Science and Engineering of Materials

7th Edition Askeland Solutions Manual

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 Chapter 9: Principles of Solidification

9-5 What is the difference between homogenous nucleation and heterogeneous

nucleation?
Solution:
Homogenous nucleation occurs when nuclei of the resulting phase have the same
probability of forming at every location. Heterogeneous nucleation of the resulting
phase occurs at certain preferred locations in the original phase. In practice,
homogenous nucleation does not occur. Heterogeneous nucleation commonly occurs at
the surfaces for molds of castings, surfaces of inclusions and/or induced by inoculation.

9-6 From the thermodynamic point of view, what two things must occur for solidification
from liquid to solid to proceed?
Solution:
Thermodynamically speaking, the first thing that must occur is the formation of a
critical-sized nucleus. At this critical size, there is an activation energy that must be
overcome. At the melting or freezing point, this activation energy will approach infinity.
Thus the second thing that must occur is an undercooling in the liquid that is to solidify.
A greater undercooling will lower the activation energy resulting in a greater tendency
to solidify.

9-9 Derive the formula for the change in total energy change (i.e. the derivative of ΔG with
respect to r) as a function of the radius r of the solid nucleus. Begin with Equation 9-1.
Numerically, how is the critical point at which solidification proceeds defined?
Solution:
This is a calculus problem. Starting with the equation:
4
∆ =   ∆ + 4 
3
Differentiating:
∆ 4   
= ∆   + 4   
 3  
∆ 4
= ∆ 3  + 4  2
 3
∆
= 4 ∆ + 8 

The critical point for solidification is when the radius reaches the critical radius. This is
also when ΔG reaches an inflection point, so:
∆
= 0;  > 0


9-10 Using Equation 9-2, prove that interfacial energy (σsl) has units of J/m2 in SI.
Solution:
Equation 9-2 is

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 2  
∗ =
∆ ∆
Solving for the interfacial energy:
 ∗ ∆ ∆
 =
2
In SI, the units are as follows:
Name SI units
Critical radius m
Freezing temperature K
Heat of fusion J/m3
Temperature difference K

Inserting these into the previous equation:

m J K 1
 = "  $ $
1 m 1 K
J
 =
m

9-11 Calculate the total interfacial surface energy for 1016 spheres of copper, each with a
radius of r*.
Solution:
Example 9-1 found the critical radius of copper to be 12.51 × 10-8 centimeters.
Calculating the total surface area of a single sphere:
& = 4 = 412.51 × 10*+ cm = 1.9110*/ cm
The total surface area for all spheres:
0 & = 10/1 1.9210*/ cm = 2310 cm
Using the interfacial energy from Table 9-1:
2410 cm 177710*8 J
5 = 35 mJ
1 1 cm

9-12 Of the ferrous elements, which has the lowest undercooling required for homogeneous
nucleation? Does this have any practical significance?
Solution:
Between iron and nickel, the lowest ΔT in Table 9-1 belongs to iron at 420 °C. This does
not have a great practical significance in itself because homogeneous nucleation is not
seen in industry or commerce. Heterogeneous nucleation is seen in production.

*With apologies, as written, this problem statement does not make sense. Perhaps it
should have been of the “ferromagnetic elements.”

9-13 If the total change in free energy of a molten metal being cooled is 5.34 × 10-17 J upon
formation of the first stable solid and the free energy per unit volume is -17.7 J/cm3,
approximate the radius of the spherical solid. The surface free energy of the solid-liquid
interface is 100 × 10-7 J/cm2.

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Solution:
This is a straightforward use of Equation 9-1, however making it explicit in r is difficult
algebraically. Instead a numerical solution using a spreadsheet’s goal seek function or
calculator’s SOLVE application is advised. The result will be 1.16 × 10-6 cm.

9-14 Using the densities in Appendix A, convert the heats of fusion in Table 9-1 from units
J/cm3 to kJ/kg.
Solution:
While doing the conversions, note that [kJ/kg] are the same as [J/g]
Element Heat of fusion (kJ/kg)
Ga 83
Bi 55
Pb 21
Ag 92
Cu 183
Ni 310
Fe 195

9-15 Assume that instead of a spherical nucleus, we have a nucleus in the form of a cube of
length x. Calculate the critical dimension x* of the cube necessary for nucleation. Write
an equation similar to Equation 9-1 for a cubical nucleus, and derive an expression for x*
similar to Equation 9-2.
Solution:

∆G = x 3∆Gv + 6x 2σ sl

∂G
= 3x 2 ∆Gv +12xσ sl = 0
∂x
∂G
= 3 ( x * ) ∆Gv +12x * σ sl = 0; x > 0
2

∂x x=x*

12 σ 4σ
x* = − = − sl
3∆Gv ∆Gv

Note that ∆Gv is negative such that x * is positive.

A similar treatment for Equation 9-1 for a spherical nucleus produces

∂G
= 4π ( r * ) ∆Gv + 8π r* σ sl = 0; r > 0
2

∂r r=r*

2 σ sl
r* = −
∆Gv

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 Comparison to Equation 9-2 shows that

∆H f ∆T
∆Gv = −
Tm
Thus,

4 σ sl 4 σ sl Tm
x* = − =
∆Gv ∆H f ∆T

9-16 Why is undercooling required for solidification? Derive an equation showing the total
free energy change as a function of undercooling when the nucleating solid has the
critical nucleus radius r*.

Solution: Undercooling is required for solidification because the energy to

create a new solid-liquid interface needs to be overcome for a solid
phase to begin forming. The undercooling below the melting
temperature is the driving force that overcomes this barrier.
From Equation 9–1,
∆G = (4/3) πr3 ∆Gv + 4πr2σsl,
where ∆G is the total change in free energy upon solidification, r is
the radius of spherical solid, ∆Gv is the free energy change per unit
volume for solidification, and σsl is the surface energy per unit area of
the solid–liquid interface. From Equation 9–2, the critical radius for
solidification r* is given by
r* = 2σslTm/(∆Hf∆T),
where Tm is the melting temperature, ∆Hf is the latent heat of fusion,
and ∆T is the undercooling. At r = r*,
∆G = (4/3)π [2σ slTm /(∆H f ∆T )]3 ∆Gv + 4π [2σ slTm /(∆H f ∆T )]2 σ sl
∆G = (32π /3)(σ sl3 Tm3 ∆Gv /∆H 3f )(1/∆T 3 ) + 16π (σ sl3 Tm2 /∆H 2f )(1/∆T 2 )

9-17 Why is it that nuclei seen experimentally are often sphere-like but faceted? Why are
they sphere-like and not like cubes or other shapes?
Solution:
Nuclei are sphere-like because spheres have the largest volume to surface area ratio.
Nuclei are faceted to favor crystallographic planes with low surface energies.

9-18 Explain the meaning of each term in Equation 9-2.

Solution:
∆H f is the latent heat of fusion per unit volume, Tm is the equilibrium solidification
temperature in kelvin, and ∆T is the undercooling when the liquid temperature is T.
The latent heat of fusion represents the heat given up during the liquid-to-solid
transformation. σ sl Is the surface energy per area of the solid–liquid interface.

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9-19 Suppose that liquid nickel is undercooled until homogeneous nucleation occurs.
Calculate (a) the critical radius of the nucleus required and (b) the number of nickel
atoms in the nucleus. Assume that the lattice parameter of the solid FCC nickel is 0.356
nm.
Solution: From Table 9–1, ∆Tmax = 480°C
(2)(255 ×10−7 J/cm 2 )(1453 + 273)
r* = = 6.65 ×10−8 cm
(2756 J/cm3 )(480)
ao = 3.56 Å V = 45.118 × 10–24 cm3
Vnucleus = (4π/3)(6.65 × 10–8 cm)3 = 1232 × 10–24 cm3
number of unit cells = 1232/45.118 = 27.3
atoms per nucleus = (4 atoms/cell)(27.3 cells) = 109 atoms

9-20 Suppose that liquid iron is undercooled until homogeneous nucleation occurs. Calculate
(a) the critical radius of the nucleus required and (b) the number of iron atoms in the
nucleus. Assume that the lattice parameter of the solid BCC iron is 2.92 Å.
Solution: (2)(204 ×10−7 J/cm 2 )(1538 + 273)
r* = 3
= 10.128 ×10−8 cm
(1737 J/cm )(420)
V = (4π/3)(10.128)3 = 4352 Å3 = 4352 × 10–24 cm3
Vuc = (2.92 Å)3 = 24.897 Å3 = 24.897 × 10–24 cm3
number of unit cells = 4352/24.897 = 175
atoms per nucleus = (175 cells)(2 atoms/cell) = 350 atoms

