CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL

Load/stress application on soil

→ causes soil compression

Reasons for soil compression

 Compression/expulsion of air in soil
voids
 Soil compaction (already discussed)
 Distortion/crushing of soil grains
 Negligible under normal structural loads
 Expulsion/compression of water from
the voids
 Soil consolidation
2
CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL

Which soils have high water holding ability ?

Phenomenon associated with saturated fine
grained soils only.

Consolidation → compression/volume
reduction of soil mass due to expulsion of
water when subjected to external load/stress.

3
CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL
Soil volume reduction due to expulsion of water upon
application of external load/stress.
fully saturated soil, so all voids filled with water only (no air)

Before Consolidation After Consolidation

Water
Water

Solids Solids

Saturated Fine-grained Soil 4

Consolidation Damages
Soil volume reduction due to expulsion of water upon
application of external load/stress.
→ Settlement of structures
→ Cracks in walls, foundations, etc.

5
 MECHANISM OF CONSOLIDATION
Spring-Cylinder Model / Hydro-mechanical Analogue

Piston
(Frictionless, water-tight)

Water

Cylinder
Pressure Cross-sectional area = A
Gauge

Spring
6
Consolidation Model
(Spring-Cylinder Model / Hydro-mechanical Analogue)

Load (P) applied on the piston.

Load, P PS = Load carried by the spring

PW = Load carried by water
Piston
P = PS + PW

With the valve closed

PS = 0, &
PW = P

7
 Consolidation Model
(Spring-Cylinder Model / Hydro-mechanical Analogue)
When the valve is opened → water flow outward
Decrease in excess hydrostatic pressure
Increase in compression of spring
Load, P PS = Load carried by the spring
PW = Load carried by water

P = PS + PW

With the valve opened

PS > 0, &
PW < P

8
Consolidation Model
(Spring-Cylinder Model / Hydro-mechanical Analogue)

After some time → equilibrium is reached

Load, P PS = Load carried by the spring

PW = Load carried by water

P = PS + PW

With the valve opened; after some

time span.
Excess hydrostatic pressure, Δu = 0

PW = 0, &
PS = P

9
 Spring-Cylinder Model – Summary
Time dependent response of saturated fine-grained soils.

Valve
Closed
Valve
open

With the valve closed With the valve opened After t >>> 0
PS = 0, & PS > 0, & PW = 0, &
PW = P PW < P PS = P

Spring-cylinder assembly In case of soil

Total load acting on the system = P
Load carried by water = PW
Load carried by Spring = PS
P = PS + PW OR PS = P - PW
Stress acting on soil mass → Total Stress = σ
Stress carried by water → Pore water pressure = u
Stress carried by soil particles → Effective stress = σ’
σ = σ’ + u OR σ' = σ - u
10
Spring-Cylinder Model → Application to Soil
 Similar phenomenon occurs when load is applied on a saturated
clay deposit (very low permeability).
 Load is first taken by water only.
 Pore water pressure slowly dissipates,
 Soil particles start taking load gradually
 After some time excess water pressure is completely
dissipated through voids, and the load is carried only by soil
particles.

11
Consolidation Model
(Hydro-mechanical Analog)
, u, ’
Initially Finally
u =  u = 0
’ = 0 ’ = 

 = ’ + u

Valve Valve Time

closed opened

13
Consolidation vs Compaction
Compaction
Applicable to unsaturated soils.
Decrease in air voids (not water voids)
Applicable for both fine-grained and
coarse-grained soils
Instantaneous process
May be accomplished by rolling,
tamping, or vibration.
Consolidation
Applicable to saturated soils.
Decrease in water voids (air voids do
not exist).
Only applicable for fine-grained soils
Time-dependent process
Can occur over 100s of year.
In general, caused by static loading.
14
Inferences from Spring-Cylinder Model
Magnitude of consolidation settlement
dependent on compressibility of soil (i.e. the stiffness of the spring)

 expressed in term of compression index (Cc)

Rate of consolidation/settlement
dependent on
i. permeability, &
ii. compressibility of soil.

 expressed in term of co-efficient of consolidation (Cv)

15
 Inferences from Spring-Cylinder Model
Magnitude of consolidation → compression index (Cc)
Rate of consolidation → co-efficient of consolidation (Cv)
 Time required for consolidation can be determined?

