Fundamentals of Management 10Th Edition Robbins Test Bank Full Chapter PDF

Fundamentals of Management 10th
Edition Robbins Test Bank

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Fundamentals of Management, 10e (Robbins)
Chapter 6 Organizational Structure and Design
1) Organizational design requires a manager to ________.

A) decide who leads a group within an organization
B) change the culture of an organization
C) change or develop the structure of an organization
D) change the logo of an organization
Answer: C
Explanation: By definition, organizational design requires that an individual develop or change
an organization's structure. Changing organizational culture or deciding who leads a group may
influence structure in only minor ways, so those choices are incorrect. Changing the logo of the
organization also does not constitute creating or significantly modifying the organization's
structure.
Diff: 1
LO: 6.1: Describe six key elements in organizational design.
2) All of the following are part of the process of organizational design EXCEPT ________.
A) deciding how specialized jobs should be
B) determining rules for employee behavior
C) determining the level at which decisions are made
D) determining goals for the organization
Answer: D
Explanation: Organizing jobs, formulating rules, or clarifying a decision-making process are
clearly examples of developing an organization's structure. Determining goals is part of
establishing an organization's mission, not creating its structure that will help carry out that
mission.
Diff: 2
3) Which of the following are NOT basic elements of organizational design?

A) work specialization, span of control
B) chain of command, line authority
C) centralization, decentralization
D) departmentalization, formalization
Answer: B
Explanation: The six elements of organizational structure are given in the three incorrect
choices: work specialization, span of control, centralization, decentralization,
departmentalization and formalization. Chain of command and line authority are not included as
basic elements of organizational structure, so "chain of command, line authority" is the correct
response.
Diff: 2
1
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
4) Which of the following is synonymous with work specialization?
A) division of labor
B) job discrimination
C) chain of command
D) job preference
Answer: A
Explanation: Division of labor is the only term among the four choices that describes how work
is specialized. Job discrimination describes how employees are mistreated in the job market. Job
preference describes how employees select jobs. Chain of command describes authority
relationships in organizations.
Diff: 2
5) Which statement accurately defines work specialization?

A) It is the degree to which tasks are grouped together.
B) Individual employees specialize in doing part of an activity rather than the entire activity.
C) Jobs are ranked relative only to their worth or value to the businesses.
D) Work specialization clarifies who reports to whom.
Answer: B
Explanation: The choice regarding the degree to which tasks are grouped together describes
departmentalization, not specialization. The choices regarding ranking jobs and work
specialization both describe a power relationship in an organization, so they are incorrect. The
choice regarding individual employees accurately identifies the idea that work specialization
requires dividing a task into parts, so it is the correct response.
Diff: 3
6) Early supporters of work specialization saw it as ________.

A) a reliable way to increase productivity
B) a good way to increase employee morale
C) a source of innovation
D) an immoral way to coerce workers into greater productivity
Answer: A
Explanation: Work specialization has never been seen as a way to increase productivity or
innovation. Work specialization was seen as an excellent but ultimately limited way to increase
productivity, so "a reliable way to increase productivity" is the correct response.
Diff: 2
2
7) Early users of work specialization in the early twentieth century found that the practice
ultimately resulted in ________.
A) higher profits and better employee morale
B) bored workers with low morale
C) huge and permanent productivity gains
D) better communication among employees
Answer: B
Explanation: While managers initially saw profit and productivity gains in work specialization,
the gains were not huge, not permanent, and not accompanied by increases in morale, so these
choices are incorrect. Better communication was never observed by managers so that choice is
incorrect. After initial gains, managers did see an inevitable drop in morale of employees as they
contended with drudgery, making "bored workers with low morale" the correct response.
Diff: 3
AACSB: Ethical understanding and reasoning
8) Today, managers favor this approach with regard to work specialization.

A) All tasks are performed by all employees to promote fairness.
B) Partners switch jobs every half hour to overcome boredom.
C) Employees specialize to maintain efficiency.
D) Monotonous tasks are shared by all employees to prevent perceived favoritism.
Answer: C
Explanation: Most managers today see work specialization as an important organizing
mechanism because it helps employees be more efficient. The other choices given here have
been tried in isolated cases, but none constitutes a prevalent approach of today's managers.
Diff: 2
9) Functional departmentalization groups jobs by ________.