9-21 Suppose that solid nickel was able to nucleate homogeneously with an undercooling of
only 22°C. How many atoms would have to group together spontaneously for this to
occur? Assume that the lattice parameter of the solid FCC nickel is 0.356 nm.
Solution: (2)(255 ×10−7 J/cm 2 )(1453 + 273)
r* = 3
= 145.18 ×10−8 cm
(2756 J/cm )(22)
Vuc = 45.118 × 10–24 cm3 (see Problem 9–11)
Vnucleus = (4π/3)(145.18 × 10–8 cm)3 = 1.282 × 10–17 cm3
number of unit cells = 1.282 × 10–17 / (45.118 × 10–24) =
2.84 × 105
atoms per nucleus = (4 atoms/cells)(2.84 × 105 cells) =
1.136 × 106

9-22 Suppose that solid iron was able to nucleate homogeneously with an undercooling of
only 15°C. How many atoms would have to group together spontaneously for this to
occur? Assume that the lattice parameter of the solid BCC iron is 2.92 Å.
Solution: (2)(204 ×10−7 J/cm 2 )(1538 + 273)
r* = 3
= 283.6 ×10−8 cm
(1737 J/cm )(15)
Vuc = 24.897 × 10–24 cm3 (see Problem 9–12)
Vnucleus = (4π/3)(283.6 × 10–8 cm)3 = 95,544,850 × 10–24 cm3

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 number of unit cells = 95,544,850/24.897 = 3.838 × 106
atoms per nucleus = (2 atoms/cells)(3.838 × 106 cells) =
7.676 × 106

9-23 Explain the term inoculation.

Solution:

Inoculation is the addition of particles to the liquid to induce the nucleation of equiaxed
grains in a casting. The common inoculants are refractory elements with melting points
much higher than the liquid melt. The inoculants provide surfaces on which
heterogeneous nucleation of solid crystals may occur.

9-35 What is a dendrite and why do dendrites form during solidification?

Solution:
A dendrite is a “tree-like” formation of solid crystals from liquid. The primary dendrite
(main trunk) is due to a preferred growth of crystals in specific crystallographic
directions which occurs opposite the direction of heat extraction. From the main trunk,
branches (secondary dendrites) or dendritic arms form and grow also along preferred
directions into the liquid. For cubic crystals, the easiest growth path are along the <100>
directions.

9-36 Use the data in Table 9–1 and the specific heat data given below to calculate the
undercooling required to keep the dendritic fraction at 0.5 for each metal.

Metal Specific heat [J/(cm3–K)]

Bi 1.27
Pb 1.47
Cu 3.48
Ni 4.75

Solution: The dendritic fraction f is given by Equation 9–3:

f = c∆T/∆Hf,
where c is the specific heat, T is the temperature, and ∆Hf is the latent
heat of fusion.
For f = 0.5, the undercooling required is
∆T = 0.5 ∆Hf/c.
The results for the various metals are shown in the table.

Metal Heat of Fusion ∆Hf Specific heat c ∆T for f = 0.5 (K)

(J/cm3) [J/(cm3–K)]
Bi 543 1.27 213.8
Pb 237 1.47 80.6
Cu 1628 3.48 233.9
Ni 2756 4.75 290.1

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9-37 Calculate the fraction of solidification that occurs dendritically when silver nucleates (a)
at 10°C undercooling; (b) at 100°C undercooling; and (c) homogeneously. The specific
heat of silver is 3.25 J/(cm3·°C).
Solution: c∆T [3.25 J/cm3 ⋅°C](10°C)
(a) f = = = 0.0337
∆Hf 965 J/cm
c∆T [3.25 J/(cm 3 ⋅°C)](100°C)
(b) = = 0.337
∆H f 965 J/cm3
c∆T [3.25 J/(cm3 ⋅°C)](250°C)
(c) = = 0.842
∆H f 965 J/cm3

9-38 Calculate the fraction of solidification that occurs dendritically when iron nucleates (a)
at 10°C undercooling; (b) at 100°C undercooling; and (c) homogeneously. The specific
heat of iron is 5.78 J/(cm3 · °C).
Solution: c∆T [5.78 J/(cm3 ⋅ °C)](10°C)
(a) f = = = 0.0333
∆H f 1737 J/cm3
c∆T [5.78 J/(cm 3 ⋅°C)](100°C)
(b) = = 0.333
∆H f 1737 J/cm3
c∆T [5.78 J/(cm 3 ⋅°C)](420°C)
(c) = = 1.40
∆H f 1737 J/cm3
Therefore, essentially all of the solidification occurs dendritically.

9-39 Analysis of a nickel casting suggests that 28% of the solidification process occurred in a
dendritic manner. Calculate the temperature at which nucleation occurred. The specific
heat of nickel is 4.1 J/(cm3 · °C).
Solution: c∆T [4.1 J/(cm3 ⋅°C)]( ∆T )
f = = = 0.28
∆H f 2756 J/cm3
∆T = 188°C or Tn = 1453 − 188 = 1265°C

9-40 It is desired to increase the dendritic fraction from 0.012 to 0.025. Assuming that the
specific heat of the metal being solidified is constant, determine the increase in the
amount of undercooling required.
Solution:
Equation 9-3 is linear, so we can simply divide the two fractions to find the ratios of ΔT.
:∆
9=
∆
:∆
9 ∆
=
9/ :∆/
∆

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 9 ∆
=
9/ ∆/
0.025 ∆
= 2.1 =
0.012 ∆/
So, the undercooling is to be increased by a factor of 2.1. Note that this means the
temperature difference, not the actual temperature the metal is being undercooled to.

9-42 Find the mold constant B and exponent n in Chvorinov’s rule using the following data
and a log–log plot.

Solution: Chvorinov’s rule gives the solidification time ts as

n
V 
ts = B   ,
 A
where B is the mold constant, V is the volume of the casting, A is the
surface area of the casting in contact with the mold, and n is a constant.
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides,
ln (ts) = ln (B) + n ln (V/A)
The values of n and B can be found by plotting ln (ts) versus ln (V / A).
The volume and surface area of each shape is given in the table.

Shape Dimensions (cm) Volume (cm3) Area (cm2) Volume / Area (cm)
Cylinder Radius = 10, 9425 2513 3.75
Length = 30
Sphere Radius = 9 3054 1018 3
Cube Length = 6 216 216 1
Plate Length = 30, 600 1300 0.46
Width = 20,
Height = 1

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 From the graph, the slope n = 2.21 and ln (B) = 5.3407 such that B = 209 s/cm2.

9-43 A 2-in. cube solidifies in 4.6 min. Assume that n = 2. Calculate (a) the mold constant in
Chvorinov’s rule; and (b) the solidification time for a 0.5 in. × 0.5 in. × 6 in. bar cast
under the same conditions.
Solution: (a) We can find the volume and surface area of the cube:
V = (2)3 = 8 in.3 A = 6(2)2 = 24 in.2 t = 4.6 = B(8/24)2
B = 4.6/(0.333)2 = 41.48 min/in.2
(b) For the bar, assuming that B = 41.48 min/in.2:
V = (0.5)(0.5)(6) = 1.5 in.2
A = 2(0.5)(0.5) + 4(0.5)(6) = 12.5 in.2
t = (41.48)(1.5/12.5)2 = 0.60 min

9-44 A 5-cm diameter sphere solidifies in 1050 s. Calculate the solidification time for a 0.3 cm
× 10 cm × 20 cm plate cast under the same conditions. Assume that n = 2.
Solution:  (4π /3)(2.5)3 
2

t = 1050 s = B   = B[2.5/3]2 or B = 1512 s/cm 2

 4π (2.5) 
2

(1512)(0.3 ×10 × 20) 2

t= = 1512[60/418]2 = 31.15 s
[2(0.3)(10) + 2(0.3)(20) + 2(10)(20)] 2

9-45 Find the constants B and n in Chvorinov’s rule by plotting the following data on a log-log
plot:

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Solution: V (in.3) A (in.2) V/A (in.)
48 212 0.226
60 112 0.536
15.6 37.5 0.416
36 98 0.367
From the graph, we find that
B = 48 min/in.2 and n = 1.72

9-46 Find the constants B and n in Chvorinov’s rule by plotting the following data on a log-log
plot:

Solution: V (cm3) A (cm2) V/A (cm)

6 26 0.23
32 64 0.5
64 96 0.67
240 236 1.02
From the graph, we find that
B = 305 s/cm2 and n = 1.58

