THE FORMATION OF

HEAVIER ELEMENTS
DURING
STAR FORMATION
AND EVOLUTION
118 elements

How will you know which

is the lightest/heaviest
element?
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
refers to the process by which elements are formed
through nuclear reactions, primarily within stars.
THREE
1. TYPES:
BIG BANG – light element (H, He, Li, Be) were
formed
2. STELLAR – heavy elements were formed
3. SUPERNOVA/NEUTRON CAPTURE – elements
heavier the Fe were formed
BIG BANG
THEORY
-explains the primordial creation and
expansion of space at the beginning of
time
- the most widely accepted theory
where the vast universe grew out of
something where all matter and energy
were compressed to infinite density and
heated to trillions of degrees
BIG BANG
THEORY
-rapid expansion caused the universe
to cool down forming new particles:
proton, neutrons, and electrons
- as it cooled down sub atomic particles
undergo nuclear reactions and a phase
called big bang nucleosynthesis.
4 Concepts:
1. The Big Bang is an expansion of the space.
2. As the universe expands, it cools.
3. The more energetic the particles are, the higher
their temperature will be.
4. The identity of the element depends on how
many protons it has.
 Through nuclear fusion (nuclear
processes wherein light nuclei fuse
together to form heavier nucleus), light
elements were formed.
 Quarks combined to
form:
+
MATTER began to take form LIGHT ELEMENTS
LIGHT ELEMENTS

BIG BANG
NUCLEOSYNTHES
 BIG BANG
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
- refers to the process of
creating new atomic
nuclei from pre-existing
nucleons primarily
protons and neutrons
+ =
(isotope of
hydrogen)
No elements have the same number of
protons.
Have the same
number of
protons but
differ in the
number of
neutrons.
 NUCLEAR REACTION

+ =
(1 proton, 1 (1 proton, 2
neutron) neutrons)
This is still HYDROGEN atom since its
proton is only 1 regardless of the number
of neutrons.
 + =
(1 proton, 1 (1 proton, 1 (2 protons, 2
neutron) neutron) neutrons)

+ =
(1 proton, 2 (1 (2 protons, 2
neutrons) proton) neutrons)
 + =
(2 protons, 2 (1 (3 protons, 2
neutrons) proton) neutrons)

+ =
(2 protons, 2 (2 protons, 2
neutrons) (4 protons, 4
neutrons)
neutrons)
 75%
Hydrogen 25%
Helium
Light from distant
galaxies are from
glowing elements which
emits spectra of a
particular frequencies
primarily HYDROGEN
and HELIUM.
 The temperature
continuously drops making
the particles unable to
combine due to insufficient
amount of energies.
 The particles bounces back
during collision and no more
elements are formed.
 How were elements
heavier than beryllium
formed?
 STELLAR
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
-is the process by which elements are
formed within stars.
-Elements heavier than beryllium are
formed through stellar nucleosynthesis.
How and what elements are formed?
CLASSIFICATION OF STARS
O-type main sequence stars are the hottest stars in the
known universe.
With effective temperatures of at
least 30,000 K, they are at least
30,000 times more luminous
than the Sun.

These stars are exceptionally

massive. They have masses at least
16 times that of the Sun and radii at
least 6.6 times the Sun’s. Due to
their high mass, the stars evolve very
quickly and have the shortest life
spans of all spectral classes.
B-type main sequence stars are also
exceptionally hot and luminous, but have
more modest parameters than O-type stars.

A-type stars have surface temperatures

between 7,600 and 10,000 K and appear
white or bluish-white in color.
F-type stars comprise 3% of all main sequence
stars. With effective temperatures between 6,000
and 7,500 K, they appear white or yellow-white in
color. They are slightly larger and more massive
than Sun-like stars.

G-type stars – yellow dwarfs – comprise 7.6%

of all main sequence stars
The Sun and two its close neighbors – Rigil
Kentaurus (Alpha Centauri A) and Tau Ceti
belong to this class.
K-type stars – orange dwarfs – make up 12.1%
of all main sequence stars.

M-type main sequence stars, also known as red

dwarfs, are the most numerous stars in the
universe. They make up 76.45% of all main
sequence stars.
Sun is a
star.
 Sun is a
star.
Stars are not just
twinkling and
they are not
little.
 EVOLUTION OF STARS
- proposes that stars form due
to the collapse of the dense
regions of a molecular cloud
L
STELLAR NEBULA
(birthplace of stars)

Clumps of gas
and dust that
are collapsing
because of
gravity.
 THE STAR FORMATION THEORY
1. As the cloud collapses, the fragments contract to
form a stellar core called protostar.
The hot core at the heart of the collapsing
cloud that will one day become a star.
THE STAR FORMATION THEORY

2.) Due to strong

gravitational force,
the protostar
contracts and its
temperature
increases.
 THE STAR FORMATION THEORY

3.)When the core

temperature reaches about
10 million K, nuclear
reactions begin. The
reactions release positrons
and neutrinos which increase
pressure and stop the
contraction.
 THE STAR FORMATION THEORY
4.) When the contraction stops, the gravitational
equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become
a main sequence star.

