The TQM Magazine

Critical factors of effective project management

Svetlana J.K. Cicmil
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Svetlana J.K. Cicmil, (1997),"Critical factors of effective project management", The TQM Magazine, Vol. 9 Iss 6 pp. 390 - 396
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Perspectives
Critical factors of
effective project
management
Svetlana J.K. Cicmil
The author
Svetlana J.K. Cicmil is based at De Montfort University
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School of Business, Leicester, UK.
Abstract
Offers an insight into the renaissance of project manage-
ment discipline in the context of strategic management
and organizational design, and the need for increased
awareness of and organizational learning in the subject.
Proposes a flexible framework to facilitate the efforts for
general and project management development and
learning with an appreciation of the paradox and ambigui-
ty in business environments. Opens up some scope for a
discussion about the fit between project management and
TQM.
The TQM Magazine
Volume 9 · Number 6 · 1997 · pp. 390–396
© MCB University Press · ISSN 0954-478X
390
Introduction to the emerging paradigm
of project management
In recent years the discipline of project man-
agement (PM) has changed its application
dramatically to accommodate emerging
management processes and philosophies
related to implementation of organizational
development and strategic change. Contem-
porary literature on best business practice
introduces many different terms related to
PM, including management by projects,
project-based organizations, project-oriented
businesses, temporary project organization
and project form of organizational structure.
Projects are becoming a template for opera-
tional and strategic re-design[1].
Reasons are numerous, and they reflect
endeavours of modern organizations to
respond to the environmental changes by
adopting specific patterns of coping behav-
iour:
• the implementation of strategic manage-
ment through projects makes the
achievement of highest returns possible by
optimal utilization of resources available
(including time, money and people) more
realistic;
• the expansion of human knowledge creates
the need for an effective organizational
design to support knowledge management
for competitive advantage through intra-
organizational integration, professional
and functional concurrence based on
project teams, inter-organizational net-
working and “win-win” partnerships in
project situations;
• companies are increasingly seeking the way
of effective product development and
market expansion – management by pro-
jects provides a disciplined approach to
gaining competitive advantage by getting
the right product, in time, to market
The paper emerged from the evidence, experience
and work on development of several masters and
training courses in project management and quality
management at De Montfort University Business
School, with international student cohorts encom-
passing various levels of management and profes-
sions across a wide range of industrial sectors, from
the UK and 14 other countries. I am grateful to all
those participants who provided constructive
comments on the framework and integrated it into
the improvement efforts within their own organiza-
tions.
 Critical factors of effective project management The TQM Magazine
Svetlana J.K. Cicmil Volume 9 · Number 6 · 1997 · 390–396

through designated management of inno- terms. Are these projects being effectively
vation, knowledge and skills. managed? Are they successful? And how do
we know it? As PM repositions itself from a
The emerging paradigm of PM is, thus, not a
middle-management focused discipline into a
breakthrough of new ideas but a renaissance
business philosophy to support organizational
of the discipline in a contemporary business
strategic change, it is crucial to communicate
context. It is concerned with elaboration of
and establish an appropriate learning attitude
systems and processes originating in the
to reap the benefits of the new organizational
classical, conventional wisdom of PM, and
order.
with their application to the general organiza-
tional theory. Traditionally, PM has been
regarded as an exclusive management process Unbounded approach to bounded
of scientific nature with specialized planning, rationality in PM
monitoring and control techniques, and
Our discussion evolves around a framework
applied to the operations of very few project-
created to increase awareness among a much
oriented industries such as construction,
broader audience than just project managers
engineering and defence. It is now being
of the emerging applications of the PM disci-
increasingly accepted as an inclusive concept
pline and its implications for project-oriented
integrated into general organizational endeav-
businesses. It intends to encourage a creative
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our to provide better quality to customers