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9-47 A 3-in.-diameter casting was produced. The times required for the solid-liquid interface
to reach different distances beneath the casting surface were measured and are shown
in the following table:

Distance from surface d (in.) Time t (s) t

0.1 32.6 5.71
0.3 73.5 8.57
0.5 130.6 11.43
0.75 225.0 15.00
1.0 334.9 18.22
Determine (a) the time at which solidification begins at the surface and (b) the time at
which the entire casting is expected to be solid. (c) Suppose the center of the casting
actually solidified in 720 s. Explain why this time might differ from the time calculated in
part (b).
Solution: We could plot d versus t , as shown, finding tsurface from where the
plot intersects the x-axis and tcenter where the plot intersects d = 1.5
in. Or we could take two of the data points and solve for c and k.
d = k t −c
0.1 = k 32.6 − c
0.5 = k 130.6 − c
−0.4 = k[ 32.6 − 130.6] = −5.718 k
k = 0.070
c = 0.070 32.6 − 0.1 = 0.30

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 d = 0 = 0.070 t − 0.30
tsurface = (0.3/0.07)2 = 18.4 s
1.5 = 0.070 t − 0.3
tcenter = (1.8/0.07)2 = 661 s
The mold gets hot during the solidification process, and consequently
heat is extracted from the casting more slowly. This in turn changes the
constants in the equation and increases the time required for complete
solidification.

9-48 What solidification time is required for a casting of 9.5 cm3 and a mold contact area of
10.0 cm2? The mold constant is 838 s/cm2.01.
Solution:
This is an easy application of Chvorinov’s rule. The only curveball is that the exponential
constant must be read from the units of the mold constant.
> @
; = <= ?
&
.B/
s 9.5 cm
; = 838  
cm .B/ 10.0 cm
; = 756 s

9-49 An aluminum alloy plate with dimensions 20 cm × 10 cm × 2 cm needs to be cast with a

secondary dendrite arm spacing of 10–2 cm (refer to Figure 9–6). What mold constant B
is required (assume n = 2)?

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Solution: From Figure 9–6, for a secondary dendrite arm spacing of 0.01 cm, the
solidification time is 500 s. Chvorinov’s rule for solidification time
(Equation 9–4) is
ts = B(V/A)n,
where B is the mold constant, V is the volume of the casting, A is the
surface area of the casting in contact with the mold, and n is a
constant. In this case, the volume of the casting is
V = 20 × 10 × 2 = 400 cm3,
and the surface area of the casting is
A = 2 × 20 × 10 + 2 × 2 × 10 + 2 × 2 × 20 = 520 cm2.
Substituting into the equation above and taking n = 2,
ts = B(V/A)n
500 = B(400/520)2
B = 845 s/cm2.

9-50 Figure 9–5(b) shows a micrograph of an aluminum alloy. Estimate (a) the secondary
dendrite arm spacing and (b) the local solidification time for that area of the casting.

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Solution: The distance between adjacent dendrite arms can be measured.
Although most people doing these measurements will arrive at
slightly different numbers, the author’s calculations obtained from
four different primary arms are
16 mm / 6 arms = 2.67 mm
9 mm / 5 arms = 1.80 mm
13 mm / 7 arms = 1.85 mm
18 mm / 9 rms = 2.00 mm
average = 2.08 mm = 0.208 cm
Dividing by the magnification of ×50:
SDAS = 0.208 cm / 50 = 4.16 × 10–3 cm
From Figure 9–6, we find that the local solidification time (LST) =
90 s.

9-51 Find the constants k and m relating the secondary dendrite arm spacing to the local
solidification time by plotting the following data on a log-log plot:

Solution: The secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS) is given by

SDAS = ktsm ,
where k and m are constants and ts is the solidification time. Taking the
natural logarithm of both sides,
ln (SDAS) = ln (k) + m ln (ts).
The values of k and m can be found by plotting ln (SDAS) versus ln (ts).

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 From the graph, the slope m = 0.35 and ln (k) = –5.8013 such that k =
0.003 cm / s.

9-52 Figure 9–25 shows dendrites in a titanium powder particle that has been rapidly
solidified. Assuming that the size of the titanium dendrites is related to solidification
time by the same relationship as in aluminum, estimate the solidification time of the
powder particle.
Solution: The secondary dendrite arm spacing can be estimated from the
photomicrograph at several locations. The author’s calculations,
derived from measurements at three locations, are
11 mm / 8 arms = 1.375 mm
13 mm / 8 arms = 1.625 mm
13 mm / 8 arms = 1.625 mm
average = 1.540 mm
Dividing by the magnification of 2200:
SDAS = (1.540 mm)(0.1 cm/mm) / 2200 = 7 × 10–5 cm
The relationship between SDAS and solidification time for
aluminum is
SDAS = 8 × 10–4 t0.42 = 7 × 10–5
t = (0.0875)1/0.42 = 0.003 s

9-53 The secondary dendrite arm spacing in an electron-beam weld of copper is 9.5 × 10–4
cm. Estimate the solidification time of the weld.
Solution: From Figure 9–6, we can determine the equation relating SDAS and
solidification time for copper:
m = 20/50 = 0.4 k = 4 × 10–3 cm
Then for the copper weld:
9.5 × 10–4 = 4 × 10–3(LST)0.4
(Note: LST is local solidification time)
0.2375 = (LST)0.4 or –1.4376 = 0.4 ln LST
ln LST = –3.5940 or LST = 0.03 s

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9-54 A zinc alloy has a SDAS of 0.01 cm and m = 0.40. What is the solidification time?
Solution:
The m value is a distraction here. By referring to Figure 9-6, we directly read the
solidification time as being about 120 seconds.

9-55 In Figure 9-7, what is the equation (slope intercept form) of the tensile strength line,
and what SDAS would appear to give a tensile strength of zero if the line is
extrapolated? Does extrapolating the trend like this make sense?

Solution:
Since the graph is purely linear, we can easily take two points and find the equation of
the line. Points that land on a gridline can be more accurately read, such as (0.005 cm,
44 ksi) and (0.010 cm, 39.5 ksi) that both fall on vertical gridlines.
Taking the difference to find the slope:
∆D 39.5 ksi − 44 ksi ksi
3= = = −900
∆E 0.010 cm − 0.005 cm cm
Applying the slope to find the x-intercept:
∆D 39.5 ksi − E ksi
3= = = −900
∆E 0.010 cm − 0 cm
39.5 ksi − E ksi
= −900
0.010 cm cm

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 ksi E ksi
3950 − = −900
cm 0.010 cm cm
ksi E
4850 =
cm 0.010 cm
E = 48.5 ksi
Together:
ksi
D = =−900 ? E + 48.5 ksi
cm
Where x is in cm and y is in ksi.
To find out what SDAS (x) results in a strength of zero, we set y to zero and solve:
ksi
0 ksi = =−900 ? E + 48.5 ksi
cm
ksi
48.5 ksi = =900 ? E
cm
E = SDAS = 0.0539 cm
The tensile strength for the aluminum alloy will never be zero regardless of how large
the SDAS spacing is. Thus we see that extrapolation can be dangerous since trends
change. The curve will plateau at a value for which the SDAS becomes sufficiently large
that the presence of dendrites no longer causes strength to be increased relative to a
casting that solidified without dendrites.

9-60 In Figure 9-8, what do the slopes of the lines A-B and E-onward represent? Do these
quantities represent physical properties?

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Solution:
No. The slopes of these lines represent how fast the temperature is falling in the solid
and liquid phases respectively. They can be changed at will by increasing or decreasing
the rate of heat removal from the samples.

9-61 A cooling curve is shown in Figure 9–26. Determine (a) the pouring temperature; (b) the
solidification temperature; (c) the superheat; (d) the cooling rate, just before
solidification begins; (e) the total solidification time; (f) the local solidification time; and
(g) the probable identity of the metal. (h) If the cooling curve was obtained at the center
of the casting sketched in the figure, determine the mold constant, assuming that n = 2.

Solution: (a) Tpour = 475°C (e) ts = 470 s

(b) Tsol = 320°C (f) LST = 470 – 160 = 310 s
(c) ∆Ts = 475 – 320 = 155°C (g) Cadmium (Cd)
475 − 320 (h) ts = 470 = B[38.4/121.6]2
(d) ∆T /∆t = = 1.0°C/s B = 4713 s/cm2
160 − 0

9-62 A cooling curve is shown in Figure 9–27. Determine (a) the pouring temperature; (b) the
solidification temperature; (c) the superheat; (d) the cooling rate, just before
solidification begins; (e) the total solidification time; (f) the local solidification time; (g)
the undercooling; and (h) the probable identity of the metal. (i) If the cooling curve was
obtained at the center of the casting sketched in the figure, determine the mold
constant, assuming n = 2.