T H2  Derivation
t    – SELF STUDY –  u 
2

 CV  (next two slides) T   ; for u  60%

4  100 
where,
t = time required for any degree of T  1.781  0.933  log10 (100  u );
consolidation for u  60%
CV = coefficient of consolidation
H = length of the drainage path T 50  0.197; for u  50%
(H = t → for one-way drainage
T90  0.848; for u  90%
H = t/2 → for two-way drainage)
t = thickness of consolidating soil layer
T = constant known as ‘Time Factor’
u = degree of consolidation 16
 Inferences from Spring-Cylinder Model
Magnitude of consolidation → compression index (Cc)
Rate of consolidation → co-efficient of consolidation (Cv)
 Time required for consolidation can be determined?
Permeability / Velocity of Volume of water required
flow through soil to be squeezed out
t 1 v tV
Darcy’s equation → v  ki t    mv  H  (2)

ih H h    w t = time required for any degree of consolidation

Δσ = change in stress
k   Next Chapter mV = coefficient of volume compressibility
v (Permeability & Seepage) H = length of the drainage path
w H (H = t → for one-way drainage
 1  H = t/2 → for two-way drainage)
t     (1) t = thickness of consolidating soil layer
 (k   ) ( w  H )  17
 Inferences from Spring-Cylinder Model
Magnitude of consolidation → compression index (Cc)
Rate of consolidation → co-efficient of consolidation (Cv)
 Time required for consolidation can be determined?

 1 
t     (1)  k 
CV   
 (k   ) ( w  H ) 
 mv   w 
t    mv  H  (2)
Replacing CV in (3);
 H2 
Combining (1) and (2). t   
 CV 
 mv   w  H 2 
t     (3)
 k  T H2 
t   
 CV 
18
Consolidation Time (t)

T H2   k 
t    & Cv   
 CV   mv   w 
where,
t = time required for any degree of
consolidation
CV = coefficient of consolidation
H = length of the drainage path
 T  H 2  mv   w 
t    T = constant known as ‘Time Factor’
 k  u = degree of consolidation

Time required for consolidation (consolidation time) is

independent of the magnitude of stress change (Δσ).
19
One-Dimensional Consolidation

Drainage and deformations occur in vertical direction only.

(none laterally)

A reasonable simplification for solving consolidation problems

21
1-D Consolidation Theory
(Terzaghi, 1936)

Assumptions of one-dimensional consolidation theory

1. Soil is homogenous.
2. Soil is fully saturated.
3. Coefficient of consolidation (CV) remains constant throughout the soil
mass and also remains constant with time.
4. Coefficient of permeability (k) is constant throughout.
5. Darcy’s law for flow of water through the soil mass is valid,
i.e., v = k.i
6. Consolidation is a one-dimensional problem i.e., water flows in only
one direction and the resulting settlement also occur in one direction
only.
7. Soil particles are assumed to be incompressible i.e., all the settlement
is due to the expulsion of water.

22
 1-D Lab Consolidation
Lab
NSL Undisturbed soil
specimen

metal ring

Field
Porous Stones

Consolidometer / Oedometer
SOIL
Stopwatch

23
1-D Lab Consolidation
 Devised by Carl Terzaghi. Porous
 The apparatus is called Consolidometer / Stones
Oedometer
 Soil specimen placed inside a metal ring
 Two porous stones, one at the top and SOIL
other at the bottom of specimen
 Diameter of specimen = 50-75 mm (2”-3”)
 Diameter/Height: between 2.5 & 5
 Specimen kept submerged in water throughout the test
 Load is applied through a lever arm
 Each load is usually applied for 24hrs (or till deformations become
negligible)
 Each loading increment is usually double the previous load.
 After complete loading, unloading is done in steps.
24
Deformation ~ Time Plot

Stage–I: Initial compression →

mainly due to preloading.

Stage–II: Primary Consolidation

→ due to dissipation of pore
water pressure (expulsion of
water)

Stage–III: Secondary
Consolidation → due to plastic
readjustment of soil fabric.

25
 Consolidation Settlement in the Field


G.W.T Sand

H Clay

depth Sand

External stress (Δσ) applied on a soil stratum in the field.