Any star that has a hot,

dense core which fuses
hydrogen into helium to
produce energy
The stars produced heavier
elements through NUCLEAR
FUSION.
NUCLEAR FUSION
NUCLEAR FUSION
This process occurs at
the core of the stars
What will happen if the
hydrogen in the stars
are already depleted?
In the core of a main sequence star,
1. Hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-proton
chain.
2. When most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into
helium, fusion stops, and the pressure in the core
decreases.
3. Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and
hydrogen burning occur.
4. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while hydrogen
is converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core.

The star has

become a red giant.
L
When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon,
then the rate of fusion decreases.
1. Gravity again squeezes the star.
2. In a low-mass star (with mass less than twice the Sun’s mass), there is not
enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur.
3. The star’s fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is
blown off into space.
4. The only thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The star
becomes a white dwarf.
L
L
However, the fate of a massive star is
different.
1. A massive star has enough mass such that
temperature and pressure increase to a
point where carbon fusion can occur.
2. The star goes through a series of stages
where heavier elements are fused in the
core and in the shells around the core.
3. The element oxygen is formed from
carbon fusion; neon from oxygen fusion;
magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from
magnesium fusion; and iron from silicon
fusion. The star becomes a multiple-shell
red giant.
L
THE STAR EXPLOSION IS CALLED A
SUPERNOVA
NUCLEAR PROCESSES
INVOLVED IN THE
FORMATION OF
ELEMENTS
 IMPORTANT REACTIONS IN STELLAR
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

1.Proton-proton chain reaction

2.CNO (Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen)
Cycle
3.Tri- Alpha Process
4.Alpha Ladder Process
1.) PROTON-PROTON CHAIN REACTION
- This process dominates in stars where the core
temperature is less than 15,000,000 K (such as our sun).
-It consists of three reactions that result in the
conversion of six protons into a He nucleus plus two
residual protons. An important reaction in this process is
that of "proton conversion."
1.) PROTON-PROTON CHAIN REACTION
The first step in this process is the
collision of two protons where
proximity permits the strong
nuclear force to bind them together.
The resulting combination is not
stable, and one of the protons will
decay to become a neutron, and this
forms a stable nucleus of deuterium.
This step needs to occur twice
1.) PROTON-PROTON CHAIN REACTION

The second step involves the

collision of a deuterium nuclei
(produced in Step 1) with a
proton to form a nucleus of
Helium-3. The increased
stability results in the release of
some energy in the form of a
gamma ray. This step must also
occur twice.
1.) PROTON-PROTON CHAIN REACTION
The final step is the collision of
two Helium-3 nuclei to form a
Helium-4 nucleus. In this step,
two protons are released that
continue to participate in Step 1
or Step 2.

REMEMBER:
The goal here is to produce
Helium.
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE

13
+ =
7
6 protons 1 protons 7 protons
6 neutrons 0 neutrons 6 neutrons
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE

13
+ =
7 N
6 protons 1 protons 7 protons
6 neutrons 0 neutrons 6 neutrons

N-13
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE

13
+ =
7 N
6 protons 1 protons 7 protons
6 neutrons 0 neutrons 6 neutrons

N-13
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE
One of its proton will change
into neutron.

7 protons
C-13
6 neutrons

N-13 6 protons
7 neutrons
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE

14
+ =
7 N
6 protons 1 protons 7 protons
7 neutrons 0 neutrons 7 neutrons
N-14
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE

15
+ =
8
7 protons 1 protons 8 protons
7 neutrons 0 neutrons 7 neutrons
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE

15
+ =
8 O
7 protons 1 protons 8 protons
7 neutrons 0 neutrons 7 neutrons
O-15
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE
One of its proton will change
into neutron.

8 protons N-15
7 neutrons

7 protons
8 neutrons
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE

16
+ =
8 O
7 protons 1 protons 8 protons
8 neutrons 0 neutrons 8 neutrons
O-16
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE
1 Proton
1 Neutron
4
1 Proton 2 He
8 protons 1 Neutron
8 neutrons
2.) CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE

The carbon-12 nucleus

used in the initial
reaction is regenerated
in the final one and
hence acts as a catalyst
for the whole cycle.
3.) TRIPLE ALPHA PROCESS
Alpha particle
-are composite particles consisting of two
protons and two neutrons tightly bound
together
-identical to a helium
atom that has been
stripped of its two
electrons
3.) TRIPLE ALPHA PROCESS

+ +

=
4.) ALPHA LADDER PROCESS
 As the energy at the core of the star
decreases, nuclear fusion cannot produce
elements higher than Iron.

How do elements heavier than Iron form?

 NEUTRON CAPTURE/ SUPERNOVA
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
-is a nuclear reaction in which an atomic
nucleus and one or more neutrons collide
and merge to form a heavier nucleus
- a neutron is added to an existing nuclei
to form heavy elements nucleus
NEUTRON CAPTURE/ SUPERNOVA
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
 2 TYPES:
a.) S- Process (Slow Process)
 2 TYPES:
b.) R- Process (Rapid Process)
 SEED NUCLEUS

Some of the neutrons will change to

protons and in that way some heavier
elements than Fe are formed.
 PIECES OF EVIDENCE
1. The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust
during the early part of the 20th century provided a crucial
piece of evidence to support the star formation theory.
2. Other pieces of evidence come from the study of different
stages of formation happening in different areas in space
and piecing them together to form a clearer picture.
3. Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected
from different stages of star formation.