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Solution: (a) Tpour = 900°C (e) ts = 9.7 min
(b) Tsol = 420°C (f) LST = 9.7 – 2.5 = 7.2 min
(c) ∆Ts = 900 – 420 = 480°C (g) 420 – 360 = 60°C
900 − 400 (h) Zn
(d) ∆T /∆t = = 250°C/min
2−0

(i) ts = 9.7 = B[8/24]2 or B = 87.3 min/in.2

9-63 Figure 9–28 shows the cooling curves obtained from several locations within a
cylindrical aluminum casting. Determine the local solidification times and the SDAS at
each location, then plot the tensile strength versus distance from the casting surface.
Would you recommend that the casting be designed so that a large or small amount of
material must be machined from the surface during finishing? Explain.

Solution: The local solidification times can be found from the cooling curves and
can be used to find the expected SDAS values from Figure 9–6. The
SDAS values can then be used to find the tensile strength, using Figure

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 9–7.
Surface: LST = 10 s ⇒ SDAS = 1.5 × 10–3 cm ⇒ TS = 47 ksi
Mid-radius: LST = 100 s ⇒ SDAS = 5 × 10–3 cm ⇒ TS = 44 ksi
Center: LST = 500 s ⇒ SDAS = 10 × 10–3 cm ⇒ TS = 39.5 ksi
If high strength is desirable, you prefer to machine as little material off
the surface of the casting as possible; the surface material has the
finest structure and highest strength; any excessive machining simply
removes the “best” material.

9-70 Calculate the volume, diameter, and height of the cylindrical riser required to prevent
shrinkage in a 1 in. × 6 in. × 6 in. casting if the H/D of the riser is 1.0.

Solution: The riser should take longer to solidify than the casting:
tr > tc,
or
V  V 
B  > B  ,
 A r  A c
where tr is the solidification time for the riser, tc is the solidification
time for the casting, and ( VA )r and ( VA )c are the volume (V) to surface
area (A) ratios of the riser (r) and casting (c), respectively. The mold
constant B is the same for the riser and casting. ( VA )c is given by
V  1× 6 × 6 36
  = = ,
 A c 2 ×1× 6 + 2 ×1× 6 + 2 × 6 × 6 − π D 2 96 − π D 2
4 4
V 
and   is given by
 A r
π
D2 H
 
V 4
  =π ,
 A r D + π DH
2

4
where D is the diameter of the riser and H is its height. Note that the
riser area in contact with the casting is not included in either the riser
or casting surface area; no heat is lost across this interface. Since H /
D is 1.0,

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 V  D
  = .
 A r 5
Thus,
 
D  36 
> ,
5  96 − π D 2 
 4 
and solving for D,
D > 1.93 in.
For this minimum diameter, the minimum height is 1.93 in., and the
minimum volume is
π
Vr = (1.93 in.) 2 × (1.93 in.) = 5.7 in.3
4

9-71 Calculate the volume, diameter, and height of the cylindrical riser required to prevent
shrinkage in a 4 in. × 10 in. × 20 in. casting if the H/D of the riser is 1.5.
Solution: The riser should take longer to solidify than the casting:
tr > tc,
or
V  V 
B  > B  ,
 A r  A c
where tr is the solidification time for the riser, tc is the solidification time
for the casting, and ( VA )r and ( VA )c are the volume (V) to surface area
(A) ratios of the riser (r) and casting (c), respectively. The mold constant
B is the same for the riser and casting. ( VA )c is given by
V  4 ×10 × 20 800
  = =
 A c 2 × 4 ×10 + 2 × 4 × 20 + 2 ×10 × 20 − π D 2 640 − π D 2
4 4
V 
and   is given by
 A r
π
D2 H
V  4
 = π ,
 
A D + π DH
2

4
where D is the diameter of the riser and H is its height. Note that the
riser area in contact with the casting is not included in either the riser or
casting surface area; no heat is lost across this interface. Since H / D is
1.5,
 V  3D
  = .
 A r 14
Thus,

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 3D 800
> .
14 640 − π D 2
4
Therefore, solving for D,
D > 6.11 in.
For this minimum diameter, the minimum height is 9.17 in., and the
minimum volume is
π
Vr = (6.11 in.) 2 × (9.17 in.) = 269 in.3
4

9-72 Figure 9–29 shows a cylindrical riser attached to a casting. Compare the solidification
times for each casting section and the riser and determine whether the riser will be
effective.

Solution: (8)(6)(3)
(V /A) thin = = 0.889
(3)(6) + 2(3)(8) + 2(6)(8)
(6)(6)(6)
(V /A) thick = = 1.13
(6)(3) + 5(6)(6) − (π /4)(3) 2
(π /4)(3)2 (7)
(V /A) riser = = 0.68
π (3)(7) + (π /4)(3)2
Note that the riser area in contact with the casting is not included in
either the riser or casting surface area; no heat is lost across this
interface. In a like manner, the area of contact between the thick and
thin portions of the casting are not included in the calculation of the
casting area.
The riser will not be effective; the thick section of the casting has the
largest V/A ratio and therefore requires the longest solidification
time. Consequently the riser will be completely solid before the thick
section is solidified; no liquid metal will be available to compensate
for the solidification shrinkage.

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9-73 Figure 9–30 shows a cylindrical riser attached to a casting. Compare the solidification
times for each casting section and the riser and determine whether the riser will be
effective.

Solution: (4)(4)(4)
(V /A) thick = = 0.73
5(4)(4) + 1(2)(4)
(2)(2)(4)
(V /A) thin = = 0.50
3(2)(4) + 2(2)(2)
(π /4)(42 )(8)
(V /A) riser = = 0.8
π (4)(8) + 2(π /4)4 2
The area between the thick and thin sections of the casting are not
included in calculating casting area; no heat is lost across this
interface.
The riser will not be effective; the thin section has the smallest V/A
ratio and therefore freezes first. Even though the riser has the longest
solidification time, the thin section isolates the thick section from the
riser, preventing liquid metal from feeding from the riser to the thick
section. Shrinkage will occur in the thick section.

9-74 A hollow cylindrical mold for casting aluminum ingots has a 300 mm inside diameter and
is 2 m high. If the mold is filled with liquid aluminum at 935 K, what is the largest
spherical cavity that may form in the ingot?
Solution:
Since aluminum has 7% volume shrinkage, if the top of the ingot freezes first before the
entire ingot solidifies, there will be a cavity within the ingot. The largest cavity forms
when the entire shrinkage volume is converted to one cavity, which we shall assume to
be spherical.
L L
Volume of initial liquid = M D2H = M (0.3)2(2) = 0.1414 m3
Shrinkage volume = 0.1414 (0.07) = 0.009896 m3
Assuming a spherical cavity:
M
0.009896 m3 =  πr3 ; we find that r = 0.1332 m or 13.32 cm, so the diameter of the
cavity would be 26.64 cm.
If we assume that the solidification process proceeds from the bottom up with no
cavities formed within the ingot, the top of the ingot will be lower than the inside height
of the ingot mold. Assuming the outside diameter of the ingot to be the same as the

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 inside diameter of the ingot mold, the height of the ingot produced would be 93% (100
– 7% from shrinkage) of the mold height.
Ingot height = 0.93 (2 m mold height) = 1.86 m Diameter of the ingot = 0.3 m

9-75 A 4-in.-diameter sphere of liquid copper is allowed to solidify, producing a spherical

shrinkage cavity at the center of the casting. Compare the volume and diameter of the
shrinkage cavity in the copper casting to that obtained when a 4-in. sphere of liquid iron
is allowed to solidify.
Solution: Cu: 5.1% Fe: 3.4% rsphere = 4/2 = 2 in.
Cu: Vshrinkage = (4π/3)(2)3 (0.051) = 1.709 in.3
(4π/3)r3 = 1.709 in.3 or r = 0.742 in. dcavity = 1.48 in.
Fe: Vshrinkage = (4π/3)(2)3 (0.034) = 1.139 in.3
(4π/3)r3 = 1.139 in.3 or r = 0.648 in.
dcavity = 1.30 in.

