points (x1, yi) and (x2, y2) is written as
Table stage and discharge data for calculating the stage-discharge equation.
Observation H Q Observation H Q
no (m) (m3s-1) no (m) (m3s-1)
1 1.55 300 15 3.87 1374
2 1.44 287 16. 2.33 540
3 1.26 235 17 3.49 1152
4 1.05 193 18 3.93 1452
5 0.73 125 19 2.03 440
6 0.69 113 20 1.61 306
7 0.70 124 21 2.13 469
8 1.70 340 22 1.37 246
9 0.96 169 23 1.05 189
10 0.94 168 24 0.91 163
11 1.35 240 25 0.79 139
12 1.17 202 26 0.68 120
13 1.79 387 27 0.61 104
14 3.09 930 28 0.53 94.6

y− y 1 y 2 − y 1
=
x−x 1 x2 x1

Lecture note 30
Hydrometry 2005/06

It follows that
log y−log y 1 log y 2 −log y 1
1
=
log x−log x 1 log x 2−log x 1

In the present case, after changing the notation and inverting both sides of equation it follows that
log Q−log Q1 log Q 2−log Q1
=
log (h+a )−log h1 log h2−log h1

Substituting the given values in the above equation given

log Q−log 97 log1300−log 97
=
log (h+1. 26 )−log1 . 80 log5 . 00−log1 . 80
Then
log Q−1 . 98668 3 . 1139−1. 9868
= =2 .54
log (h+1. 26 )−0 . 2553 0. 6990−0 .2553
log Q=2. 54 log( h+1. 26 )+1. 3383 .
Q = 21.79(h + 1.26)2.54.
Least squares procedure
The values of C and n may be computed by the method of least squares; that is, the sum of the squares of the
deviations between the logarithms of the measured discharge and the estimated discharge from the curve
should be a minimum.
The values of C and n are obtained from the following equations
SY— N(log C) - nSX = 0
S (XY) - S(X)(log C) - nS (X2) =0
where SY is the sum of all the values of log Q
SY. is the sum of all the values of log (h + a)
S (X)2 is the sum of all the values of the square of X
S (XY) is the sum of all the values of the product of X and Y
N is the number of current meter observations.
In order to illustrate the method, data are prepared as shown in Table below. Substituting the calculated
values from Table into the above equations gives
68.0506 - 28logC - n12.0182 = 0
30.4351 - 12.Ol82logC - n5.6430 = 0.
Solving the above equations for n and C gives n = 2.53 and C = 22.10 which is in close agreement with the
equation developed by the arithmetic method.

Lecture note 31
Hydrometry 2005/06

The least squares method is the method conveniently employed in computer processing but the stage—
discharge curve is normally first plotted on log—log graph paper for examination.

No h Q h+a LogQ=Y Log(h+a)=X (XY) (X2)

1.55 300 2.81 2.4771 0.4487 1.1115 0.2013
2 1.44 287 2.70 2.4579 0.4314 1.0603 0.1816
3 1.26 235 2.52 2.3711 0.4014 0.9518 0.1611
4 1.05 193 2.31 2.2856 0.3636 0.8310 0.1322
5 0.73 125 1.99 2.0969 0.2989 0.6268 0.0893
6 0.69 113 1.95 2.0531 0.2900 0.5954 0.0841
7 0.70 124 1.96 2.0934 0.2923 0.6119 0.0854
8 1.70 340 2.96 2.5415 0.4713 1.1931 0.2221
9 0.96 169 2.22 2.2279 0.3464 0.7717 0.1200
10 0.94 168 2.20 2.2253 0.3424 0.7619 0.1172
11 1.35 240 2.61 2.3802 0.4166 0.9916 0.1736
12 1.17 202 2.43 2.3054 0.3856 0.8890 0.2345
13 1.79 387 3.05 2.5877 0.4843 1.2532 0.1487
14 3.09 930 4.35 2.9685 0.6385 1.8954 0.2345
15 3.87 1374 5.13 3.1380 0.7101 2.2283 0.4077
16. 2.33 540 3.59 2.7324 0.5551 1.5168 0.5042
17 3.49 1152 4.75 3.0615 0.6767 2.0717 0.3081
18 3.93 1452 5.19 3.1620 0.7152 2.2615 0.4579
19 2.03 440 3.29 2.6435 0.5172 1.3672 0.5115
20 1.61 306 2.87 2.4857 0.4579 1.1382 0.2675
21 2.13 469 3.39 2.6712 0.5302 1.4163 0.2097
22 1.37 246 2.63 2.3909 0.4200 1.0039 0.2811
23 1.05 189 2.31 2.2765 0.3636 0.8277 0.1764
24 0.91 163 2.17 2.2122 0.3365 0.7444 0.1322
25 0.79 139 2.05 2.1430 0.3118 0.6682 0.1132
26 0.68 120 1.94 2.0792 0.2878 0.5984 0.0972
27 0.61 104 1.87 2.0170 0.2718 0.5482 0.0828
28 0.53 94.6 1.79 1.9759 0.2529 0.4997 0.0739
 68.0506 12.0182 30.4351 0.0640