A) tasks they perform
B) territories they serve
C) products or services they manufacture or produce
D) type of customer they serve
Answer: A
Explanation: The choice regarding territories describes geographic departmentalization, while
the choice regarding products or services describes product departmentalization, and the choice
regarding type of customer describes customer departmentalization. That makes "tasks they
perform" the correct response, as functional departmentalization groups employees by the jobs
they perform.
Diff: 2
3
10) ________ departmentalization is based on territory or the physical location of employees or
customers.
A) Functional
B) Product
C) Geographic
D) Matrix
Answer: C
Explanation: Among the four choices, only "geographic" refers to territory, so "geographic" is
the correct choice.
Diff: 1
11) A soap company that features a bath soap department, a laundry detergent department, and a
dish soap department is using which of the following?
A) process departmentalization
B) functional departmentalization
C) product departmentalization
D) customer departmentalization
Answer: C
Explanation: The soap company clearly is organizing by product, not a particular process, the
job people do, or the customer that is served. That makes "product departmentalization" the
correct response.
Diff: 2
AACSB: Application of knowledge
12) What kind of departmentalization would be in place in a government agency in which there
are separate departments that provide services for employers, employed workers, unemployed
workers, and the disabled?
A) product
B) geographic
C) outcome
D) customer
Answer: D
Explanation: Employed workers, unemployed workers, employers, and disabled workers are
categories of people who will use the agency's services–its customers. Therefore, "customer" is
correct and the other choices incorrect.
Diff: 2
4
13) State motor vehicle offices usually use this kind of departmentalization.
A) product
B) functional
C) customer
D) process
Answer: D
Explanation: Motor vehicle offices organize, for example, by the process of getting a driver's
license. First the customer fills out forms, then takes an eye test, then takes a written test, and so
on. This makes "process" correct.
Diff: 2
14) The line of authority that extends from the upper levels of management to the lowest levels
of the organization is termed the ________.
A) chain of responsibility
B) unity of command
C) staff authority
D) chain of command
Answer: D
Explanation: Unity of command refers to a single authority prevailing when organizational
conflicts arise rather than a hierarchical authority. Staff authority refers to the authority that staff
managers have over support personnel. Only the chain of command describes the hierarchical
relationship between levels of an organization with respect to authority, so that is the correct
response. "Chain of responsibility" is incorrect because it is not a recognized term.
Diff: 1
15) The chain of command answers this question.

A) Where do I go for help?
B) How do I know when the task is complete?
C) What are the rules?
D) Who reports to whom?
Answer: D
Explanation: The classic description of the chain of command is that it determines who reports
to whom. The other questions given here–asking for help, knowing when work is complete, and
learning the rules–do not explicitly involve authority, so they are incorrect.
Diff: 2
5
16) Authority gives an individual the right to do this.
A) give orders
B) reprimand employees
C) command respect
D) obey orders
Answer: A
Explanation: Authority confers the right to direct subordinates and, if necessary, issue
commands and orders, making "give orders" the correct response. Reprimanding may be done by
superiors to subordinates, but it is not an explicit part of authority. Commanding respect is
completely independent of authority–although practically speaking, authority is hard to establish
without it. Finally, all employees have the "right" to obey orders, not just a person with authority,
making "obey orders" incorrect.
Diff: 1
17) In the chain of command, each person above you ________.

A) has special privileges
B) receives higher pay
C) has line authority
D) has no right to give you orders
Answer: C
Explanation: Line authority is the explicit right to issue orders to a subordinate. People of higher
rank may or may not receive special privileges or more pay than people below, so those choices
are incorrect. Finally, "has no right to give you orders" can be eliminated because it is the
opposite of the correct answer.
Diff: 2
18) Staff managers have authority over ________.