9-76 A 4-in. cube of a liquid metal is allowed to solidify. A spherical shrinkage cavity with a
diameter of 1.49 in. is observed in the solid casting. Determine the percent volume
change that must have occurred during solidification.
Solution: Vliquid = (4 in.)3 = 64 in.3
Vshrinkage = (4π/3)(1.49/2)3 = 1.732 in.3
Vsolid = 64 – 1.732 = 62.268 in.3
64 − 62.268
% volume change = × 100 = 2.7%
64

9-77 A 2 cm × 4 cm × 6 cm magnesium casting is produced. After cooling to room

temperature, the casting is found to weigh 80 g. Determine (a) the volume of the
shrinkage cavity at the center of the casting and (b) the percent shrinkage that must
have occurred during solidification.
Solution: The density of magnesium is 1.738 g/cm3.
(a) Vinitial = (2)(4)(6) = 48 cm3
Vfinal = 80 g/(1.738 g/cm3) = 46.03 cm3
48 − 46.03
(b) % shrinkage = × 100% = 4.1%
48

9-78 A 2 in. × 8 in. × 10 in. iron casting is produced and, after cooling to room temperature, is
found to weigh 43.9 lb. Determine (a) the percent shrinkage that must have occurred
during solidification and (b) the number of shrinkage pores in the casting if all of the
shrinkage occurs as pores with a diameter of 0.05 in.
Solution: The density of the iron is 7.87 g/cm3
(43.9 lb)(454 g/lb)
Vactual = 3
= 2532.5 cm3
7.87 g/cm
Vintended = (2)(8)(10) = 160 in.3 × (2.54 cm/in)3 = 2621.9 cm3
2621.9 − 2532.5
shrinkage = × 100% = 3.4%
2621.9
Vpores = 2621.9 – 2532.5 = 89.4 cm3

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 rpores = (0.05 in./2)(2.54 cm/in.) = 0.0635 cm
89.4 cm3
# pores = = 83,354 pores
(4π /3)(0.0635 cm)3

9-79 If you cool an open vessel of liquid gallium until a thin solid “cake” forms, will the cake
form on the top or the bottom? Assume the air above the liquid gallium is stagnant and
does not cool the surface at all.
Solution:
The cake will float on top. Table 9-2 shows that gallium expands when it solidifies. This
means that a given volume of solid gallium is lighter than the same volume of liquid
gallium. In other words, it is less dense.

9-80 Give examples of materials that expand upon solidification.

Solution:
From Table 9-2, gallium, gray cast iron and water.

9-81 What is Sievert’s Law? How can gas porosity in molten alloys be removed or minimized?
Solution:
Sievert’s Law expresses the solubility of gases in liquid metals as a function of the partial
pressure of the gas over the liquid. In vacuum degassing of the melt, the partial pressure
of the dissolved gas over the melt is reduced and therefore the concentration of the gas
in the liquid is reduced.

9-83 Liquid magnesium is poured into a 2 cm × 2 cm × 24 cm mold and, as a result of

directional solidification, all of the solidification shrinkage occurs along the 24-cm length
of the casting. Determine the length of the casting immediately after solidification is
completed.

Solution: Vinitial = (2)(2)(24) = 96 cm3

% contraction = 4 or 0.04 × 96 = 3.84 cm3
Vfinal = 96 – 3.84 = 92.16 cm3 = (2)(2)(L)
Length (L) = 23.04 cm

9-84 A liquid cast iron has a density of 7.65 g/cm3. Immediately after solidification, the
density of the solid cast iron is found to be 7.71 g/cm3. Determine the percent volume
change that occurs during solidification. Does the cast iron expand or contract during
solidification?
Solution:
1/7.71−1/7.65 0.1297 cm 3 − 0.1307 cm 3
×100% = ×100% = −0.78%
1/7.65 0.1307 cm3
The casting contracts.

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9-85 Molten copper at atmospheric pressure contains 0.01 wt% oxygen. The molten copper is
placed in a chamber that is pumped down to 1 Pa to remove gas from the melt prior to
pouring into the mold. Calculate the oxygen content of the copper melt after it is
subjected to this degassing treatment.
Solution: According to Sievert’s law, the amount of gas that can be dissolved in
a molten metal is given by
Percent of gas = K pgas ,
where K is a constant for a particular metal-gas system at constant
temperature and pgas is the partial pressure of the gas in contact with
the metal. Taking the ratio of the oxygen concentrations,
%O atm K patm patm
= = .
%O1 Pa K p1 Pa p1 Pa
Solving for the oxygen content at 1 Pa,
p1 Pa
%O1 Pa = %Oatm .
patm
Recalling that 1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa,
1
%O1 Pa = 0.01 = 3.14 ×10−5 wt% oxygen .
1.013 ×105

9-86 From Figure 9–14, find the solubility of hydrogen in liquid aluminum just before
solidification begins when the partial pressure of hydrogen is 1 atm. Determine the
solubility of hydrogen (in cm3/100 g Al) at the same temperature if the partial pressure
were reduced to 0.01 atm.

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Solution: 0.46 cm3 H2/100 g aluminum
1
0.46/x =
0.01
x = 0.46 0.01 = 0.046 cm 3 /100 g Al

9-87 The solubility of hydrogen in liquid aluminum at 715°C is found to be 1 cm3/(100 g Al). If
all of this hydrogen precipitated as gas bubbles during solidification and remained
trapped in the casting, calculate the volume percent gas in the solid aluminum.
Solution: (1 cm3 H2/100 g Al)(2.699 g/cm3) = 0.02699 cm3 H2/cm3 Al
= 2.699%

9-88 Review Example 9-7. The usual method of measuring a vacuum in the United States
vacuum pump industry is in inches of mercury. For example, atmospheric pressure is
29.92 inches of mercury. Covert the pressure found in the example to in. Hg.
Solution:
The pressure required is 10-6 atm. An atmosphere conversion factor is given, so:
10*1 atm 29.92 in. Hg
N= 5 = 0.00002992 in. Hg
1 1 atm
Note that the method usually used in industry is more confusing: A perfect vacuum is
29.92 in. Hg and atmospheric pressure is zero. This is the absolute value of the reading
of a vacuum gage.

9-98 Why has continuous casting of steels and other alloys assumed increased importance?
Solution:
The advantages of the continuous casting process are 1) more uniform composition and
less segregation across the section of the ingot, 2) produces higher yield (less cropping)
in primary shapes, 3) the shapes may be immediately deformed after casting with
minimal reheating of the slabs, blooms or billets to form other desired shapes and 4),
saves energy cost and increases productivity.

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 224
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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 GENERAL CATARRHAL STOMATITIS.
BUCCAL INFLAMMATION.
Mature animals most subject: Causes in horse, mechanical, chemical, microbian
irritants—alkalies, acids, caustics, hot mashes, ferments, fungi, rank grasses,
excess of chlorophyll, clover, alfalfa, acrid vegetables, bacterial infection secondary,
acrid insects in food; symptomatic of gastritis, pharyngitis, diseased teeth, specific
fevers. Symptoms: Congestion and tumefaction of buccal mucosa, lips and salivary
glands; Epithelial desquamation; fœtor; salivation; froth; papules; vesicles.
Prognosis. Treatment: Cool soft food; antiseptics; wet applications to skin;
derivatives.
This is much more common in the adult than in suckling domestic
animals. None of the domestic mammals or birds can be considered
immune from it, but as its causes and manifestations differ
somewhat it seems well to consider it separately in the different
genera.
 GENERAL CATARRHAL STOMATITIS IN
SOLIPEDS.