 SAND→ Quick drainage of water → Immediate settlement
 CLAY → Slow drainage → Consolidation settlement (time dependent)
20
 Consolidation Settlement in the Field

Remember
Δσ = Δu + Δσ’

Immediately after load application (t = 0)

All the applied stress carried by pore water only, Δu = Δσ
Effective stress, Δσ’ = 0

27
 Consolidation Settlement in the Field

Remember
Δσ = Δu + Δσ’

Some time after load application (0 < t < ∞)

Pore water pressure starts dissipating, Δu < Δσ
Additional stress start getting transferred to soil particles,
Δσ’ > 0
28
 Consolidation Settlement in the Field

Remember
Δσ = Δu + Δσ’

Long time after load application (t = ∞)

Pore water pressure dissipated completely, Δu = 0
All the applied stress being taken by soil particles, Δσ’ = Δσ

29
One-Dimensional Consolidation

Drainage and deformations occur in vertical direction only.

(none laterally)

A reasonable simplification for solving consolidation problems

2
1-D Consolidation Theory
(Terzaghi, 1936)

Assumptions of one-dimensional consolidation theory

1. Soil is homogenous.
2. Soil is fully saturated.
3. Coefficient of consolidation (CV) remains constant throughout the soil
mass and also remains constant with time.
4. Coefficient of permeability (k) is constant throughout.
5. Darcy’s law for flow of water through the soil mass is valid,
i.e., v = k.i
6. Consolidation is a one-dimensional problem i.e., water flows in only
one direction and the resulting settlement also occur in one direction
only.
7. Soil particles are assumed to be incompressible i.e., all the settlement
is due to the expulsion of water.

3
 1-D Lab Consolidation
Lab
NSL Undisturbed soil
specimen

metal ring

Field
Porous Stones

Consolidometer / Oedometer
SOIL
Stopwatch

4
1-D Lab Consolidation
 Devised by Carl Terzaghi. Porous
 The apparatus is called Consolidometer / Stones
Oedometer
 Soil specimen placed inside a metal ring
 Two porous stones, one at the top and SOIL
other at the bottom of specimen
 Diameter of specimen = 50-75 mm (2”-3”)
 Diameter/Height: between 2.5 & 5
 Specimen kept submerged in water throughout the test
 Load is applied through a lever arm
 Each load is usually applied for 24hrs (or till deformations become
negligible)
 Each loading increment is usually double the previous load.
 After complete loading, unloading is done in steps.
5
CONSOLIDATION TEST
- Interpretation of Test Results -
Magnitude of settlement → compression index (Cc)
Rate of consolidation → co-efficient of consolidation (Cv)

1. Time ~ Deformation curve

i. Cv (Coefficient of consolidation) Porous
Stones
2. Pressure ~ Deformation curve
i. Cc (Compression index)
ii. Cr (Recompression index) SOIL
iii. aV (Coefficient of compressibility)
iv. mV (Coefficient of volume change)

6
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Deformation ~ Time Plot

Stage–I: Initial compression →

mainly due to preloading.

Stage–II: Primary Consolidation

→ due to dissipation of pore
water pressure (expulsion of
water)

Stage–III: Secondary
Consolidation → due to plastic
readjustment of soil fabric.

7
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Deformation ~ Time Plot
Used to determine Cv (coefficient
of consolidation)
 Rate of consolidation
 Consolidation Time

Methods of Determining Cv
1. Casagrande’s log-time
method (1938)
2. Taylor’s Square root of
time method (1948)

8
 DEFORMATION ~ TIME PLOT
Casagrande’s log-time method
Used to determine Cv (coefficient
of consolidation) R0 t1 t2=4t1 t50
U = 0%
 Rate of consolidation x
R1
 Consolidation Time
x
T H2  R2
CV   
 t  U = 50% R50 = (R0+R100)/2

t50: obtained from deformation ~ time plot

H = t/2 (for two-way drainage)
t = height of specimen
T = Time factor = 0.197 (for u=50%) R100 U = 100%

 T 50  H 2 
CV   
 t 50 
9
 DEFORMATION ~ TIME PLOT
Casagrande’s log-time method
 Plot specimen deformation against log-of-time
 R0 and R100 represent dial readings for zero percent
t1 t2=4t1 t50
(U0) and 100% (U100) degree of consolidation R0
U = 0%
respectively. x
R1
 For determining U100 x
 Draw two tangents to the bottom part of curve. R2
Intersection of these tangents represent U100.
 The corresponding abscissa represent t100. U = 50% R50 = (R0+R100)/2

 For determining U0
 Choose any two times t1 and t2, such that t2 = 4t1
 The corresponding dial readings are R1 and R2
 Mark off vertical distance between R1 & R2 (say ‘x’) U = 100%
R100
 R0 lies ‘x’ distance above R1.