inquiry system into the areas of concern for
through effective intra-organizational integra-
successful management of projects and to
tion and optimal utilization of scarce
conceptualize an approach to PM develop-
resources. Consequently, as a complex man-
ment and learning efforts.
agerial process, it positions itself among other
The framework (see Figure 2) has been
organizational processes (see Figure 1) such
designed, used and tested as a teaching tool at
as TQM, organizational learning or kaizen
the introductory stages of PM courses on
that ensure an optimal balance between inter-
MBA and general business and management
nal organizational design of the firm and its
development schemes. The diversity of stu-
emerging strategies.
dent cohorts implies that a number of course
There are examples all over the place. The
participants may not necessarily manage
process of creation of strategic alliances,
projects themselves. They are often in a situa-
mergers and acquisitions is now being
tion to make project-related decisions from
approached and managed as a project; imple-
their senior executive positions, or to facilitate
mentations of quality management systems
project networks from a functional manage-
and other organizational development initia-
ment level by releasing resources, or to partic-
tives take the form of projects; management
ipate in a temporary project sub-organization
consultancy services are essentially projects;
as project team members. While trying to
writing an article for a journal by invitation is
meet their expectations related to the learning
a project. We may like to stop here and con-
outcomes, we have noticed two things:
sider how many current undertakings in our
own organizational settings are characterized,
or managed, or at least referred to as projects. Figure 2 A project management – multiple perspectives
And we may even not be operating in the framework
industry that is project-based in conventional Organizational
Project communication behaviour
system
Figure 1 Reshaping fit: the process solution

Environment
P
“Fit”
Strategy Organization
Project content
Project context

Process: Project
learning org. congruence and
PM process
kaizen, TQM,
BPR, PM
©Sv. Cicmil 1996
Source: Adapted from Egan (1996)

