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Chapter 8
CHAPTER EIGHT: THINKING, INTELLIGENCE, AND

LANGUAGE
Learning Objectives
LO 8.1: Describe cognitive psychology and discuss the role of the computer in the
development of the field.
LO 8.2: Explain the processes involved in thinking and describe capacities related to
superior thinking.
LO 8.3: Describe intelligence and its measurement and discuss influences on and types of
intelligence.
LO 8.4: Identify the possible connections between language and thought and summarize
how language is acquired and develops.
LO 8.5: Discuss the importance of cognitive appraisal with respect to stress and describe
various styles of coping.
I. Chapter Overview
II. Chapter Features
III. Connections
IV. Teaching the Chapter
a. Lecture Outlines by Section
b. Suggested Activities
V. Critical Thinking Questions
VI. Polling Questions
VII. Apply Your Knowledge
VIII. Suggested Readings and Media
IX. Activity Handouts
X. Answer Key to Activity Handouts
I. Chapter Overview
Experiencing Psychology: The Value of a Really Good Idea
▪ The chapter begins with a discussion about good ideas and how inventions happen because
someone noticed a problem and came up with a solution.
▪ Good ideas can be costly. An innovative website Kickstarter.com is a site where people can
apply to receive start-up funds to put their good ideas into action. Some investors giving up
their money to fund potential inventions are everyday people, not the investor type you might
think of. They simply value the creative force behind new inventions or the human capacity
to solve problems.
▪ Inventions are material expressions of critical thinking.
King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 1
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 8
I. The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology

A. Cognition refers to the way in which information is processed and manipulated in
remembering, thinking, and knowing.
B. In the 1950s the age of behaviorism started to change. The invention of computers
provided a new way to think about the human mind.
C. Researchers speculated that some mental processes might be modeled by computers,
which could provide information about how the human mind works.
D. Computers provide a logical and concrete model of how information is processed in the
mind.
E. There are differences, however. The information entered into a computer is done so by
humans, who have coded the information and removed much of its ambiguity. In the
human mind, each brain cell, or neuron, can respond to information, often ambiguous,
transmitted through sensory receptors such as the eyes and ears.
F. Computers can do many things faster and better than the human mind. However, the
human mind can learn new rules, relationships, concepts, and patterns that it can
generalize to new situations. Computers are limited in their ability to perform these
functions.
G. Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the science of creating machines that are capable of
performing activities that require intelligence when they are performed by people.
H. AI systems assist in diagnosing medical illnesses, advising students which courses to
take, and evaluating loan applications. Computer scientists continue to develop
computers that more closely approximate human thinking.
I. The field of cognitive psychology is broad and spans across other areas of psychology,
such as consciousness, memory, and cognitive neuroscience.
II. Thinking
▪ Thinking involves mentally manipulating information. Some such tasks are forming
concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative
manner.
A. Concepts
1. Concepts are mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and
characteristics.
2. There are four reasons that concepts are important. First, concepts allow us to
generalize. Second, concepts allow us to associate experiences and objects. Third,
concepts aid in memory. Fourth, they provide clues about how to react to a particular
object or experience.
3. The prototype model is described as the way a person looks for a family resemblance
when they are evaluating whether something belongs to a particular concept. The
prototype is based on the average characteristic of a concept.
B. Problem Solving
▪ Problem solving is an attempt to find the appropriate way of achieving a goal when
the goal is not readily available.
Chapter 8
1. Following the Steps in Problem Solving

a. Find and Frame Problems
i. First, you must recognize a problem. You should ask questions in creative
ways and see what others may not see.
b. Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies
i. Subgoaling involves setting intermediate goals or defining intermediate
problems that put you in a better position for reaching the final goal or
solution.
ii. Algorithms are strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem. A recipe for
cooking a dinner dish is an example of an algorithm. Using algorithms leads
to getting a single answer to a problem.
iii. Heuristics are shortcut strategies that suggest a solution to a problem but do
not guarantee an answer. Heuristics are fast ways to solve problems, but often
lead to different answers to a given problem, which are not always the clearest
correct answers.
c. Evaluate Solutions
i. A person will not know if their solution is the correct one until they try it and
see if it works.
ii. A person should have a clear criterion or a standard against which to judge the
effectiveness of a solution.
d. Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions Over Time
i. People should continually rethink and redefine problems. They should always
be trying to improve on the last problem to come up with an even better way
of finding a solution.
3. An Obstacle to Problem Solving: Becoming Fixated
a. Fixation means using a prior strategy and failing to look at the problem from a
fresh, new perspective.
b. Functional fixedness occurs when an individual fails to solve a problem because
they are fixated on the usual functions.
c. Solving a problem may involve trying something new that has never been tried
before.
d. Successful problem solving means being cognitively flexible to consider options
and alternatives when working through a situation or problem.
C. Reasoning and Decision Making
1. Reasoning
a. Reasoning is the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions.
Reasoning involves using reason—weighing arguments, applying rules of logic,
and coming up with sound conclusions. It is closely tied to critical thinking!
b. Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from the specific to the general or from
the bottom up. It can be drawing conclusions about something very broad based
on only a few of the characteristics. You can consider inductive reasoning as
“bottom-up processing” which starts with incoming information and then drawing
conclusions.
c. Inductive reasoning is always involved when making generalizations.
Chapter 8
d. Deductive reasoning is reasoning from the general to the specific.