Graphical procedure

Lecture note 32
Hydrometry 2005/06

The graphical method of determining C and n is simple and normally as effective in giving results as good
as the two methods described above. The value of n is found by scaling the horizontal and vertical
projections of the line and calculating this ratio (slope of the straight line). The value of C is given by the
numerical value of the discharge when
(h+a)= 1
log Q=log C+n log (h+a)
and when (h+a) =1, n log (h+a)=0 and therefore Q=C.
3.2.4 Extrapolation of Rating Curve:

Most hydrological designs consider extreme flood flows. As an example, in the design of hydraulic
structures, such as barrages, dams and bridges one needs maximum flood discharges as well as maximum
flood levels. While the design flood discharge magnitude can be estimated from other considerations, the
stage-discharge relationship at the project site will have to be used to predict the stage corresponding to
design-flood discharges. Rarely will the available stag-discharge data include the design-flood range and
hence the need for extrapolation of the rating curve.

Before attempting extrapolation, it is necessary to examine the site and collect relevant data on changes in
the river cross-section due to flood plains, roughness and backwater effects. The reliability of the
extrapolated value depends on the stability of the gauging section control. A stable control at all stages
leads to reliable results. Extrapolation of the rating curve in an alluvial river subjected to aggradation and
degradation is unreliable and the results should always be confirmed by alternate methods. There are many
techniques of extending the rating curve and two well-known methods are described here.

Conveyance Method:

The conveyance of a channel in nonuniform flow is defined by the relation:

Q=K √ S f
Where Q = discharge in the channel, Sf = slope of the energy line and K = conveyance.

If Manning’s formula is used,

2
1 3
K= AR
n
Where n = Manning’s roughness coefficient, A = area of cross-section and, R = hydraulic radius. Since A
and R are functions of the stage, the value of K for various values of stage are calculated and plotted against

Q2
Sf =
K2
the stage. The range of the stage should include values beyond the level up to which extrapolation is
desired. Then a smooth curve is fitted to the plotted points. Using the available discharge and stage data,
values of Sf are calculated, and are plotted against the stage. A smooth curve is fitted through the plotted
points. This curve is then extrapolated keeping in mind that Sf approaches a constant value at high stages.

Using the conveyance and slope curves, the discharge at any stage is calculated as
Q=K √ S f
Lecture note 33
Hydrometry 2005/06

And a stage-discharge curve covering the desired range of extrapolation is constructed. With this
extrapolated - rating curve, the stage corresponding to a design - flood discharge can be obtained.

Lecture note 34
Hydrometry 2005/06

Logarithmic - plot Method:

In this technique the stage-discharge relationship given by Eq. (4.19) is made use of. The stage is plotted
against the discharge on a log-log paper. A best-fit linear relationship is obtained for data points lying in the
high-stage range and the line is extended to cover the range of extrapolation. Alternatively, coefficients of
Eq. (4.19) are obtained by the least-square-error method by regressing X on Y in Eq. (4.20a). For this Eq.
(4.20a) is written as
X = bY + C

Figure 6.14 Conveyance method of rating curve extension

Where the dependent variable X = log (H-Ho) and Y = log Q. The coefficient b and c are obtained as,
And
N (∑ XY ) −(∑ Y )( ∑ X)
b=
N( ∑ Y 2) −(∑ Y )2

(∑ x)−α ( ∑ y)
C=
N

The relationship governing the stage and discharge is now (H-Ho) = a Q b. Where a = antilog C. By the use
of the discharge equation the value of the stage corresponding to a design flood discharge is estimated.

Lecture note 35
Hydrometry 2005/06

3.3 RATING TABLE

When a computer program is used to convert stage to discharge, the rating equation is normally built into
the program. However, when the conversion is performed manually a rating table is constructed. A typical
rating table is shown in Table below.