391
 Critical factors of effective project management
Svetlana J.K. Cicmil
(1) a common concern across courses and
classes about a high level of project failure
that causes organization-wide disappoint-
ment, insecurity and mistrust; and
(2) a general warning that ambiguities will
keep accumulating unless the phenome-
non of PM is put into a broader organiza-
tional and social context.
Consequently, two questions emerge. One
deals with the nature of an undertaking that
can be or has to be managed as a project. The
other is the issue of difficulties in defining the
success of a project.
Following sections will tackle these issues
and elaborate multiple dimensions of inquiry
in approaching a project and improving
chances for its success.
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Back to basics – what is a project?
Given the variety of organizational scenarios
within which projects are initiated and man-
aged, some confusion will inevitably arise in
relation to how a project should be defined.
The following sentiment could embrace all
broad indications of what the purpose of
project efforts generally is:
Projects should transform an unsatisfactory
(existing or future) state to a better state within
a certain time, using a limited effort.
(Cleland and Gareis, 1994)
In more pragmatic terms it means:
• in any project situation, there is always
someone (the client, customer) who has a
unique need (an idea) for something new,
and some, often vague, expectations about
tangible outcomes (the creation) of it, and
requires knowledge and resources to con-
duct the realization of the concept within
the specific constraints of time, money and
specifications;
• the required expertise and resources, either
in-house or from the market, need to be
pooled together to create the change – the
transition from the idea to the creation,
according to the client’s expectations –
these are provided by professionals, consul-
tants, contractors and sub-contractors;
• there is always a limited amount of time,
money, and human and material resources
(project constraints affecting all parties
involved) that can be integrated into the
project network at any point of time to
deliver the outcome (the tangible change)
with desired quality;
392
The TQM Magazine
Volume 9 · Number 6 · 1997 · 390–396
• it all happens within a human, social set-
ting – the project organization, with con-
flicting strategic, professional and func-
tional interests, hidden agendas and cultur-
al backgrounds;
• effective management processes of plan-
ning, monitoring and control are required
to translate the idea of change into tangible
deliverables that, at the and of the project,
must match the client’s expectation –
project success;
• there are always much wider issues of social
and behavioural impact of the project
deliverables that go beyond the boundaries
of the project organization. Implications
of project success/failure for each party to
the project, their internal and external
environments, and for the social context in
general are often dangerously overlooked.
Mapping the perspectives
Managing projects is difficult.
The world often interferes with our plans.
The available empirical evidence of manageri-
al concerns warn us that the level of project
failures is dangerously high. Research into
principal sources of project failure are reflect-
ed in the following categorization of problem
areas to be addressed in order of priority:
(1) Poor understanding and identification of
the client/customer/end-user needs.
(2) Inadequate specification of project
requirements and project constraints;
consequently, setting unrealistic project
goals altogether.
(3) Organizational behaviour factors includ-
ing structure, functions, performance,
and associated behaviour of groups and
individuals.
(4) Bounded rationality in the process of
project planning and project implementa-
tion, i.e. the lack of appreciation of
dynamics and change.
(5) Poor monitoring and control during the
project implementation phase; measure-
ment and assessment of project progress
against the plan.
Our experience with a variety of projects, such
as management consultancy projects, new
product developments, research projects, etc.
convinces us that, in reality, these critical
factors are prioritized in quite a reverse order.
The complex, cross-disciplinary nature of PM
is often seen too narrowly. Too little time is
 Critical factors of effective project management
Svetlana J.K. Cicmil
spent on listening to the client’s requirements
and expectations. Once the project implemen-
tation phase starts, all the effort tends to be
focused on the PM process implying tradi-
tional techniques of monitoring and control-
ling project congruence in isolation from the
rest of the project context. The following
discussion reflects the effort to close the
existing “awareness gap”.
Figure 2 resembles a framework to help
visualize the levels of inquiry into the areas of
concern for effective PM, and make the
implied paradoxes of projects more transpar-
ent.
There are two distinct levels. The first level
consists of three conceptual aspects – project
context, content and organizational behav-
iour, that capture most of the requirements
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for effective, unbounded approach to project
management. The first-level dimensions are
concerned with the lamenting phrase at the
start of this section, and transmit the inherent
conflict between a high degree of instability
and ambiguity in any environment, on the one
hand, and the explicit, and often rigid, nature
of project objectives and constraints, on the
other.
‘…continuous awareness of the first-level
inquiry systems ensures that the
project operates and is managed as an
open system…’
The area of overlap presents the second level
of inquiry. It is project congruence within the
project organization boundaries where the
PM process is supported by an effective com-
munication system which enables the merge
of the broader project aspects of context,
content and behaviour during project imple-
mentation. This continuous awareness of the
first-level inquiry systems ensures that the
project operates and is managed as an open
system. It is the area to be explored for devel-
opment and improvement of PM skills.
Very often, projects are too carelessly and
quickly narrowed down to the “shaded”,
second level of operation, and managed as
closed systems where PM techniques of
monitoring and control are often applied
within the bounded rationality of initial plans.
The source of such bounded rationality is
in tangibility of PM planning and control
393
The TQM Magazine
Volume 9 · Number 6 · 1997 · 390–396
techniques where data and measurements are
explicit and individuals can exercise some
degree of influence over them (Frame, 1995).
The system tends to become closed with very
little or no effective communication with the
world outside the project. It is at the first,
higher level of inquiry though, where the
intangibility of the PM process occurs in the
form of problems that are often beyond the
ability of an individual to predict or control
(Figure 3). Given the dynamics of the external
environment and changes in organizational
settings of clients, contractors, suppliers and
others in the project network, management of
the project must accept the inevitability of re-
planning in order to attain quality of project
goals, in other words to ensure that project
Figure 3 A checklist for a practical implementation of the framework
Project context
– Who are the project stakeholders?
– Who are the end users?
The environment – What are their strategic mission and
where needs for expectations related to the project?
and expectations – How will dynamics and changes in related
of the project are industries and markets affect the stated project
generated goals, project plans and overall success of the
project?
– What are other sources of risk?
Project content
– What is the nature of the project: e.g. system
development, new product development,
implementation of organizational change
(formation of strategic alliance or merger),
research project, engineering project?
– What and how tangible are the expected
Nature, scope and deliverables of the project?
constraints of the – To what degree can the requirements and
project specifications for deliverables and associated
project methods be clearly defined and planned
for?
– What professional expertise and technical
know-how are needed and where can they be
found?
– What are time, budget and resource constraints
and are they realistic?
Organizational behaviour
– What organizational backgrounds are involved
in the project coalition/supplier-customer
network in terms of national and corporate
culture?
– Is the attitude among the parties to the project
Managerial and adversarial or partnership oriented?
organizational – How is the project manager selected?
aspects – Is project organization established and cross-
professional collaboration in the project team
facilitated through effective leadership?
– Is any specific training needed?
– Has senior management provided enough