Causes. These may be classed as mechanical, chemical, microbian

and other irritants. In the horse it is often due to the reckless
administration of irritant liquids as remedies. Owing to the length of
the soft palate the horse can refuse to swallow any liquid as long as
he chooses, and some of the worst cases of stomatitis I have seen
resulted from the retention in the mouth of caustic alkaline liquids
given under the name of “weak lye.” Strong acids and caustic salts
dissolved in too little water or other excipient, or suspended in
liquids in which they cannot dissolve, or made into boluses which are
crushed between the teeth are not infrequent conditions. Too hot
mashes given to a hungry horse is another cause of this trouble.
Fermented or decomposed food is often most irritating. Coachmen
will sometimes induce it by attaching to the bit bags of spicy or
irritant agents, to cause frothing and make the animal appear
spirited.
Fungi in fodders are among the common causes. The rust of wheat
(puccinia graminis), the caries of wheat (tilletia caries), the blight
(erysiphe communis), ergot (claviceps purpurea), the fungus of rape
(polydesmus excitiosus) and the moulds (penicillium and puccinia)
have all been noticed to coincide with stomatitis, and charged with
producing it. On the other hand, at given times, one or other of these
cryptogams has been present extensively in the fodder without any
visible resultant stomatitis. The apparent paradox may be explained
by the fact that these fungi vary greatly in the irritant or harmless
nature of their products according to the conditions under which
they have grown, and the stage of their development at which they
were secured and preserved. Ergot notoriously differs in strength in
different years, on different soils, under various degrees of sunshine,
shade, cloud, fog, etc. In different States in the Mississippi valley it is
not uncommon to find stomatitis in horses in winter, fed on ergoted
hay, while cattle devouring the same fodder have dry gangrene of
feet, tail and ears. Yet in other seasons the ergot fails to produce
these lesions. Rank grown, watery vegetation, especially if it contains
an excess of chlorophyll is liable to cause stomatitis. Red and white
clover, trefoil, hybrid and purple clover, and alfalfa have all acted
more or less in this way, though in many cases, the food has become
musty or attacked by bacterial ferments. Some of the strongly
aromatic plants, and those containing acrid principles (cicuta virosa,
œnanthe crocata, mustard, etc.) cause buccal inflammation and
salivation.
The irritation in many such cases is not due to one agent only, the
vegetable or other irritant may be the starting point, acting but as a
temporary irritant, the action of which is supplemented and
aggravated by the subsequent attacks of bacterial ferments on the
inflamed, weakened or abraded tissues. The bacteria present in the
mouth, food or water would have had no effect whatever upon the
healthy mucosa, while they make serious inroads on the diseased. On
the other hand the vegetable, mechanical or chemical irritant would
have had but a transient effect, but for the supplementary action of
the bacteria.
In horses that have the bad habit of retaining masses of half
masticated food in the cheeks the growth of cryptogams is greatly
enhanced and such food often becomes violently irritating.
Among other mechanical causes may be named pointed or barbed
hairs or spines (barley awns, spikes, thorns, etc.) which, lodging in a
gland orifice, or in a wound of the gum or mucosa, form a source of
irritation or a centre for bacterial growth and abscess.
Again, irritants of animal origin must be named. These are not
taken by choice, but when lodged in fodder, or in the pastures they
are taken in inadvertently with the food. In this way poisonous
insects, and especially hairy caterpillars, cantharides, potato bugs,
etc., gain access to the mouth.
It must not be overlooked that stomatitis occurs as an extension,
sympathetic affection or sequel of diseases of other organs. Gastritis
is usually attended by redness and congestive tenderness of the
tongue, especially of the tip and margins, and other parts of the
buccal mucosa, notably the palate just back of the incisors, are often
involved. In other cases it appears as a complication of pharyngitis,
laryngitis, of affections of the lower air passages, of the teeth and
periodontal membrane or of the salivary glands.
It appears also in a specific form in certain fevers, as in horsepox,
pustulous stomatitis, aphthous fever and even in strangles. Mercurial
stomatitis, rarely seen at the present time, is one of the worst forms
of the disease, and like the infectious forms will be treated
separately.
Lesions and Symptoms. At the outset and in the slighter forms of
congestion there is merely heat and dryness of the buccal mucosa.
Redness may show on the thinner and more delicate portions of the
membrane, as under the tongue, on the frænum, and on the
sublingual crest. But elsewhere it is hidden by the thickness of the
epithelium, and the manifestations are merely those of suppressed
secretion with local hyperthermia.
As the congestion is increased there is seen, even at this early
stage, a slight thickening or tumefaction of the mucosa, especially on
the gums, lips, the sublingual area, the orifices of the salivary glands,
and the palate back of the upper incisors. On the dorsum of the
tongue, the cheeks and lips, generally the lack of loose connective
tissue tends to prevent the swelling.
With the advance of the inflammation the redness of the mucosa
extends, at first in points and circumscribed patches, and later over
the entire surface. The epithelium drying and degenerating in its
surface layers forms with the mucus a sticky gummy film on the
surface, which, mingling with decomposing alimentary matters gives
out a heavy, offensive or even fœtid odor.
The different parts of the mouth are now tender to the touch, and
this, with the fœtor and even bitterness of the bacterial products
combine with the general systemic disturbance in impairing or
abolishing appetite. In any case mastication becomes slow and
infrequent, and morsels of food are the more likely to be retained, to
aggravate the local condition by their decomposition.
The dry stage is followed by the period of hypersecretion, and in
this the salivary glands take a prominent part, so that ptyalism
(slobbering) becomes the most marked feature of the disease. The
saliva mixed with the increasing secretion of mucus and the
abundance of proliferating and shedding epithelium, escapes from
the lips and falls in stringy masses in the manger and front of the
stall. When there is much motion of the jaws and tongue it
accumulates as a froth around the lips.
A careful examination of the mucosa will sometimes detect slight
conical elevations with red areolæ, representing the tumefied orifices
of the obstructed mucous follicles, and later these may show as
minute erosions. Even vesicles have been noticed (Weber,
Dieckerhoff, Kosters), but when these are present one should
carefully exclude the specific stomatites such as horsepox, contagious
pustular stomatitis, aphthous fever, etc.
Erosions of the mucosa and desquamation of the epithelium have
been noticed in horses fed on purple (hybrid) clover, buckwheat or
ergot, and in some of these cases the inflammation has extended (in
white faces especially) to the skin of the face, the mucosa of the nose,
and the adjacent glands, and as complications icterus, constipation,
colics, polyuria, albuminuria and paresis of the hind limbs have been
observed. These latter are common symptoms of cryptogamic
poisoning.
Prognosis. In uncomplicated cases the disease is not a grave one,
lasting only during the continued application of the local irritant, and
recovering more or less speedily when that has been removed.
Complications are dangerous only when due to some specific disease
poison (glanders, actinomycosis, strangles, etc.), and even poisoning
by the usual cryptogams of leafy or musty plants is rarely persistent
in its effects.
Treatment. This resolves itself into the removal of the irritant
cause and the soothing of the irritation. When the cause has been
definitely ascertained the first step is easy.
In the direction of soothing treatment, a careful selection of diet
stands first. Fibrous hay and even hard oats, barley or corn may have
to be withheld, and green food, or better still, bran mashes, gruels,
pulped roots or fruits allowed. Scalded hay or oats, ensilage, sliced
roots, or ground feed may often be taken readily when the same
aliments in their natural condition would be rejected or eaten
sparingly.
 Medicinal treatment may often be given in the drinking water
which should always be allowed in abundance, pure and clean. In the
way of medication chlorate of potash, not to exceed one-half to one
ounce per day according to the size of the animal, may be added,
together with an antiseptic (carbolic acid, borax, permanganate of
potash, common salt, naphthol, creolin, hyposulphite of soda). In
case of severe swelling, a cap made to fit the head with strips wet in
alum and vinegar or other astringent solution maintained against the
intermaxillary space may be desirable. Support for the tongue may
be necessary as mentioned under glossitis.
In case of complications on the side of the bowels, liver or kidneys,
laxatives, diuretics and antiseptic agents may be called for.
 GENERAL CATARRHAL STOMATITIS IN
CATTLE.
Dense resistant mucosa protective: Affection usually circumscribed. Action of
violent irritants, and toxins of specific fevers. Mechanical irritants. Symptoms:
Salivation; congestion; eruptions; erosions; ergot; acrid vegetables; caustics.
Treatment: Astringents; antiseptics; refrigerants; derivatives; tonics. Removal of
foreign bodies. Lesions and symptoms in sheep.
The mouth of the ox as Cadeae well says has a cuticular epithelium
too thick and resistant to be easily attacked by microbes. It follows
that infected inflammations are far more frequently circumscribed
than in the thinner and softer buccal mucosa of the horse. The more
general buccal inflammations come more particularly from the use of
food that is too hot or that contains strongly irritant agents. The
thickness of the buccal epithelium however, is no barrier to the local
action of poisons operating from within as in rinderpest, or aphthous
fever, or in malignant catarrh, nor is it an insuperable barrier to the
local planting of the germs of cow pox, anthrax, actinomycosis, or
cryptogamic aphtha (muguet). The wounds inflicted by fibrous food
make infection atria for such germs, hence the great liability to such
local inflammations, in winter when the animals are on dry feeding.
For the same reason, perhaps, the prominent portions of the buccal
mucosa,—the papillæ—are sometimes irritated themselves while
serving as protectors for the general mucous surface, and hence they
become specially involved in inflammation, which constituted the
“barbs” of the old farriers. Utz records a buccal inflammation
occurring in herds fed on green trefoil, first cutting, showing that
even in cattle this agent may determine a general stomatitis.
Symptoms. These do not differ from those of the horse, and
resemble, though often in a milder form, the buccal manifestations of
aphthous fever. There is the difficulty of mastication and
indisposition to take in fibrous aliment, the drivelling of saliva from
the mouth, or its accumulation in froth around the lips, the frequent
movement of the tongue and jaws, and the congestive redness,
papular eruption, vesication, or even erosion of the affected mucous
membrane. It is always necessary to guard against confounding the
simple stomatitis, and the slighter infected inflammations, from the
more violent infections above referred to. The special diagnostic
symptoms must be found under the respective headings. The
aphthous fever is not to be expected in American herds, but the
stomatitis which is associated with ergot in the food is met more
particularly in winter and spring, and must not be confounded with
the specific disease, on the one hand nor with the simpler forms of
buccal inflammation on the other. In the case of ergoted fodder the
signs of ergotism in other situations will be found, in the affected
animals, such for example as necrotic sloughs and sores around the
top of the hoof, sloughing of the hoof or of one or more digits, or of
the metatarsus, of the tip of the tail or ear; abortions, convulsions,
delirium, lethargy or paralysis. If not seen in the same animals some
of these forms may be observed in other members of the herd. Then
the buccal lesions are in themselves characteristic: soft, whitish,
raised patches of the epithelium (rarely blisters) are followed by
desquamation and exposure of the red, vascular surface beneath, and
this tends to persist if the ergoted fodder is persisted in.
Treatment. Simple stomatitis of the ox generally tends to
spontaneous and early recovery. The simplest astringent and
antiseptic treatment is usually sufficient to bring about a healthy
action. Borax given in the drinking water, not to exceed four ounces
per day, or the same amount mixed with syrup or honey and
smeared occasionally on the tongue, or hyposulphite or sulphite of
soda, or weak solutions of carbolic acid will usually suffice, after the
irritant cause has been removed. Vinegar, or highly diluted mineral
acids may be used but are somewhat hurtful to the teeth. Decoctions
of blackberry bark or solutions of other vegetable astringents may be
used as alternatives. When there is evidence of irritant matters in the
stomach or bowels, a saline laxative will be advisable to be followed
by vegetable bitters or other tonics. Thorns and other foreign bodies
imbedded in the tongue or other part of the mouth must be
discovered and removed.
 CATARRHAL STOMATITIS IN SHEEP.
The more delicate buccal mucosa in these animals would render
them more subject to inflammations, but this is more than
counterbalanced by the mode of prehension of aliments, not by the
tongue, but by the delicately sensitive lips, and further by the
daintiness and care with which these animals select their food. The
treatment would not differ materially from that prescribed for the
ox.
 GENERAL CATARRHAL STOMATITIS IN
DOGS.
Causes: burns; spiced food; bones; sepsis; ferments; pin caterpillar; dental and
gastric troubles. Symptoms: careful prehension and mastication; congestion;
swelling; eruption; erosion; furred tongue; stringy salivation; fœtor; swelling of
lips, cheeks, intermaxillary space, and pharynx. Treatment: demulcent foods;
antiseptics; derivatives; tonics; care of teeth and gums.
Causes. Hot food is a common cause in hungry dogs. Spiced food
in house dogs fed scraps from the table tend to congestion of mouth
and stomach alike. Irritation through wounds with bones, especially
in old dogs with failing teeth, and in exceptional cases the impaction
of a bone between the right and left upper molars are additional
causes. Putrid meat must also be recognized as a factor, the septic
microbes seizing upon the wounds and spreading from this as an
infecting centre. Lactic acid and other irritant products developed
through fermentation of particles of food retained about the gums
and cheeks soften the epithelium and irritate the sub-epithelial
tissue, causing congestion. Megnin draws attention to the fact that
the pin caterpillar (bombyx pinivora) found on the stalks of couch
grass (Triticum repeus) produces buccal irritation when chewed and
swallowed to induce vomiting. As in other animals more or less
buccal congestion attends on gastric congestion and inflammation.
Dental troubles are often sufficient causes.
Symptoms. The animal becomes dainty with regard to his food,
picking up the smaller or softer pieces and rejecting the larger or
harder. Mastication is painful and selection is made of moist or soft
articles which can be swallowed without chewing or insalivation. The
mouth is red and hot, and at times the mucous membrane eroded, or
blistered, the lesions concentrating especially on the gums and
around the borders of the tongue. The dorsum of the tongue is
furred, whitish, yellowish or brownish. Saliva collects in the mouth
and escapes in filmy strings from its commissures, and the odor of
the mouth becomes increasingly foul. Swelling of the lips, cheeks or
intermaxillary space marks the worst cases.
 Treatment. Withdraw all irritant and offensive aliments. Give
soups, mushes, scraped or pounded lean meat in small quantities,
washing out the mouth after each meal with a 20 per cent. solution of
permanganate of potash or borax or a two per cent. solution of
carbolic acid. Cadeac advises against chlorate of potash on account of
its known tendency to bring about hæmoglobinæmia in dogs. A
laxative and bitters may be called for in case of gastritis or
indigestion, and any morbid condition of the teeth must be attended
to. Decayed teeth may be removed. Tartar especially must be cleaned
off by the aid of a small wooden or even a steel spud and a hard
brush with chalk will be useful. A weak solution of hydrochloric acid
is usually employed to loosen the tartar, but this is injurious to the
structure of the teeth and had best be avoided if possible. Tincture of
myrrh is especially valuable both as a gum-tonic and as a deodorant
and antiseptic. This may be rubbed on the irritated gums as often as
the mouth is washed.
 GENERAL CATARRHAL STOMATITIS IN
SWINE.