2. Decision Making
▪ Decision making involves evaluating all the alternatives and then making a
choice. Clear rules are not always well defined as in reasoning, and we might not
know the consequences of the decisions we are making.
▪ Decision making involves more uncertainty than reasoning.
a. Two Systems of Reasoning and Decision Making
i. Sometimes people make decisions without even thinking about it or
knowing it. These are automatic (System 1) decisions and are seen as
intuitive or “following one’s hunches or gut feelings.” This system relies on
heuristics and appears to function at a much quicker speed but can lead to
mistakes.
ii. Comparably, the controlled system (System 2) is slower, effortful, and
analytical.
iii. It involves conscious reflection of issues and is often used in solving
problems perceived as difficult.
b. Biases and Heuristics
i. Confirmation bias (also known as myside bias) refers to the tendency to
search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes
them. Confirmation bias is even stronger when a person seeks out others
who share their beliefs.
ii. Hindsight bias (also known as I Knew It All Along effect) is the tendency
for a person to report falsely that they predicted an outcome.
iii. The availability heuristic refers to a prediction about the probability of an
event that is based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events. We
think that events that are more cognitively available are more likely to
happen.
iv. The representativeness heuristic refers to the tendency to make judgments
about group membership based on physical appearances or a match between
a person and one’s stereotype of a group. This heuristic is damaging in the
context of social judgments.
v. Intelligence, interest in thinking complex problems through carefully, and
maintaining an open mind are associated with less susceptibility to the
biases promoted by heuristics. Even very smart, deep thinkers may not avoid
one type of cognitive bias, bias blind spot.
D. Thinking Critically and Creatively
1. Critical Thinking
a. People who are critical thinkers grasp the deeper meaning of things. They keep an
open mind about different approaches and perspectives and they also decide for
themselves what to believe and what not to believe.
b. Critical thinkers should see past the obvious and question long-held assumptions.
c. Mindfulness means being alert and mentally present for everyday activities. It is
key to critical thinking. A person who is mindful continues to create new ideas, is
open to new information, and is aware of more than one perspective.
Chapter 8
d. Open-mindedness means being receptive to the possibility of other ways of

looking at things. Manytimes people are not aware that there is another side to an
issue or evidence which goes against what they believe.
e. Actively open-minded thinking refers to a type of thinking that is flexible, open to
questioning, not dogmatic or categorical, and leads to less susceptibility of biased
thinking.
2. Creative Thinking
a. When someone is considered creative they have the ability to think about
something in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unconventional
solutions to problems.
b. Divergent thinking produces many answers to the same question.
c. Convergent thinking means there is only one answer to a question.
d. Creative thinkers have the following characteristics: flexibility, playful thinking,
inner motivation, willingness to face risk, and objective evaluation of work.
e. Some researchers debate on whether there is a link between creativity and
psychological disorders. Consider historical examples of creative geniuses who
suffered from mental health–related issues.
III. Intelligence
▪ Intelligence refers to an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve
problems, and to learn from experience. Intelligence is how well a person can perform
these cognitive tasks, not whether they can simply do them.
▪ Different cultures perceive intelligence differently.
▪ The idea that intelligence captures a common general ability is known as Spearman’s g
and assumes that the intelligent person is a “jack of all cognitive trades.”
A. Measuring Intelligence
▪ In psychology, a person’s intelligence is generally measured by an IQ test.
▪ The validity of a test is the extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure.
An important measure of validity is the degree to which it predicts an individual’s
performance when assessed by other measures.
▪ The reliability of a test is the extent to which the test yields a consistent measure that
can be reproduced.
▪ If a test is valid, then it must also be reliable, but not vice versa.
▪ Standardization refers to developing uniform procedures for administering and
scoring a test. The testing environment should be as similar as possible for all
individuals.
1. IQ Tests
a. Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence test. He developed this test to
determine which students would not benefit from regular classroom instruction.
b. Binet developed what is known as a person’s mental age (MA), meaning their
level of mental development relative to that of others.
c. A person’s chronological age (CA) is the actual age of the individual.
Chapter 8
d. Intelligence quotient (IQ) was developed by William Stern. It is determined by a