 R50 represents 50% degree of consolidation (U50)

 R50 lies mid-way between R0 and R100.
 The time (t50) is used for determination of Cv.
10
 DEFORMATION ~ TIME PLOT
Taylor’s Square-root of Time Method
Uses t90 for computing Cv
Plot deformation ~ square root of time. U0
R0

 Project the straight line portion of

the initial part of curve backward to
zero time to define R0 or U0.

Deformation
 Draw a second line from R0 with
abscissa 1.15 times as large as the
corresponding values on the first
line.
 The intersection of the second line √t90
with the laboratory curve defines R90 U90
or U90.
 T90  H 2 
CV   
 90 
t
x
T90 = Time factor for 90% degree of time
consolidation (U90). 1.15x
T90 = 0.848
11
 DEFORMATION ~ TIME PLOT
Summary
Used for determining Cv
Cv is used for determining rate of consolidation, and
consolidation time.

Casagrande’s log-time fitting method

Determines Cv corresponding to U=50%.  T50  H 2 
CV   
Deformation ~ log-time plot  t50 

Taylor’s square root of time method

Determines Cv corresponding to U=90%.
 T90  H 2 
Deformation ~ square root of time plot CV   
 90 
t

Cv determined from √(time) method is often slightly

greater than the log-time method.
12
 1-D Lab Consolidation
Lab
NSL Undisturbed soil
specimen

metal ring

Field
Porous Stones

Consolidometer / Oedometer
SOIL
Stopwatch

2
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Interpretation of Test Results
Magnitude of settlement → compression index (Cc)
Rate of consolidation → co-efficient of consolidation (Cv)
T H2 
Time required for consolidation (Consolidation Time) → t   
 V 
C

1. Time ~ Deformation curve

i. Cv (Coefficient of consolidation) Porous
Stones
2. Pressure ~ Deformation curve
i. Cc (Compression index)
ii. Cr (Recompression index) SOIL
iii. aV (Coefficient of compressibility)
iv. mV (Coefficient of volume change)

3
 DEFORMATION ~ TIME PLOT 0

Summary
Used for determining Cv
Cv is used for determining rate of consolidation, and
consolidation time.

Casagrande’s log-time fitting method

Determines Cv corresponding to U=50%.
Deformation ~ log-time plot  T90  H 2 
CV   
 t90 
Taylor’s square root of time method
Determines Cv corresponding to U=90%.
Deformation ~ square root of time plot

Cv determined from √(time) method is often slightly

greater than the log-time method.
4
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Pressure ~ Deformation Curve
Pressure ~ Deformation curve
i. Cc (Compression index)
Porous
ii. Cr (Recompression index) Stones
iii. aV (Coefficient of compressibility)
iv. mV (Coefficient of volume change)
SOIL

Deformations plotted in terms of void ratio (e)

 Void ratio ~ pressure plot (e ~ p plot)
 Void ratio ~ log of pressure (e ~ log p plot)

5
 CONSOLIDATION TEST
Pressure ~ Deformation Curve
e

e
e
CC 
e p
aV  log 2
p1
p
e ~ p plot Δe e ~ log p
Δe plot
log (p2/p1)
Δp

p log p
Strain

aV = coefficient of compressibility
e
mV  Cc = compression index
e ~ p plot p
Δe mV = coefficient of volume change
Δp
aV
mV 
p 1 e
8
e ~ log p’ (e ~ log σv0’) PLOT
Recompression Curve
e

Cr
1
Virgin Compression Line
(VCL)

Cc

1 Cc: compression index

Cr: recompression index
(or swelling index)
Cr
1

Rebound Curve

log p’ (or log σV’)

9
PRE-CONSOLIDATION PRSSSURE
p’ = pre-consolidation pressure
e

Cr
maximum effective stress
1
experienced by soil in past.