Causes: Irritants; ferments; noose on jaw; specific poisons. Symptoms: Careful

feeding; thirst; frothy lips; champ jaws; redness; swelling; fœtor. Treatment:
Cooling, astringent, antiseptic lotions; mushy food; derivative; tonics.

Causes. Swine suffer from simple stomatitis when exposed to

thermal, mechanical or chemical irritants. Food that is too hot, or
that which is hard and fibrous, or that which contains spikes and
awns, capable of entering and irritating gland ducts or sores, or food
which is fermented or putrid, food or medicine of an irritant
character. The habit of catching and holding swine with a running
noose over the upper jaw, and the forcing of the jaws apart with a
piece of wood in search of the cysticercus cellulosa are further
causes. In several specific infectious diseases inflammation of the
mucous membrane with eruption or erosion is not uncommon. Thus
aphthous fever is marked by vesicular eruption, muguet by epithelial
proliferation and desquamation, hog cholera and swine plague by
circumscribed spots of necrosis and erosion. Patches of false
membrane are not unknown, and local anthrax, tubercle and
actinomycosis are to be met with. Inflammation may start from
decaying teeth.
Symptoms are like as in other animals, refusal of food, or a
disposition to eat sparingly, to select soft or liquid aliments, to
swallow hard materials half chewed or to drop them, to champ the
jaws, and to seek cold water. Accumulation of froth around the lips is
often seen, and the mouth is red, angry, dry, and hot, and exhales a
bad odor.
Treatment does not differ materially from that adopted in other
animals. Cooling, astringent, antiseptic lotions, honey and vinegar,
and in case of spongy or eroded mucosa, tincture of myrrh daily or
oftener. Soft feeding, gruels, pulped roots, or well kept ensilage may
be used, and clean, cool water should be constantly within reach. In
case of overloaded stomach or indigestion a laxative followed by
bitter tonics will be in order.
 CATARRHAL STOMATITIS OF BIRDS. PIP.

Causes: hurried breathing; local irritants; exposure; filthy roost. Symptoms:

gaping; roupy cry; epithelial pellicle on tongue, larnyx. or angle of the bill.
Treatment: pick off pellicle; smear it often with glycerized antiseptic. Remove
accessory and exciting causes.

This form of inflammation of the tongue of birds is characterized

by the increased production and desiccation of the epithelium so that
it takes on a horny appearance. According to Cadeac it may
accompany various inflammatory affections of the air passages,
which cause hurried breathing with persistently open bill, and thus
entail evaporation of the moisture. More commonly it has its primary
cause in local inflammation of the surface in connection with damp,
cold, draughty hen-roosts, and above all, the accumulation of
decomposing manure and the exhalation of impure gas. Even in such
cases the abnormal breathing with the bill open is an accessory cause
of the affection.
Symptoms. The breathing with open bill should lead to
examination of the tongue, but above all if at intervals the bird with a
sudden jerk of the head emits a loud shrill, raucous sound, which
reminds one of the cough of croup. The tip and sides of the tongue
are found to be the seat of a hard, dry, and closely adherent epithelial
pellicle, which suggests a false membrane.
Treatment. The common recourse is to pick or scrape off the
indurated epithelial mass, leaving a raw, bleeding surface exposed.
This is then treated with a solution of borax, or chlorate of potash.
Cadeac deprecates this treatment as useless and dangerous, and
advises the disintegration of the dry epithelial mass with a needle
taking care not to prick nor scratch the subjacent sensitive tissue,
and to wash with a 5 per cent. solution of chlorate of potash. A still
more humane and effective method is to make a solution of
hyposulphite of soda in glycerine and brush over the affected surface
at frequent intervals. This may be conveniently applied through the
drinking water.
In case of implication of the lower air passages or lungs, the
treatment must be directed to them, and soft, warm, sloppy food and
the inhalation of water vapor will prove of great advantage. Secure
clean, sweet, dry pens, pure air, and sunshine. (See pseudo
membranous enteritis.)
 LOCAL STOMATITIS.