person’s mental age divided by their chronological age and then multiplied by
100. If a person’s mental age is the same as their chronological age, then their IQ
is 100, which is average.
e. IQ = (MA/CA) x 100
f. The regularly used intelligence test is now called the Stanford-Binet intelligence
test. It is administered to individuals from age 2 through adulthood.
g. A normal distribution is a normal, bell-shaped curve with the majority of the
scores falling in the middle of the distribution.
2. Cultural Bias in Testing
a. Many of the early intelligence tests were culturally biased because they favored
individuals from urban environments rather than rural environments. They were
also biased toward people of middle socioeconomic status rather than low
socioeconomic status, and toward White Americans rather than African
Americans.
b. Culture-fair tests are intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased.
It is difficult to develop a culturally unbiased test because intelligence is viewed
differently by different cultures. The Raven Progressive Matrices Test is one
example of a culture-fair test.
B. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence
1. No one argues that intelligence is genetically influenced, but understanding how and
how much is challenging. Psychologists have come to recognize that we may not
know as much as we thought we did about the influence of genes on intelligence as a
result of our growing understanding of genes themselves.
2. Heritability refers to the proportion of the differences in IQs in a population that is
attributed to genetic differences. The highest degree of heritability is 1.00, and any
score above .70 suggests a strong genetic influence. Heritability of intelligence
increases from childhood to adulthood.
3. Recent conclusions on heritability estimates have been called into question,
suggesting that after conception, or genes changes, the human genome possesses
some degree of plasticity.
4. Genetics definitely plays a part in intelligence, but researchers have also found that
the environment can change IQ scores considerably. This has been especially true in
cases of adoption where children who were adopted into a new and better
environment increased their IQ scores by an average of 12 to 18 points.
5. The Flynn effect demonstrates how education has a positive effect on intelligence
tests. People tested at the turn of the century, who were regarded as having average
intelligence, would now be regarded as having below-average intelligence.
6. The word intelligent does not only apply to people; it can also be applied to
behaviors. Mastering skills, actively thinking about life, and thoughtfully making life
decisions are intelligent behaviors.
C. Extremes of Intelligence
1. Giftedness
Chapter 8
a. People who are considered gifted have an IQ score of 130 or higher and/or have a
superior talent for something.
b. Terman ran extensive studies on children who were classified as gifted and found
that the children were not only academically gifted but were also socially well
adjusted.
c. The Flynn Effect also applies to even those with very high IQs. Studies show that
individuals at the highest level of intelligence are scoring evening higher than
expected.
d. Giftedness is a product of both heredity and environment.
2. Intellectual Disability
a. Intellectual disability, previously termed mental retardation, is a condition of
limited mental ability in which a person has an IQ score below 70 and has
difficulty adapting to everyday life. He or she first exhibited these characteristics
during the so-called developmental period—before age 18. The inclusion of the
developmental period in the definition is crucial.
b. Organic retardation is caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage. Down
syndrome is a form of organic retardation.
c. Cultural-familial retardation is a mental deficit in which no evidence of organic
brain damage can be found. Psychologists believe these individuals’ type of
retardation is the result of growing up in a below-average intellectual
environment.
d. There are different classifications of mental retardation ranging from mild, to
moderate, to severe or profound. The majority of people with mental retardation
fall in the mild range.
e. The American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
developed an assessment that examines a person’s level of adaptive behavior in
three domains (conceptual, social, and practical skills) as a more functional
assessment of intellectual disability.
D. Theories of Multiple Intelligences
1. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
a. Robert J. Sternberg developed the triarchic theory of intelligence, which is
composed of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical
intelligence.
2. Gardner’s Nine Frames of Mind
a. Howard Gardner suggests that there are nine different types of intelligence that
everyone has to varying degrees. They are:
i. verbal
ii. mathematical
iii. spatial
iv. bodily-kinesthetic
v. musical
vi. interpersonal
vii. intrapersonal
Chapter 8
viii. naturalistic
ix. existentialist
3. Evaluating the Approaches of Multiple Intelligences
a. Sternberg’s and Gardner’s approaches have stimulated teachers to think more
broadly about what makes up children’s competencies and how to develop
programs of education that instruct students in multiple domains.
b. Critics of the theory of multiple intelligences argue that a research base for both
Sternberg’s and Gardner’s multiple intelligences does not exist. These critics
believe that if an individual excels in one area they will most likely excel in other
areas as well.
IV. Language
▪ Language is a form of communication that is based on a system of symbols. It can be
spoken, signed, or written.
A. The Structure of Language
1. Infinite generativity is the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful
sentences.
a. Phonology is a language’s sound system. Language is made up of phonemes.
b. Morphology is a language’s rules for word formation. Every word in the English
language is made up of morphemes, which are the smallest units of a language
that mean something.
c. Syntax is a language’s rules for combining words into acceptable phrases and
sentences.
d. Semantics is the meaning of the words and sentences in a language.
e. Pragmatics is the useful character of language and the ability of language to
communicate even more meaning than is said.
B. Language and Cognition
▪ Language is the vehicle with which we communicate most of our thoughts.
1. The Role of Language in Cognition
a. Language helps people think, make inferences, handle difficult decisions, and
solve problems.
b. Some researchers believe that language determines the way a person thinks, the
linguistic relativity hypothesis.
c. Research does not support Whorf’s view with regard to gender difference in
vocabulary, but it continues to be an area of investigation as to the influence
language has on how we think and even on our personalities.
2. The Role of Cognition in Language
a. Although thought influences language, and language influences thought, there is
increasing evidence that language and thought are not part of a single system.
b. One feature of human language that separates it from animal communication is
the capacity to talk about objects that are not currently present.
Chapter 8
C. Biological and Environmental Influences on Language

1. Biological Influences
a. The brain, nervous system, and vocal apparatus of our ancestors changed over
hundreds of thousands of years.
b. This sophisticated language ability gave humans a great advantage over other
animals and increased their chances of survival.
2. Language Universals
a. According to Noam Chomsky, humans are prewired to learn language at a certain
time in life and in a certain way. Children all over the world reach language
milestones at around the same time in life and in about the same order.
3. Language and the Brain
a. Research has shown that the brain has regions that are predisposed to be used for
language. Language processing, such as speech and grammar, mainly occurs in
the left hemisphere.
4. Environmental Influences
a. According to behaviorists, language is a complex learned skill.
b. The behavioral view of language learning has several problems. First, it does not
explain how people create novel sentences. Second, children learn the syntax of
their native language even if they are not reinforced for doing so.
c. The behavioral view is no longer considered a viable explanation of how children
acquire language.
d. The research findings complicate the influences of environment and learning on
language development and indicate that children are biologically prepared to learn
language and benefit significantly from being immersed in a competent language
environment from very early on.
D. Language Development Over the Life Span
1. Most individuals develop a clear understanding of their language’s structure and a
large vocabulary during childhood.
2. Before babies begin speaking, they start to babble. This begins around 4 to 6 months
of age. Infants begin to detect word boundaries (when one word stops and another
begins) by 8 months of age.
3. Around 10 to 13 months of age, children speak their first words.
4. By the time a child reaches 18 to 24 months of age, they are speaking in two-word
statements and illustrate a clear grasp of the language’s pragmatics.
5. Childhood is an important time for learning language and for learning second
languages. Sensitive periods for learning language are found early in childhood and
allow children to develop the language to native fluency if practiced continually.
6. For adults, learning a new language requires an understanding of importance of
certain sounds and overriding unimportant sounds that have been previously learned
in the first language.
Chapter 8
V. Thinking, Problem Solving, and Health and Wellness