Cc

Cr
1

σp’ log p’ (or log σV’)

10
STRESS HISTORY
Normally Consolidated Soil
If the present effective stress (σv0’) in the clay
is the greatest stress it has ever experienced in
its history.
i.e., pre-consolidation pressure (σp’) ≈ present
effective stress (σv0’)

(σp’) ≈  10% of (σv0’)

≈ σVO’
Today
1,000 years ago
5,000 years ago
10,000 years ago
30,000 years ago
80,000 years ago
CLAY
100,000 years ago
11
STRESS HISTORY
Over Consolidated Soil
If the present effective stress (σv0’) in the
clay is smaller than the effective stress
experienced in the past.
i.e., present effective stress (σv0’) < pre-
consolidation pressure (σp’)
18,000 years ago
σVO’

ICE AGE Today

5,000 years ago
20,000 years
15,000 years ago
ago
30,000 years ago
80,000 years ago
CLAY
100,000 years ago 12
 STRESS HISTORY
Over Consolidation Ratio (OCR)
σ'p
OCR 
σ' v0
σv0’= present effective overburden pressure
σp’= pre-consolidation pressure
(maximum pressure in past)

Normally consolidated soils → OCR = 1

Over-consolidated soils → OCR > 1
Under-consolidated soils → OCR < 1

- Under-consolidated soils are the ones which are undergoing consolidation settlement, i.e.
the consolidation is not yet complete and the equilibrium has not yet been reached under
the overburden load.
- Pore water pressure are in excess of hydrostatic pressure.
13
 Determination of Pre-Consolidation Pressure (σp’)
(Casagrande’s Method)
Steps:
1. Mark the point of maximum
e

curvature (point ‘A’).

A B
θ 2. Draw a horizontal line from
θ/2 ‘A’.
3. Draw a tangent to the curve
at point ‘A’.
θ/2 4. Bisect the angle ‘θ’.
5. Extend the straight line
portion of virgin
compression curve
backward.
6. The pressure corresponding
to point of intersection ‘B’ is
the pre-consolidation
σp' pressure (σp').
log p’ (or log σV’)
14
 Determination of Pre-Consolidation Pressure (σp’)
(Simplified Method)
Steps:
1. Draw two tangents to the
e

Most Probable Pre-

consolidation Pressure two straight parts of the
curve.
2. Their point of intersection
indicates the most probable
pre-consolidation pressure
( σ p ' ).

σp'
log p’ (or log σV’)
15
SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
Settlement in Field

GL 
H
GL
Saturated Clay
Saturated Clay
e = eo Ho
e = eo - e
Time = 0+ Time = 

H
Average vertical strain, εf =
Ho
16
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
Settlement in Lab (Consolidation Test)
Consider a soil element where Vs = 1 initially.

VV e
e Vv = eo
1

Time = 0+ Time = 

e
Average vertical strain, εL =
1  eo
17
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
Field Laboratory

For an undisturbed soil specimen.

εf = εL e
SC  H  H o 
1  eo
H e
 where,
H o 1  eo
SC = Consolidation settlement in the field
18
SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
Ways to estimate consolidation settlement:

(a) Using mv
 Consolidation settlement, Sc = mv .  . H
H aV
mV 
1 e

(b) Using e-log v’ plot

eo, vo’, Cc, Cr, p’, mv next slide
e
oedometer test settlement  S c  H
1  eo

19
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
CASE I: ’p < ’vo < ’vf
If the clay is normally consolidated, the entire loading path is along the VCL.
e
CC 
( vo '  )
log
 vo '
eo initial
 vo '  '
VCL e  Cc log
e Cc  vo '
1
final e
Sc  H
1  eo
’vf

 p’  Cc   vo '  ' 
S c  H   log 
vo’  1  eo   vo ' 
vf ’ = vo’+ ’
20
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
CASE II: ’vo < ’vf < ’p
If the clay is over-consolidated, and remained so by the end of consolidation.

e
Cr 
( vo '  )
log
 vo '
initial C
eo r
e 1 final  vo '  '
e  Cr log
 vo '
VCL e
Sc  H
1  eo
Cc ’vf
1
 C   '  ' 
vo’  p’ S c  H  r  log vo 
 1  eo   vo ' 
vf ’ = vo’+ 
21
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
CASE III: ’vo < ’p < ’vf
If the over-consolidated, soil becomes normally consolidated by the end of
consolidation. ’vf
 p'  vo ' '
initial e  Cr log  Cc log
eo Cr  vo '  p'
1
e
e Sc  H
1  eo
final
 Cr   p' 
Cc S c  H   log 
1  1  eo   vo ' 
VCL  Cc   '  ' 
 H   log vo 
vo’  p’   p ' 
 1  eo 
vf ’ = vo’+ 
22
 CONSOLIDATION – SUMMARY
 = ’ + u WS H  (GS   w  A)  WS
HS  e0 
T H2  GS   w  A WS
t   
 V 
C
V V H H
e
mV   CC 
 u 
2