support to the project manager and project
team members?
 Critical factors of effective project management
Svetlana J.K. Cicmil
deliverables will meet stakeholders’ expecta-
tions. Consequently, success of the project
undertaking is measured by the level to which
the client’s expectations are met.
How TQM propositions can support
practical implementation of the
framework
Anyone who has ever been involved in (man-
aging) a project is most probably convinced of
a complex correlation between project con-
straints, and a constant need to compromise.
One can rightly ask a question: if meeting
time, budget and specification requirements
within a given scope of project work are
always a matter of trade-off among these
variables, can we then talk about total cus-
tomer satisfaction in a project situation at all?
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How should quality in a project situation be
defined? Is a project successfully managed if
there is no time and budget overrun, but the
end-product is of no or a little use to the client
or end-user? What if the changes in the clients
industry or environment in general, and the
consequent changes in their strategic mission
during the project execution made the project
goal obsolete? How can this be prevented, and
project product quality assured?
‘…Is a project successfully managed if
there is no time and budget overrun,
but the end-product is of no or a little
use to the client or end-user?…’
There lies the paradox of the conventional
wisdom in project planning, setting the objec-
tives and constraints, and assessing project
success. The world does interfere with the
plans through the ambiguity of human rela-
tions in project networks, through dynamics
of organizational environments and limita-
tions in the availability of resources at any
point of time. These principles of risk apply to
almost all projects regardless of their size,
nature or mission.
This imposes a great challenge for applica-
tions of quality assurance and TQM
philosophy to the PM process of reconciling
project constraints with the often adversarial
interests of those with a stake in the project.
In our discussion this reconciliation is
referred to as project congruence, and the
394
The TQM Magazine
Volume 9 · Number 6 · 1997 · 390–396
associated endeavour and techniques as PM
process.
The integration of the framework layers
into unbounded conceptualization of project
strategies and effective management learning,
evolves around the following major PM
propositions:
1. Listening to the customers and understand-
ing their requirements and expectations of the
project outcome, meaning – linking the idea with
the reality. As Kaderlan (quoted in Nelson,
1996) notes: “Expectations are like land
mines. If you aren’t clear about them, they
can explode at the worst possible moment and
destroy the trust you have worked so hard to
develop.” In turn, the largest single compo-
nent of such misunderstanding is over how
“success” of the project is to be defined.
Many professional consultants and project
managers think they know what clients want
of them, but frequently this differs from what
the client truly wants or expects (Stasiowski
and Burstein, 1994) .
2. Planning realistically for time, budget,
material and human resources while contemplat-
ing the re-planning of these to ensure the match
with changing customer requirements and expec-
tations throughout the project life cycle. Although
each project functions as a temporary self-
contained organization, never does it operate
in isolation from everything else. The project
plans based on the initial idea and expecta-
tions are only our best estimates of what is
happening right now and what the future will
hold. Because of the inherent uncertainty
associated with any human endeavour, while
planning we must contemplate the inevitabili-
ty of re-planning throughout the project life
cycle in order to maintain validity of project
goals and customer expectations in harmony
with changing reality. This has to be a com-
mon concern of all stakeholders in the project
network from the early stages, and communi-
cation among them is important.
3. Ensuring project leadership skills necessary
to build up effective project teams. There is
almost no project that evolves around a single
profession, function, field of expertise or
industry. Most of the time it is through some
sort of functional and professional concur-
rence or inter-organizational coalition that the
resources for achieving project goals are
pulled together to match the stakeholders
expectations and project objectives. Each
entity within the project’s customer-supplier
network brings in the inherent culture, atti-
 Critical factors of effective project management
Svetlana J.K. Cicmil
tudes, behaviour, and professional knowledge
and ways of doing business. This variety
needs to be anticipated and appreciated in the
formation of the project team, selection of
project management, negotiation for resources
and establishment of specific project organiza-
tion with its structure, individual roles and
performance measurements. The linkages and
acceptance of the temporary project organiza-
tion by parent organizations and its imposition
over the functional, routine order represents a
fragile area for project success.
4. Having a sound communication system in
place, that spans the project network. The art of
effective design of the temporary project
organization is in making such multi-profes-
sional, cross-functional, multi-organizational,
and often cross-industrial and cross-national
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constructs work as an open system towards
the achievement of the common project goal.
‘…how can the awareness of major
propositions of TQM philosophy help
in overcoming the obstacles to
effective PM?…’
There is an open ended question – how can
the awareness of major propositions of TQM
philosophy help in overcoming the obstacles
to effective PM? The core aspects of TQM
culture (see, for example, Cicmil 1997), such
as:
• integration of internal and external
customer-supplier chains for the provision
of better service to customers;
• error prevention through quality assurance
systems;
• employee development and care; and
• good leadership;
may form a sound base for project manage-
ment development if integrated into organiza-
tional culture and practices of all parties in the
project network.
Concluding remarks
The awareness of PM as it emerges in the
modern business world must not be limited to
the PM professionals or become a privilege of
the industries that are project-oriented by
definition such as those in the engineering
domain. It is not only relevant to middle
395
The TQM Magazine
Volume 9 · Number 6 · 1997 · 390–396
management level, from where project
managers are most likely to be recruited,
either. Nor does it fall solely into the function-
al responsibility of production/operations
management group. PM philosophy should
be communicated to all levels of organization-
al structure because of:
• its increasing application to processes of
organizational development and strategic
change (such as implementation of quality
initiatives, new market or product develop-
ment, or formation of strategic alliances)
consequently with immense and immedi-
ate strategic implications for the parent
organization;
• the unlimited potential for organizational
learning and culture change with respect to
internal, cross-functional and cross-
professional integration and team work, as
well as partnering, networking and co-
operation within the external customer-
supplier chain;
• the need to establish a basis for real TQM
practice where all processes and efforts
involved in the project are linked and man-
aged with the primary aim of ensuring that
the goals of the project are continuously
monitored for clarity and validity through-
out the project life cycle, and that the
client’s (and other project customers’)
expectations are fully met;
• the need for unbounded thinking in opti-
mal planning for time, cost and resources
which should reflect realistic assessment of
these expectations, anticipate possible
changes in the project context and accom-
modate aspects of organizational behaviour
of the parties involved in the project.
The concept presented here by means of the
framework intends to put the notion of TQM
into PM perspectives, to highlight the areas of
concern and initiate discussion of applicabili-
ty of such inquiry systems to the realities of
organizational life. This is an attempt to
provide a useful way of conceptualizing recent
developments in the subject of PM, to explore
linkages between successful management of
projects and TQM, and to invite an exchange
of ideas and experience in this area of man-
agement development and organizational
learning.
Further research, debate and experience in
this area will eventually answer many ques-
tions that management of projects are cur-
rently facing.
 Critical factors of effective project management The TQM Magazine
Svetlana J.K. Cicmil Volume 9 · Number 6 · 1997 · 390–396