A. Cognitive Appraisal and Stress
1. Cognitive appraisal is an individual’s interpretation of events in their lives as
harmful, threatening, or challenging and their determination of whether they have the
resources to cope effectively with the events.
2. Coping is a kind of problem solving.
3. In the case of primary appraisal, individuals interpret whether an event involves
harm or loss that has already occurred, a threat of some future danger, or a challenge
to overcome.
4. The initial appraisal of an event as threatening or challenging can have profound
impacts on health and wellness.
5. In the case of secondary appraisal, individuals evaluate their resources and determine
how effectively they can be used to cope with the event. It is considered secondary
because it both comes after primary appraisal and depends on the degree to which an
event is appraised as harmful, threatening, or challenging.
B. Cognitive Reappraisal
1. To reinterpret an experience or to think about it in a different way means that we are
cognitively reappraising the situation.
2. Research has shown that reappraising an event can change the way we feel about the
situation and can also change the brain activity linked to the experience.
3. Benefit finding means looking at a stressful event and focusing on the good that has
arisen in one’s life as a result of that event.
II. Chapter Features
▪ Psychological Inquiry: Thinking Outside the Box

▪ Intersection: Cognitive Psychology and Personality: Do Sophisticated Thinkers Avoid
the Bias Blind Spot?
▪ Critical Controversy: Is there a Link Between Creative Genius and Psychopathology?
▪ Psychological Inquiry: The Normal Curve
III. Connections
Assignable Through Assignable Within the Instructor Resources
Connect Chapter
The Cognitive Reading Quiz Activity Suggestions:
Revolution in Critical Thinking Question: • Artificial Intelligence
Psychology LearnSmart Module #4 • Analyze a Website
• Winning Games:
LO 8.1: Polling Question: 8.1 The Perfect Tic-Tac-
Describe Toe Player
cognitive
psychology and PowerPoints
Chapter 8
discuss the role

of the Apply Your Knowledge: #1
computer in
the
development
of the field.
Thinking Reading Quiz Psychological Inquiry: Activity Suggestions:
Thinking Outside the Box • Problem-Solving
LO 8.2: Explain Heuristics (Interactive • Decision Making
the processes Learning Activity) Intersection: Cognitive • Creative Thinking
involved in Psychology and Personality:
thinking and NewsFlash: Mega Do Sophisticated Thinkers PowerPoints
describe Millions Lottery Avoid the Bias Blind Spot?
capacities Apply Your Knowledge: #1
related to Problem Solving Critical Controversy: Is
superior (Learning Exercise) There a Link Between
thinking. Creative Genius and
Biases and Heuristics Psychopathology?
(Learning Exercise)
Critical Thinking Question:
Critical Thinking and #1
Metacognition (Concept
Clip) Polling Question: 8.2
NewsFlash: Self- Handouts: 8.1, 8.2

Affirmation Can Improve
Problem Solving
NewsFlash: Body
Movement Helps
Problem Sovling
LearnSmart Module
Intelligence Reading Quiz Psychological Inquiry: The Activity Suggestions:
Normal Curve • Cultural Bias in IQ
LO 8.3: Genes and Intelligence Testing
Describe (Video) Critical Thinking Questions: • Nature vs. Nurture
intelligence #1, #3 • Theories of
and its Savant Syndrome Intelligence
measurement (Video) Polling Question: 8.3 • Design Your Own
and discuss Theory of
influences on NewsFlash: Genes and Handout: 8.3 Intelligence
and types of Intelligence • Emotionally
intelligence. Intelligent!
Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences (Interactive PowerPoints
Learning Activity)
Chapter 8
NewsFlash: Mind Over

Mass Media Apply Your Knowledge: #2,
#3
NewsFlash: Using Social
Networking to Tap
Intelligence
LearnSmart Module
Language Reading Quiz Critical Thinking Questions: Activity Suggestions:
#1, #2 • Structure of
LO 8.4: Milestones: Language Language
Identify the Acquisition, Esme, 16–20 Handout: 8.4 • Biological and
possible mos. Environmental
connections Influences on
between Baby Sign Language Language
language and (Video) • Learning a Second
thought and Language
summarize Word Decoder
how language (Interactive Learning PowerPoints
is acquired and Activity)
develops.
Language Acquisition
(Learning Exercise)
NewsFlash: Gabi
Gifford’s Outpatient
Therapy
NewsFlash: Bilingualism
LearnSmart Module
Thinking, Reading Quiz Activity Suggestion:
Problem • Types of Coping
Solving and LearnSmart Module
Health and PowerPoints
Wellness
LO 8.5: Discuss
the importance
of cognitive
appraisal with
respect to
stress and
describe
various styles
of coping.
Chapter 8
IV. Teaching the Chapter
LO 8.1: Describe cognitive psychology and discuss the role of the

computer in the development of the field.
Lecture Outline
Experiencing Psychology: The Value of a Really Good Idea
▪ Inventions began as someone’s idea of a solution to a problem.
▪ Many resources are used to help support individuals trying to make their good ideas into the
newest invention. Money is an important consideration and some have invested purely for the
sake of promoting human creativity and problem-solving strategy.
I. The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology

▪ The study of cognition began less than a half-century ago.
A. The invention of the computer started the study of human cognition. Some researchers
believed that some mental operations could be modeled by computers.
B. Artificial intelligence is the science of creating machines that are capable of performing
activities that require intelligence when they are performed by people.
C. Cognition is a boad field encompassing other areas of psychology.
Suggested Activities
Artificial Intelligence: Show the film Artificial Intelligence in class. After watching the movie,
discuss the concept of artificial intelligence. Break the class into groups and have them discuss
whether computers could really replace all human intelligence.
Analyze a Website: Have students go to http://www.a-i.com/ and in groups analyze the
information found on that site. Students should write a one- to two-page summary of the
information found on the website and compare it to the information presented in the text.
Winning Games: The Perfect Tic-Tac-Toe Player: The groups work in teams to create sets of
instructions (a “program”) to play the game of noughts and crosses/tac-tac-toe. This is followed
by a tournament between the different teams’ programs to see which plays best. This activity
introduces programming and explores how a computer is able to win at board games like chess.
The emphasis is on programming being about solving the problem rather than about being able
to write in a programming language. Go to: http://csunplugged.org/intelligent-paper and
download the pdf document of the activity.
LO 8.2: Explain the processes involved in thinking and describe

capacities related to superior thinking.
Lecture Outline
II. Thinking (stet)
A. Concepts
1. Concepts
Chapter 8
2. Prototype Model
B. Problem Solving
1. Following the Steps in Problem Solving
a. Find and Frame the Problem
b. Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies
i. Subgoaling
ii. Algorithms
iii. Heuristics
c. Evaluate Solutions
d. Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions Over Time
2. An Obstacle to Problem-Solving: Becoming Fixated
a. Cognitively Flexible
C. Reasoning and Decision Making
1. Reasoning
a. Inductive Reasoning
b. Deductive Reasoning
2. Decision Making
a. Two Systems of Reasoning and Decision Making
b. Biases and Heuristics
i. Confirmation Bias
ii. Hindsight Bias
iii. Availability Heuristic
iv. Representativeness Heuristic
v. Bias Blind Spot
D. Thinking Critically and Creatively
1. Critical Thinking
a. Mindfulness
b. Open-mindedness
c. Actively open minded
2. Creative Thinking
a. Divergent Thinking
b. Convergent Thinking
c. Link between creativity and psychological disorders
Problem Solving: Use Activity Handout 8.1: Solve This Problem as a way for students to
understand and experience the steps involved in problem solving. Students will choose from a
list of problems and then use the steps discussed in the chapter to find a solution to the problem.
Decision Making: Discuss decision making, especially the areas of decision making without
awareness, confirmation bias, and hindsight bias. Have the students come up with an example
Chapter 8
from their own lives where these three concepts have played a part. Have them write down and
explain the example. Next, break the class into groups and have them discuss and share their
examples with the other students in the group. The students will get a better understanding of
decision making when they come up with their own examples, and they will gain knowledge
from the other students in their group by hearing their examples.
Creative Thinking: Use Activity Handout 8.2: Making Your Own Invention This activity has
students create an invention and then explain how the invention might have come about. Finally,
students should evaluate their own invention or their classmate’s invention for creativity. What
“standards” will they use and why?
LO 8.3: Describe intelligence and its measurement and discuss

influences on and types of intelligence.
Lecture Outline
III. Intelligence
A. Measuring Intelligence
1. Validity
2. Reliability
3. Standardization
4. IQ Tests
a. Mental Age
b. Chronological Age
c. IQ
d. Normal Distribution
5. Cultural Bias in Testing
a. Culture-Fair Tests
B. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence
1. Heritability
2. Flynn Effect
C. Extremes of Intelligence
1. Giftedness
2. Intellectual Disability
3. Cultural-Familial Intellectual Disability
D. Theories of Multiple Intelligences
1. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
a. Analytical Intelligence
b. Creative Intelligence
c. Practical Intelligence
2. Gardner’s Nine Frames of Mind
Chapter 8
a. Verbal
b. Mathematical
c. Spatial
d. Bodily-Kinesthetic
e. Musical
f. Interpersonal
g. Intrapersonal
h. Naturalistic
i. Existentialist
3. Evaluating the Approaches of Multiple-Intelligences
Cultural Bias in IQ Testing: Have students do a search on the Internet for cultural bias in
intelligence testing and have them write a short paper on the information they find. The students
should discuss the pros (if any) and cons of cultural bias in intelligence testing. The next day
break the class into groups and have them develop a 10-question quiz using what they think
would be culturally biased questions.
Nature vs. Nurture: Discuss with the class the differences between nature and nurture and how
these ideas are very controversial in the area of intelligence. Break the students into groups and
have them randomly draw pieces of paper with the words nature or nurture on them. Each group
must then develop a debate strategy for arguing either for a nature influence or a nurture
influence on intelligence. The following week have the groups debate both sides as a
presentation.
Theories of Intelligence: Use Activity Handout 8.3: Which Type of Intelligence Is It? In this
activity, students will read through examples of various types of intelligences and properly
categorize them. The students will gain an understanding of the various types of intelligence an
individual may have.
Design Your Own Theory of Intelligence: After considering how researchers and
psychologists define intelligence, have student reflect on their own view of what intelligence is.
Individually, have students design their own theory of intelligence. Then, either as a group or
individually, pick one or two designed theories and draft a way to measure that concept of
intelligence.
Emotionally Intelligent!: Have students complete a self-assessment of their own emotional
intelligence. One site that provides a short and free EQ Quiz:
http://www.ihhp.com/?page=freeEQquiz Upon getting their results, have students identify what
emotional intelligence is and its relationship to academic achievement and/or work productivity.
LO 8.4: Identify the possible connections between language and