T   ; for u  60%  
p
log 2
4  100  p1
T  1.781  0.933  log10 (100  u );
CC  0.009  ( LL  10) Cr  0.1  CC
for u  60%
Terzaghi & Peck (1948)

e
settlement  S c  H
For NCC 1  eo
 C   '  ' 
S c  H  c  log vo 
  If OCC is loaded beyond σp’
 1 eo  vo ' 
For OCC  C   p'   C   '  ' 
S c  H  r  log   H  c  log vo
 C   '  '   vo '    p ' 
S c  H  r  log vo   1  eo   1  eo 
 1  eo   vo ' 
23
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
Field Laboratory

For an undisturbed soil specimen.

εf = εL e
SC  H  H o 
1  eo
H e
 where,
H o 1  eo
SC = Consolidation settlement in the field
2
SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
Ways to estimate consolidation settlement:

(a) Using e-log v’ plot
next slide
 e
settlement  S c  H
1  eo
H

(b) Using mv
Consolidation settlement, Sc = mv .  . H
eo, vo’, Cc, Cr, p’, mv aV
Oedometer test mV 
1 e

3
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
CASE I: ’p ≈ ’vo < ’vf
If the clay is normally consolidated, the entire loading path is along the VCL.
e
CC 
( vo '  )
log
 vo '
eo initial
 vo '  '
VCL e  Cc log
e Cc  vo '
1
final e
Sc  H
1  eo
’vf

 p’  Cc   vo '  ' 
S c  H   log 
vo’  1  eo   vo ' 
vf ’ = vo’+ ’
4
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
CASE II: ’vo < ’vf < ’p
If the clay is over-consolidated, and remained so by the end of consolidation.

e
Cr 
( vo '  )
log
 vo '
initial C
eo r
e 1 final  vo '  '
e  Cr log
 vo '
VCL e
Sc  H
1  eo
Cc ’vf
1
 C   '  ' 
vo’  p’ S c  H  r  log vo 
 1  eo   vo ' 
vf ’ = vo’+ 
5
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
CASE III: ’vo < ’p < ’vf
If the over-consolidated, soil becomes normally consolidated by the end of
consolidation. ’vf
 p'  vo ' '
initial e  Cr log  Cc log
eo Cr  vo '  p'
1
e
e Sc  H
1  eo
final
 Cr   p' 
Cc S c  H   log 
1  1  eo   vo ' 
VCL  Cc   '  ' 
 H   log vo 
vo’  p’   p ' 
 1  eo 
vf ’ = vo’+ 
6
 CONSOLIDATION – SUMMARY
 = ’ + u WS H  (GS   w  A)  WS
HS  e0 
T H2  GS   w  A WS
t   
 V 
C
V V H H
e
mV   CC 
 u 
2

T   ; for u  60%  
p
log 2
4  100  p1
T  1.781  0.933  log10 (100  u );
CC  0.009  ( LL  10) Cr  0.1  CC
for u  60%
Terzaghi & Peck (1948)

e
settlement  S c  H
For NCC 1  eo
 C   '  ' 
S c  H  c  log vo 
  If OCC is loaded beyond σp’
 1 eo  vo ' 
For OCC  C   p'   C   '  ' 
S c  H  r  log   H  c  log vo
 C   '  '   vo '    p ' 
S c  H  r  log vo   1  eo   1  eo 
 1  eo   vo ' 
7
 CONSOLIDATION – SUMMARY
 = ’ + u WS H  (GS   w  A)  WS
HS  e0 
T H2  GS   w  A WS
t   
 V 
C
V V H H
e
mV   CC 
 u 
2

T   ; for u  60%  
p
log 2
4  100  p1
T  1.781  0.933  log10 (100  u );
CC  0.009  ( LL  10) Cr  0.1  CC
for u  60%
Terzaghi & Peck (1948)

e
settlement  S c  H
For NCC 1  eo
 C   '  ' 
S c  H  c  log vo 
  If OCC is loaded beyond σp’
 1 eo  vo ' 
For OCC  C   p'   C   '  ' 
S c  H  r  log   H  c  log vo
 C   '  '   vo '    p ' 
S c  H  r  log vo   1  eo   1  eo 
 1  eo   vo ' 
2
Practice Problem #1
A clay layer 10’ thick had initial void ratio 1.4 and LL = 60%. Find change
in thickness of clay layer if pressure is increased from 1 ton/ft2 to 1.52
ton/ft2.