A) special support employees only
B) line managers
C) middle managers
D) the person above them in the chain of command
Answer: A
Explanation: Staff managers have authority only over the special support staff they control. Staff
managers typically do not exercise authority over other employees, even if they outrank them.
This makes "special support employees only" the correct response and the other three choices
incorrect because they all identify people other than support staff.
Diff: 2
6
19) Line authority gives a manager the ability to direct the work of ________.
A) any employee in the firm
B) any subordinate
C) any subordinate, after consulting with the next higher level
D) only subordinates one level down
Answer: B
Explanation: Line authority is the explicit right to issue orders or direct the activities of any
subordinate. Line authority confers this right to a manager without any prior consultation with
higher-ups. This makes "any subordinate" the correct response. "Any subordinate, after
consulting with the next higher level" is incorrect because line authority extends only downward,
not up to higher-ranking individuals.
Diff: 2
20) ________ prevents a single employee from getting conflicting orders from two different
superiors.
A) Line authority
B) Unity of command
C) Staff authority
D) Chain of command
Answer: B
Explanation: Chain of command, line authority, and staff authority are involved in determining
how organizational orders and discipline are handled. However, only unity of command deals
explicitly with resolving conflicting orders, so it is the correct response.
Diff: 2
21) The importance of unity of command has diminished in today's workplace because of its
tendency to be ________.
A) inflexible and inefficient
B) ethically questionable
C) chauvinistic and dictatorial
D) too decisive
Answer: A
Explanation: Unity of command is a principle that establishes absolute authority of the superior
in an organization. In today's workplace, flexibility is valued over authority so unity of command
has been downgraded. This makes "inflexible and inefficient" the correct response. Unity of
command is not ethically questionable, so that choice can be eliminated. Similarly, though there
may be an element of veracity in the remaining two choices, they can both be ruled out since
being dictatorial or overly decisive are not causes of the diminution of unity of command.
Diff: 2
7
22) Which of the following statements is true?
A) Power is a right.
B) Authority is one's ability to influence decisions.
C) Authority is a right.
D) Both power and authority are rights.
Answer: C
Explanation: The choices indicating that power is a right and authority is one's ability to
influence decisions have the facts reversed. Power, not authority, is the ability to influence
decisions, and authority is a right. That makes the choice indicating that authority is a right the
correct response and also rules out the remaining choice since authority alone is a right.
Diff: 2
23) ________ is the obligation or expectation to perform a duty.

A) Responsibility
B) Unity of command
C) Chain of command
D) Span of control
Answer: A
Explanation: By definition, responsibility is the obligation to perform duties that have been
assigned, so that is the correct choice. An employee's responsibility is to complete the task that
he or she has been assigned. Two of the other choices here, "unity of command" and "chain of
command," refer to giving and following orders, so they can be eliminated. Span of control
refers to the number of employees who report to a manager, so it also is an incorrect choice.
Diff: 1
24) The personal secretary of a top manager may have ________.

A) power but not authority
B) authority but not power
C) power and authority
D) line authority but not staff authority
Answer: A
Explanation: A secretary who controls access to the boss wields power in his or her ability to
grant people entrance, but he or she does not have authority to issue orders or assignments.
Therefore, the secretary has power without authority. This makes "power but not authority" the
correct choice and renders the other three choices incorrect.
Diff: 3
8
25) Which of the following statements is true?
A) Power is a type of authority.
B) Authority and power are identical.
C) Authority is a type of power.
D) Power is determined by horizontal position in an organization.
Answer: C
Explanation: Authority is a subset of power. Authority is the power to give orders and make
assignments. This makes "authority is a type of power" the correct choice and causes "power is a
type of authority" and "authority and power are identical" to be incorrect because neither one of
them identifies authority as a type of power. Finally, "power is determined by horizontal position
in an organization" is incorrect because power is determined by both the horizontal and vertical
position of a person in an organization.
Diff: 3
26) As represented in a power cone, power is based on ________.

A) vertical position only
B) horizontal position only
C) distance from the center only
D) vertical position and distance from the center
Answer: D
Explanation: Vertical position by itself determines authority, not power, so "vertical position
only" is incorrect. Horizontal position on its own determines neither power nor authority, so
"horizontal position only" is incorrect. Distance from the center only partly defines power, so
that choice is incorrect. The remaining choice gives the correct relationship: power is determined
by both vertical position and the distance from the center power core of the diagram.
Diff: 3
AACSB: Analytical thinking
27) As represented in a hierarchical organization diagram, authority is based on ________.