thought and summarize how language is acquired and develops.
Lecture Outline
IV. Language
A. The Structure of Language
Chapter 8
1. Infinite Generativity
2. Phonology
3. Morphology
4. Syntax
5. Semantics
6. Pragmatics
B. Links Between Language and Cognition
1. The Role of Language in Cognition
2. The Role of Cognition in Language
C. Biological and Environmental Influences on Language
1. Biological Influences
a. Language Universals
b. Language and the Brain
2. Environmental Influences
a. Good Strategies for Talking to Babies
i. Be an Active Conversational Partner
ii. Talk As If the Infant Understood What You Are Saying
iii. Use a Language Style With Which You Feel Comfortable
D. Language Development over the Life Span
Structure of Language: Use Activity Handout 8.4: The Structure of Language as a way for the
students to come up with their own examples of the various structures of language that are
discussed in the chapter. The students will gain more knowledge of the various structures that
make up a language.
Biological and Environmental Influences on Language: Discuss with the class the differences
between nature and nurture and how these ideas are very controversial in the area of the
development of language. Break the students into groups and have them randomly draw pieces
of paper with the words “biological” or “environmental” on them. Each group must then develop
a debate strategy for arguing either for a biological influence or an environmental influence on
the development of language. The following week have the groups debate both sides as a
presentation.
Learning a Second Language: Have students write a two- to four-page reflective paper on their
experience with learning a second language. Students should include when they learned that
language, their perceived difficulty with learning that language, and what they had to change
(behaviorally) to help them learn the language better. Finally, students should be able to make
connections between the research illustrated in the book on language over the life span and their
personal experiences.
LO 8.5: Discuss the importance of cognitive appraisal with respect to

stress and describe various styles of coping.
Chapter 8
Lecture Outline
V. Thinking, Problem Solving, and Health and Wellness

A. Cognitive Appraisal and Coping
1. Cognitive Appraisal
2. Coping
3. Primary Appraisal
4. Secondary Appraisal
B. Cognitive Reappraisal
Types of Coping: Write two to three examples on the board of a stressful situation. Break the
class into groups and ask each to come up with their own example of how each type of coping
discussed in the chapter would be used to handle the stressful situation. The students will become
more familiar with the various types of coping with a stressful situation and will also learn from
each other by working on the assignment with their group.
V. Critical Thinking Questions
1. Compare and contrast the biological and environmental influences when it comes to areas
such as intelligence and language or is a combination of both more feasible?
2. Explore your own culture and identify how it played a role in your language
development.
3. How do you view intelligence? What do you think has influenced your way of
understanding an individual’s capabilities?
4. With the advancement in technology, the way we understand cognitive psychology has
changed. In your experiences, how have you see your classrooms or educational settings
change as a result of what psychologists know about intelligence, thinking, problem-
solving, and language?
VI. Polling Questions
▪ Polling 8.1: Super Human Computer

On a blog site, http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/superhuman-computing-
intelligence, there is some debate whether or not a computer will ever be created that
exceeds the capacity of the human mind. How many of you think that in your lifetime
you will see computers exceed the capacity of human cognition? Who thinks there are
limitations to what computers can do? (Discuss those limitations in terms of cognitive
abilities.) How many of you think that artificial intelligence has removed the human
connection and replaced technology with true interaction?
Chapter 8
▪ Polling 8.2: I’m Not Blind! I See Exactly What I Want to See!
Let’s talk about the bias blind spot, a concept that suggests even the smartest, deepest
thinkers—the ones who are open minded and considerate of others—harbor a level of
bias against others and even themselves. What do you think? Who thinks we are hard-
wired (biologically) to create groups and show favoritism towards a certain set of
individuals? Let’s take an implicit association test, by Project Implicit:
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/./ How many of you were surprised at your results?
▪ Polling 8.3: Calling All Geniuses—Your Psychotherapist Is Ready to See You Now
“Genius and insanity may actually go together, according to scientists who found that
mental illnesses like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder are often found in highly creative
and intelligent people.” Let’s critically evaluate this statement. There is research that
indicates a link between creativity and mental health; however, there is also research that
suggests the opposite. So, what do you think? Given the numerous examples of creative
geniuses and their reported mental health status, who thinks that those who are
superintelligent are more likely to possess a psychological disorder? List four
psychological disorders and have students vote on the disorder most likely to be
associated with creative genius. Collectively discuss why the disorder with the highest
votes is perceived to be related to being a genius.
VII. Apply Your Knowledge

(Also found at the end of each chapter.)
1. To get a sense of the roles of divergent and convergent thinking in creativity, try the
following exercise. First take 10 minutes and jot down all of the uses that you can think
of for a cardboard box. Don't hold back—include every possibility that comes to mind.
That list represents divergent thinking. Now look the list over. Which of the possible uses
are most unusual or most likely to be worthwhile? That is convergent thinking.
2. Ask a few friends to define the term intelligent. Do they mostly describe intelligent people
or intelligent behaviors? Do their definitions focus on cognitive ability or other abilities?
3 Many different intelligence tests are available online, such as at http://www.iqtest.com/.
Give this one a try and then do a web search for intelligence tests and see if you get the
same results when you take a different test. Do the websites tell you how reliable the tests
are? Do they provide information on standardization or validity? If your scores on the
two tests are very different, what might account for this difference?
VIII. Suggested Readings and Media
Suggested Articles from Annual Editions, Psychology, 2013/2014 Publications
Article 24: Wargo, E. (2013). Talk to the Hand: New Insights into the Evolution of
Language and Gesture. Observer. Association of Psychological Science.
Chapter 8
Suggested Readings
Cheng, C., Cheung, S. F., Chio, J. H. M., & Chan, M. P. S. (2013). Cultural meaning of
perceived control: A meta-analysis of locus of control and psychological symptoms
across 18 cultural regions. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 152.
Goleman, D. (2006). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. Random
House Digital, Inc.
Herrnstien, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in
American Life. New York: Free Press.
Hofmann, W., & Friese, M. (2011). Control Yourself! Scientific American Mind, 22(2), 42–
47.
Russell, S., & Norvig, P. (2003). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd Edition).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (2013). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry
into human knowledge structures. Psychology Press.
Simonton, D. (2012). The Science of Genius. Scientific American Mind, 23(5), 34–41.
Sternberg, R. J. (1986). The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human Intelligence. New
York: Penguin.
Weigmann, K. (2012). Does intelligence require a body? EMBO reports.
Westly, E. (2011). The Bilingual Advantage. Scientific American Mind, 22(3), 38–41.
Wexler, K. (2013). Lenneberg’s dream: Learning, normal language development, and

speciﬁc language impairment. Language competence across populations: Toward a
definition of specific language impairment, 11.
Suggested Media
The Mind: Language (Insight Media, 58 minutes).