Practice Problem #2
A consolidation test was performed on a sample with initial dimensions of H
= 20 mm and ring diameter = 63 mm. At the end of test, the sample height
was 13.3 mm and the oven dry weight of soil was 78.3 g. Assuming Gs =
2.66, find:
(i) The initial void ratio, eo
(ii) Final void ratio, ef
(iii) Total sample strain εf
3
Practice Problem #3
A saturated specimen of clay had undergone consolidation under a
pressure of 2 kg/cm2 in an oedometer test. Thickness of the specimen was
found to be 21.18 mm and its water content 12%. Subsequently with a
further increase in pressure 1 kg/cm2, the thickness of the specimen at the
end of 24 hours was reduced by 1.18 mm. From these data, compute the
coefficient of volume compressibility and compression index of the soil
assuming Gs = 2.7.

4
Practice Problem #4
At a certain depth below the foundation of a building there exists a clay layer of
thickness 10 m. Above and below the clay layer there are incompressible permeable
soils. In a consolidation test on the clay sample with drainage at top and bottom, a
sample with initial thickness 2.54 cm was compressed under a steady pressure. Half
of the final settlement took place in 10 minutes after the application of pressure.
Find how long it will take for the settlement of the building to reach 50% of its
ultimate value?
If the clay layer had drainage only from top, what would be the settlement time for
50% consolidation?

Practice Problem #5
A clay layer, whose total settlement under a given loading is expected to be 12 cm
settles 3 cm at the end of 1 month after the application of load increment. How
many months will be required to reach a settlement of 6 cm? How much settlement
will occur in 10 months? Assume the layer to have double drainage.

5
Practice Problem #6
How many days will be required by a clay stratum 5 m thick, draining at both
ends with an average value of coefficient of consolidation Cv = 40x10-4
cm2/sec to attain 50% of its ultimate settlement.

6
Practice Problem #7
Given:
When the total pressure acting at mid height of a consolidating clay layer is
200 kN/m2, the corresponding void ratio of the clay is 0.98. When the total
pressure acting at the same location is 500 kN/m2, the corresponding void
ratio decreases to 0.81.

Required:
The void ratio of the clay if the total pressure acting at mid height of the
consolidating clay layer is 1000 kN/m2.

7
Practice Problem #7

8
Practice Problem #8
A stratum of normally loaded clay of 7m thick is located at a depth of 12m
below ground level. The natural moisture content of the clay is 43% and
its liquid limit is 48%. The specific gravity of the solid particles is 2.76.
The water table is located at a depth of 5m below the ground surface. The
soil is sand above the clay stratum. The submerged unit weight of the sand
is 11 kN/m3 and the same weighs 18kN/m3 above the water table. The bulk
unit weight of the clay is 19.5 kN/m3. The average increase in pressure at
the center of the clay stratum is 120 kN/m2 due to the weight of a building
that will be constructed on the sand above the clay stratum. Estimate the
expected settlement of the structure.

9
Practice Problem #9

10
Practice Problem #8

11
 CONSOLIDATION – SUMMARY
 = ’ + u WS H  (GS   w  A)  WS
HS  e0 
T H2  GS   w  A WS
t   
 V 
C
V V H H
e
mV   CC 
 u 
2

T   ; for u  60%  
p
log 2
4  100  p1
T  1.781  0.933  log10 (100  u );
CC  0.009  ( LL  10) Cr  0.1  CC
for u  60%
Terzaghi & Peck (1948)

e
settlement  S c  H
For NCC 1  eo
 C   '  ' 
S c  H  c  log vo 
  If OCC is loaded beyond σp’
 1 eo  vo ' 
For OCC  C   p'   C   '  ' 
S c  H  r  log   H  c  log vo
 C   '  '   vo '    p ' 
S c  H  r  log vo   1  eo   1  eo 
 1  eo   vo ' 
2
Practice Problem #9

3
Practice Problem #8

4
REFERENCE MATERIAL
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering – (7th Edition)
Braja M. Das
Chapter #11

An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering (2nd Edition)

By R. D. Holtz, W. D. Kovacs and T. C. Sheahan
Chapter #8 & 9

CONCLUDED
5