Division of circumscribed buccal inflammations: palatitis; gnathitis gingivitis;

glossitis. Causes: injuries; acrid; venomous or caustic agents; diseased teeth;
foreign bodies in gland ducts; malformed jaws; infections, etc. Symptoms:
salivation; difficult prehension and mastication; dropping half masticated morsels;
distinctive indications of different caustics; abrasion; abscess; slough; infective
disease lesions. Treatment: for palatitis, massage by hard corn ears, scarification,
laxatives; for gnathitis, care for teeth and ducts, astringent washes, eliminate
mercury; for glossitis, remove cause, use antidote to venom, or to chemical irritant,
astringent, antiseptic lotions or electuaries, evacuate abscess, soft, cool diet,
elevate the head, suspend the tongue.

Localized inflammations in the buccal cavity are named according

to the portion of the lining membrane attacked;—palatitis if seated
in the roof of the mouth; gnathitis if restricted to the cheeks;
gingivitis if to the gums; and glossitis if to the tongue.
Palatitis. Lampas. Congestion of the hard palate behind
the upper front teeth. This is usually seen in young horses during
the period of shedding the teeth and is caused by the irritation and
vascularity consequent on teething. The red and tender membrane
projects beyond the level of the wearing surfaces of the upper
incisors, and may materially interfere with the taking in of food. A
common practice in such cases is to feed unshelled Indian corn, the
nibbling of which seems to improve the circulation in the periodontal
membrane and by sympathy in the adjacent palate. Superficial
incisions with the lancet or knife will usually relieve, and may be
followed by mild astringent lotions if necessary. If apparently
associated with costiveness or gastric or intestinal irritation a dose of
physic will be demanded. Nothing can excuse the inhuman and
useless practice of burning the parts with a hot iron.
 Gnathitis. Inflammation of the Cheeks. Usually resulting as
a distinct affection from irregular or overgrown teeth, or the entrance
of vegetable spikes into the gland ducts, these cause local swelling
and tenderness, slow imperfect mastication, dropping of food half
chewed, accumulation of food between the cheeks and teeth,
thickening, induration and sloughing of the mucous membrane with
excessive fœtor.
Treatment. Consists in correcting the state of the teeth and ducts
and using one of the washes recommended for glossitis.
Gingivitis. Inflammation of the gums. This is either
connected with the eruption of the teeth in young animals and to be
corrected by lancing the swollen gums and giving attention to the
diet and bowels; or it is due to scissor-teeth or to the wear of the
teeth down to the gums in old horses; or it is dependent on diseased
teeth, or mercurial poisoning, under which subjects it will be more
conveniently considered. Barley awns or other irritants must be
extracted.
Glossitis, Inflammation of the Tongue. Causes. Mostly the
result of violence with bits, ropes, etc., with the teeth, or with the
hand in giving medicine; of scalding food, of acrid plants in the food:
of irritant drugs (ammonia, turpentine, croton, lye, etc.), or of sharp,
pointed bodies (needles, pins, thorns, barley and other barbs, etc.)
which perforate the organ. In exceptional cases leech and snake bites
are met with especially in cattle, owing to the tongue being exposed
when taking in food. Local infections and those of the specific forms,
determine and maintain glossitis.
Symptoms: Free flow of saliva, difficulty in taking in food or
drinking, and red, swollen, tender state of the tongue, which in bad
cases hangs from between the lips. The mucous membrane may be
white, (from muriatic acid, alkalies, etc.), black, (from oil of vitriol,
lunar caustic, etc.), yellow, (from nitric acid, etc.), or of other colors
according to the nature of the irritant. It may be raised in blisters,
may present red, angry sores where the epithelium has dropped off;
may become firm and indurated from excessive exudation; may swell
and fluctuate at a given point from the formation of an abscess; or
may become gangrenous in part and drop off. Breathing is difficult
and noisy from pressure on the soft palate. There is usually little
fever and death is rare unless there is general septic infection.
 Treatment will depend on the cause of injury. In all cases seek for
foreign bodies imbedded in the organ and remove them. If snake
bites are observed use ammonia or potassium permanganate locally
and generally, or cholesterin as a local application. If the irritation
has resulted from mineral acids, wash out with calcined magnesia
lime water, or bicarbonate of soda or potash. If from alkalies (lye)
use weak vinegar. If from caustic salts employ white of egg,
vegetable-gluten, boiled linseed, slippery elm, or other compound of
albumen or sheathing agent. In ordinary cases use cold astringent
lotions, such as vinegar and water; vinegar and honey; borax, boric
or carbolic acid, chlorate of potash, alum or tannin and honey.
Poultices applied around the throat and beneath the lower jaw are
often of great value. The bowels may be relieved if necessary by
injections, as it is usually difficult to give anything by the mouth. If
ulcers form touch them daily with a stick of lunar caustic or with a
fine brush dipped in a solution of ten grains of that agent in an ounce
of distilled water. For sloughs use a lotion of permanganate of
potash, one drachm to one pint of water, or one of carbolic acid, one
part to fifty of water. If an abscess forms give a free exit to the pus
with the lancet, and afterward support the system by soft nourishing
diet, and use disinfectants locally. As in all cases of stomatitis, the
food must be cold gruels or mashes, or finely sliced roots will often
be relished.
The mechanical expedient of supporting the tongue in a bag is
essential in all bad cases, as if allowed to hang pendulous from the
mouth inflammation and swelling are dangerously aggravated.
 APHTHOUS STOMATITIS. FOLLICULAR
STOMATITIS.
Causes: in horse, ox, dog; rough, fibrous food, blistering ointments, bacteria.
Symptoms: general stomatitis, and special; papules with grayish centres and red
areolæ, vesiculation, ulceration. Treatment: Astringent, antiseptic, derivative,
tonic, stimulant.
This is a rare affection in ruminants where the thickness of the
epithelial covering appears to be a barrier to infection or injury,
while it is common in the more delicate and sensitive buccal mucosa
of the horse and dog. In the horse the ingestion of irritant plants with
the food and the penetration of vegetable barbs into the mucous
follicles may be charged with causing the disease, while in both horse
and dog the licking of blistering ointments and the local action of
fungi and bacteria are factors in different cases.
Symptoms. With the ordinary symptoms of stomatitis, there
appear minute firm, whitish, circular elevations representing the
openings of the inflamed mucous or salivary follicles, having a
reddish areola, and grayish white vesicular centre. They may amount
to a line or more in diameter, and on bursting leave red cores or
ulcers. The whole mouth may be affected or the disease may be
confined to the lips, gums or tongue.
Treatment. Beside the general astringent washes, this affection is
greatly benefited by the local use of antiseptics, as sulphite or
hyposulphite of soda, 2 drachms in a quart of water. Borax,
permanganate of potash, carbolic acid or other antiseptic in suitable
solution may be substituted. Saline laxatives are often useful to
remove sources of irritation in stomach and intestines, and iron salts
(chloride or nitrate) in full and frequently repeated doses may be
given internally. Ulcers may be cauterized and soft food and pure
water given from an elevated manger.
 ULCERATIVE STOMATITIS. GANGRENOUS
STOMATITIS.
Causes: specific disease poisons; debility; rachitis; cancer; chronic suppuration;
irritation—mechanical, chemical, thermic, venomous, etc. Symptoms: difficult,
imperfect prehension and mastication, salivation, bleeding, swollen, puffy
epithelium, blisters, extending erosions, deep or spreading. Duration. Treatment:
correct constitutional fault, tonics, soft, digestible food, antiseptics, mild caustics.
This is characterized by the formation of necrotic spots and
patches of the buccal epithelium, with desquamation, and the
formation of more or less rodent ulcers of the sub-epithelial mucosa.
Like other ulcerative processes it is usually due to microbic invasion,
and in this way it may supervene on other and simpler forms of
stomatitis. It also varies in its manifestations and nature according to
the genus of animal, and the specific microbe present.