This video takes a look at various theories of the evolution of language. It also
demonstrates the innate, universal drive to communicate through studies with babies, and
it investigates historical records for clues to the development of modern speech.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) (2001, Spielberg).

This video illustrates the connection between being human and being a robot, depicting
the impact of AI on human existence.
http://www.learningstrategies.com/forum/postlist.php?Cat=0&Board=UBB1
Chapter 8
This website is under the Learning Strategies homepage. It is a discussion forum looking
at the genius code.
http://www.sjdm.org/
This is the main homepage for The Society for Judgment and Decision Making.
http://wilderdom.com/personality/L2-2SternbergTriarchicTheory.html
This is a website that discusses Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.
http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/language_development.shtml
This website provides the various stages that individuals go through in language
development. There are a variety of links to other websites discussing language
development in children.
http://www.a-i.com/
This website offers a great opportunity for students to evaluate the content and provide
discussion about the impact that AI has on today’s society.
http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-4560940.html
This website links to a video segment which aired on 60 Minutes in 2009 “Harnessing the
Power of the Brain.” A number of laboratories and astounding technology is developing
that directly connects the human brain to a computer. It's like a sudden leap in human
evolution—a leap that could one day help paralyzed people to walk again and amputees
to move bionic limbs.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html
Website for students that houses article on cognition psychology along with other
psychological perspectives.
http://www.aaai.org/home.html
Home site for the American Association of Artificial Intelligence.
Chapter 8
IX. Activity Handouts
Activity Handout 8.1
Solve This Problem
Choose from the list of problem scenarios below. Using the steps involved in problem solving
that were discussed in the chapter, describe how you would go about solving this problem.
1. Mrs. Smith’s daycare provider is closing in four weeks. Both Mr. and Mrs. Smith
work full-time during the day and need childcare for their child. They only have a
short period of time to find a new, safe, and reliable daycare provider.
2. Tim is planning a summer vacation for his family of five to Disney World in Florida.
He lives in Pennsylvania and is trying to figure out whether it would be more cost
effective to drive or to fly to Florida.
3. Sarah has a 20-page paper due in 6 weeks, and she has not yet started to work on the
paper. She is feeling very overwhelmed because she works a full-time job during the
day and has three children at home in the evening. She knows she should get started
soon, but is not sure where to begin.
4. Mr. and Mrs. Jones’ parents are getting older and are finding out they can no longer
live on their own in a big, three-bedroom house. They want to sell their home and
either move to a smaller house, a retirement community, or an assisted-living
community. Mr. and Mrs. Jones said they would help their parents find the
appropriate place to live, but they are not sure where to begin.
5. Sally found out through a friend that her current boyfriend has been cheating on her
with another woman. She is very distraught and is not sure what to do about the
situation.
Chapter 8
Make Your Own Invention
Think of a new idea of an invention that you want to create. How did this invention come about?
What will it be used for? Be as specific as possible and include drawings or mappings of your
new invention. Finally, evaluate your invention or a classmate’s invention for creativity. What
criteria will you use?
Chapter 8
Which Type of Intelligence Is It?
Read through the scenarios below and then identify what type of intelligence (analytical,
creative, practical, verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, naturalist, or existentialist) you think the individual has.
1. John spent years trying to come up with a solution to how to water a Christmas tree
without having to water it himself everyday.
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE:
2. Susan has always been interested in building things. At a young age, she built model
airplanes with great enthusiasm. She went to college and graduate school and earned a
degree in architecture. She is now the CEO of her own architectural firm.
3. Jim started taking ballroom dancing classes as a child. He became the Younger U.S.
Champion at age 12, has continued dancing, and is now competing for the World
Champion title.
4. Lee Ann Rimes earned her first Academy of Country Music Award at the young age of
12. She has sold millions of albums and continues to hit the charts with top-selling
records.
5. Cecil wrote his first novel at the age of 16 and, just recently, his third novel made the
New York Times best-seller list.
6. Jane has always loved working through math problems and excelled in school in her math
classes. She can work through Sudoku puzzles in little time and finds math very
challenging. She is the senior accountant at her accounting firm.
7. Jeremy has always had a green thumb. He grew up on a tree farm and learned at a young
age about plants and flowers. He went on to earn a graduate degree in agricultural
sciences and recently found a way to cross-pollinate watermelons with cantaloupes to
make a delicious new fruit.
8. Professor Wooddro teaches an Introduction to Philosophy course at the college. He loves