Note Cleland, D.I. and Gareis, R. (Eds) (1994), Global Project

1 For a comprehensive insight into strategic and
organizational demystification of PM as a manage-
ment discipline and for detailed information on its
developments as a profession, I suggest to interested
readers the work of, inter alia, Cleland, Meredith and
Mantel, Morris, also publications by the APM (Associ-
ation of Project Managers, UK) and BS documents
(such as BS 6079).
References and further reading
Cicmil, S. (1997), “Achieving completeness through TQM
principles and organizational learning”, The Learn-
ing Organization, MCB University Press, Vol. 4 No. 1.
Cleland, D. (1995), Project Management: Strategic Design
and Implementation, International edit., McGraw-
Hill, Singapore.
Downloaded by University of Phoenix At 04:39 17 January 2015 (PT)
Management Handbook, McGraw-Hill International
Editions.
Egan, C. (1996), Creating Organizational Advantage,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Frame, J.D. (1995), Managing Projects in Organisations,
Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Meredith, J.R. and Mantel, S.J. (1995), Project Manage-
ment: A Managerial Approach, (3rd ed.), John Wiley
& Sons, New York, NY.
Morris, P.W.G. (1994), The Management of Projects,
Telford, London.
Nelson, C. (1996), TQM and ISO 9000 for Architects and
Designers, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Stasiowski, F. and Burstein, D. (1994), Total Quality Project
Management for the Design Firm, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, NY.

Commentary
Still an area where, in most organizations, great progress can be made. A lucid and intelligent summary
by one of the most interesting researchers in the field of quality and strategy.
396
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