A) vertical position only
B) horizontal position only
C) distance from the center only
D) horizontal and vertical position
Answer: A
Explanation: In a hierarchical organization diagram, vertical position is a measure of authority.
The person at the top, therefore, has the most authority and the person on the bottom the least,
making "vertical position only" the correct choice. The three other listed possibilities feature a
horizontal dimension, so they are incorrect.
Diff: 3
9
28) A construction site supervisor who sees an impending thunderstorm and tells workers to go
home is demonstrating ________.
A) line authority
B) staff delegation
C) provisional accountability
D) responsibility
Answer: A
Explanation: This is a perfect example of line authority: the supervisor is exercising the
authority to make a decision and give an order to subordinates without consulting any of his
superiors. This makes "line authority" correct and rules out the other three choices.
Diff: 2
29) ________ is the power that rests on the leader's ability to punish or control.
A) Reward power
B) Coercive power
C) Expert power
D) Referent power
Answer: B
Explanation: Coercive power is the power that comes from fear, so the ability to punish or
control is a coercive power. This makes "coercive power" correct. The leader is not using
expertise, access, or some kind of premium or bonus to influence others, so these choices are
incorrect.
Diff: 2
30) A bank manager who passes out bonuses at the end of the year is exercising this.
A) reward power
B) coercive power
C) expert power
D) referent power
Answer: A
Explanation: A bonus is a type of reward, so the manager is exercising reward power. The
power is not based on fear (coercive power), expertise, or knowing someone (referent power), so
none of these choices are correct.
Diff: 2
10
31) Your firm's attorney has ________ power when giving legal advice.
A) legitimate
B) status
C) expert
D) coercive
Answer: C
Explanation: Legal advice is a type of expertise, so "expert" is the correct response. The
attorney's power is not based on fear, so "coercive" is incorrect. "Legitimate" and "status" are
both incorrect because they refer to a type of hierarchical power, not power that comes from
expertise.
Diff: 2
32) ________ is the power that arises when a person is close to another person who has great
power and authority.
A) Expert power
B) Referent power
C) Reward power
D) Legitimate power
Answer: B
Explanation: The boss's secretary is a classic case of referent power–his or her power is based
on the ability to give access to an important person, the boss. This makes "referent power" the
correct response. The other three choices are incorrect because none of the three describes the
power that comes from proximity and access to a person who has power or resources.
Diff: 2
33) When a top manager decides to hire an individual over the objections of her staff, she is
exercising which kind of power?
A) referent
B) expert
C) coercive
D) legitimate
Answer: D
Explanation: When the manager does what she wants over the objection of subordinates, she is
exploiting her position of authority in the vertical organizational hierarchy–in other words, she is
using legitimate power. None of the other choices refers to the vertical power that comes from
one's position in the corporate pyramid.
Diff: 3
11
34) The traditional view holds that managers should directly supervise ________ subordinates.
A) no more than three
B) no more than six
C) around twelve
D) around twenty
Answer: B
Explanation: Classical studies and observations limited the number of employees under a single
manager to six, making the other options incorrect. This view has recently evolved. As
organizations become more sophisticated and workers become better trained and more
accountable, the span of control has increased in size.
Diff: 1
35) Modern managers find that they can ________ if their employees are experienced, well-
trained, and motivated.
A) increase their span of control
B) decrease their span of control
C) eliminate their span of control
D) fluctuate their span of control
Answer: A
Explanation: Having eager, well-trained, experienced employees seems to be the key to
increasing span of control. In a sense, the manager oversees a group of "self-managed"
individuals who are almost equal to him- or herself in accountability and responsibility. In
addition, many of his or her charges may have skills, knowledge, or insights that actually surpass
the manager's own abilities.
Diff: 2
36) A traditional "top down" organization is ________ organization.