to talk with students about the meaning of life and death and enjoys struggling with life’s
most challenging questions.
Chapter 8
The Structure of Language
List five examples of structures of language. Make sure you use the various language structures
that were discussed in the chapter.
Chapter 8
X. Answer Key to Activity Handouts
Activity Handout 8.1 Answer Key
Solve This Problem
Choose from the list of problem scenarios below. Using the steps involved in problem solving
that were discussed in the chapter, describe how you would go about solving this problem.
6. Mrs. Smith’s daycare provider is closing in four weeks. Both Mr. and Mrs. Smith
work full-time during the day and need childcare for their child. They only have a
short period of time to find a new, safe, and reliable daycare provider.
Subgoaling; break down the task into small pieces.
7. Tim is planning a summer vacation for his family of five to Disney World in Florida.
He lives in Pennsylvania and is trying to figure out whether it would be more cost
effective to drive or to fly to Florida.
Algorithm; crunch the numbers.
8. Sarah has a 20-page paper due in 6 weeks, and she has not yet started to work on the
paper. She is feeling very overwhelmed because she works a full-time job during the
day and has three children at home in the evening. She knows she should get started
soon, but is not sure where to begin.
Subgoaling; break it down.
9. Mr. and Mrs. Jones’ parents are getting older and are finding out they can no longer
live on their own in a big, three-bedroom house. They want to sell their home and
either move to a smaller house, a retirement community, or an assisted-living
community. Mr. and Mrs. Jones said they would help their parents find the
appropriate place to live, but they are not sure where to begin.
Apply heuristics to develop a short list, then apply an algorithm to
determine best solution.
10. Sally found out through a friend that her current boyfriend has been cheating on her
with another woman. She is very distraught and is not sure what to do about the
situation.
Decision making; evaluate alternatives.
Chapter 8
Make Your Own Invention
Think of a new idea of an invention that you want to create. How did this invention come about?
What will it be used for? Be as specific as possible and include drawings or mappings of your
new invention. Finally, evaluate your invention or a classmate’s invention for creativity. What
criteria will you use?
Correct answers should include some of the following key terms/concepts:

divergent thinking
flexible and playful thinking
brainstorming
inspiration
risk taking
Chapter 8
Which Type of Intelligence Is It?
Read through the scenarios below and then identify what type of intelligence (analytical,
creative, practical, verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, naturalist, or existentialist) you think the individual has.
9. John spent years trying to come up with a solution to how to water a Christmas tree
without having to water it himself everyday.
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: creative
10. Susan has always been interested in building things. At a young age, she built model
airplanes with great enthusiasm. She went to college and graduate school and earned a
degree in architecture. She is now the CEO of her own architectural firm.
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: creative, spatial, analytical, and/or practical
11. Jim started taking ballroom dancing classes as a child. He became the Younger U.S.
Champion at age 12, has continued dancing, and is now competing for the World
Champion title.
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: bodily-kinesthetic
12. Lee Ann Rimes earned her first Academy of Country Music Award at the young age of
12. She has sold millions of albums and continues to hit the charts with top-selling
records.
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: musical
13. Cecil wrote his first novel at the age of 16 and, just recently, his third novel made the
New York Times best-seller list.
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: verbal and/or creative
14. Jane has always loved working through math problems and excelled in school in her math
classes. She can work through Sudoku puzzles in little time and finds math very
challenging. She is the senior accountant at her accounting firm.
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: analytical and/or mathematical
15. Jeremy has always had a green thumb. He grew up on a tree farm and learned at a young
age about plants and flowers. He went on to earn a graduate degree in agricultural
sciences and recently found a way to cross-pollinate watermelons with cantaloupes to
make a delicious new fruit.
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: naturalist, creative, and/or analytical
16. Professor Wooddro teaches an Introduction to Philosophy course at the college. He loves
to talk with students about the meaning of life and death and enjoys struggling with life’s
most challenging questions.
TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE: existentialist
Chapter 8
The Structure of Language
List five examples of structures of language. Make sure you use the various language structures
that were discussed in the chapter.
Correct answers should include some of the following concepts:

Phonology: basic sounds or phonemes
Morphology: rules for word formation; morphemes
Syntax: rules for combining words
Semantics: meaning of words.
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Transcriber’s Note (continued)
The many conversations in Scots, along with archaic spelling and

inconsistencies in hyphenation, have been left unchanged except where
noted below. Minor typographical errors have been corrected without
note.
Page 6 – “offhand” changed to “off-hand” (the usual off-hand

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Science of Psychology An Appreciative

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CHAPTER EIGHT: THINKING, INTELLIGENCE, AND

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 1

I. The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 2

1. Following the Steps in Problem Solving

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 3

d. Deductive reasoning is reasoning from the general to the specific.

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 4

d. Open-mindedness means being receptive to the possibility of other ways of

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 5

d. Intelligence quotient (IQ) was developed by William Stern. It is determined by a

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 6

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 7

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 8

C. Biological and Environmental Influences on Language

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 9

V. Thinking, Problem Solving, and Health and Wellness

II. Chapter Features

▪ Psychological Inquiry: Thinking Outside the Box

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 10

discuss the role

NewsFlash: Self- Handouts: 8.1, 8.2

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 11

NewsFlash: Mind Over

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 12

IV. Teaching the Chapter

LO 8.1: Describe cognitive psychology and discuss the role of the

I. The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology

LO 8.2: Explain the processes involved in thinking and describe

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 13

LO 8.3: Describe intelligence and its measurement and discuss

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 15

LO 8.4: Identify the possible connections between language and

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 16

LO 8.5: Discuss the importance of cognitive appraisal with respect to

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 17

V. Thinking, Problem Solving, and Health and Wellness

V. Critical Thinking Questions

VI. Polling Questions

▪ Polling 8.1: Super Human Computer

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 18

VII. Apply Your Knowledge

VIII. Suggested Readings and Media

Suggested Articles from Annual Editions, Psychology, 2013/2014 Publications

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 19

Weigmann, K. (2012). Does intelligence require a body? EMBO reports.

Wexler, K. (2013). Lenneberg’s dream: Learning, normal language development, and

The Mind: Language (Insight Media, 58 minutes).

Artificial Intelligence (AI) (2001, Spielberg).

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 20

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 21

IX. Activity Handouts

Activity Handout 8.1

Solve This Problem

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 22

Activity Handout 8.2

Make Your Own Invention

King, The Science of Psychology, 3e IM-8 | 23

Activity Handout 8.3

Which Type of Intelligence Is It?