6.6 Hydrometric gauging network:

As the measurement of discharge is of paramount importance in applied hydrologic studies, considerable

expenditure and effort are being expended in every country to collect and stone this valuable historic data.
The WMO recommendations for the minimum number of hydrometry stations in various geographical
regions are given in Table 6.1.

Lecture note 36
Hydrometry 2005/06

Table 6.1 W MO CRITERIA FOR HYDROMETRIC STATION DENSITY

Maximum Density Tolerable density and
2
S.N Region (km /Station) difficult condition
(km2/station)
1. Flat region of temperate 1,00 - 2,500 3,000 - 10,000
Mediterranean and tropical zones
2. Mountainous regions of 300 - 1,000 1,00 - 5,00
temperate
Mediterranean and tropical zones
3. Arid and polar zones 5,000 - 20,000

Hydrometric stations must be sited in adequate number in the catchment area of all major streams so that the
water potential of an area can be assessed as accurately as possible.

Network of Gauges
Surface and ground water gauging systems are Costly and time consuming but affect many social
activities. The density of gauging station depends on the nature of the tertian
and the purpose of the station in countries conducting stream flow measurement

There are
1. Primary and principia stations defined as permanent station to measure most ranges of discharge
with records as accurate and complete as possible
2. Secondary station operating for short period of time to obtain a satisfactory correlation with the
record of a primary station. Their function is usually to provide hydraulically knowledge of streams
likely to be used for future studies
3. Special stations serving Particular needs, such as reservoir sizing determining runoff volume from a
small urban watershed and dry weather flow stations for estimating obstructions.

The printed records of data form the station are arranged in d/s order beginning with the main stream of the
river. The records numbers are sequined d/s until a tributary joins the main stream. Which has a gauging
station on it somewhere. The next record is than the most v/s gonging station on the tributary. The records
of the entire tributary are arranged in d/s other until the tributary joins the main stream.

It is possible to classify the data type terms of sheer volume of data It is typical to record rending of a
permanent entry 15 min, giving over 35,000 ridings per year.

Rain fall data can be stored main on the compactly If it can be assumed that the lowest discrete amount of
rain fall that is of interest is 0.2mm than 1500 of rain fall mill only generate 7500 readings A large
amount of information is collected for a relatively small no of parentally and the relational nodal data base is
not designed for this type of data

Sample
Sample data are that group of data where is recorded as requires more often than not manually typical
examples are bome hotel water level water quality measurements cant meter gonging on flood pare level .
Flame there is a small amount of data recorded for a large number of sites and it is possible to use

Lecture note 37
Hydrometry 2005/06

commercially available databases id that is no requirement for integration with a large volume of time
requires data.

Asset
Asset data are essentially fixed They comprise those Clements of the reading as its geographical
location and the nature of the sensor and recording apparatus used They can be extended as far as required it
include for example derails of land sweetshop maintenance schedules health and safety requirement and
building details this is the sort of data for which commercial data base have been designed and therefore
they can manage this type with ease.

Sediment transport Sampler

When making a measurement of discharge, sediment, various forms of sounding equipments and suspension
equipment’s are required depending on the depth and velocity of the channel. For small depth and low
velocity, allowing the channel to be waded , a wading rod is satisfactory but for greater depths and velocities
more sophisticated forms of sounding and suspension equipments are necessary. This may take the form of
a cable ways or mechanically operated rods or both.

Sediment samples are taken at each vertical across the channel by specially designed samplers. These may
be point integrated samplers or depth integrating samplers and may be hand held or , more often , suspended
ffrom cable way. For depth integrating sampling, the sampler is lowered to the bed and back at uniform
transit rate. If the sampler proceeds from one vertical to one another across the cchannel at constant transit
rate, a composite single sample is obtained so that

Qs=86.4Q Where, Qs =sediment load daily discharge (tone/day)

Q= the discharge (m3/s)
Cs = the sediment concentration (kg/m3)

The sediment concentration, Cs, is found by analyzing the samples in the laboratory by allowing the sampler
to settle, draining off the water and even dry the remaining sediment at a temperature of about 100 0c and
weighted. Using point integrated samplers samples are taken at evenly spaced points in each vertical and at
the point to the mean velocity in the vertical. In practice the method of computation may be conveniently
combined with the mid-section method of discharge measurement.

Lecture note 38