A) a largely centralized
B) a largely decentralized
C) an absolutely decentralized
D) an absolutely centralized
Answer: A
Explanation: By definition, a centralized organization is one in which decisions are issued from
the top. This makes "largely centralized" the correct choice and "largely decentralized" and
"absolutely decentralized" incorrect because they refer to decentralized rather than centralized
structure. Finally, "absolutely centralized" is not correct because no organization is completely
centralized or decentralized. All organizations are somewhere in the middle of the two extremes.
Diff: 2
12
37) ________ reflects the degree to which decision making is distributed throughout the
hierarchy rather than concentrated at the top.
A) Centralization
B) Span of control
C) Concentration
D) Decentralization
Answer: D
Explanation: By definition, decentralization refers to the opposite of top-down decision making:
the more decentralized decisions in an organization are, the less often they are made by top
managers and filter down from above. When decision making is distributed throughout the
hierarchy, it is decentralized, making "decentralization" the correct response. Obviously,
"centralization" is incorrect here. "Span of control" and "concentration" also are wrong because
neither span of control nor concentration refers to decision making that comes from all levels of
an organization.
Diff: 2
38) In recent years, organizations have become more ________ to be responsive to a dynamic
business environment.
A) centralized
B) decentralized
C) structured
D) mechanistic
Answer: B
Explanation: The fast-changing business environment of today has made managers seek to be
more flexible. A decentralized structure that can effect change from any position in the hierarchy
without waiting for a centralized top-down decree is therefore favored by managers seeking
flexibility. This makes "decentralized" the correct response and rules out the other three choices,
all of which identify inflexible rather than flexible decision making.
Diff: 2
39) In today's decentralized business world, ________ the most important strategic decisions.
A) top managers still primarily make
B) middle managers make
C) lower-level managers make
D) nonmanagerial employees make
Answer: A
Explanation: Though decentralization has increased greatly in the recent past, the truly
important decisions in most organizations are still made by top managers. The decisions that
middle managers, lower managers, and nonmanagers make are usually of a tactical nature and do
not affect the direction in which the organization is headed.
Diff: 2
13
40) All of the following are characteristics of a highly formalized organization EXCEPT
________.
A) explicit job descriptions
B) little discretion for employees
C) minimum number of rules
D) a standardized way of doing things
Answer: C
Explanation: A formalized organization is very precise and bureaucratic. Jobs are precisely
defined; employees are given little leeway in how they carry out tasks, rules are given great
emphasis, and most activities are routine and standardized. Since rules are important in this kind
of an organization, you would not expect a minimum of rules, making it the correct response.
Diff: 2
41) Today's managers are moving away from formalization and trying to be this.
A) more rigorous
B) more flexible
C) more strict
D) less permissive
Answer: B
Explanation: Today's managers, if anything, are getting less strict and more permissive, making
"more strict" and "less permissive" incorrect. "More rigorous" is wrong simply because rigor has
not been identified as a current trend among managers. The correct choice identifies flexibility as
the key to dealing with a fast-changing economic environment.
Diff: 3
42) Today's managers expect employees to ________.

A) ignore rules for the most part
B) use discretion when it comes to following rules
C) faithfully follow rules even when it may harm the organization
D) make their own rules
Answer: B
Explanation: Rules have been de-emphasized in today's business environment, but not forgotten.
This rules out ignoring rules and faithfully following rules as the correct answer. Managers don't
want to go so far as having employees make their own rules, which eliminates that choice. The
correct response is using discretion, which reflects a decentralized view of management in which
employees participate in decision making–including the decision to interpret rules.
Diff: 2
14
Eric the Redd (Scenario)
Eric Redd graduated from college and was hired by a corporation that manufactured parts for the
automotive industry. The employees on the assembly line seemed bored, and their motivation
was low. Eric's employer decided to try to reorganize to increase productivity. During his career,
Eric will see his job change from an engineer to a more complex job assignment.
43) The jobs of assembly-line employees are to be changed to allow more tasks to be done by
individual workers. This is a reduction in ________.
A) work specialization
B) departmentalization
C) chain of command
D) centralization
Answer: A
Explanation: Increasing the number of tasks that employees perform is an example of becoming
less specialized. It would not increase how many departments there are nor affect authority
relationships or decision making, so all of these choices would be incorrect.
Diff: 3
44) Eric is offered a chance to help direct the efforts of some employees assigned to his work
group. This is a chance for Eric to experience ________.
A) functional structure
B) divisional structure
C) responsibility
D) authority
Answer: D
Explanation: By definition, authority gives an employee the right to direct the work of others
and give orders if necessary. This means that Eric is assuming authority. Assuming responsibility
would be just meeting organizational obligations. The other two choices are incorrect because
they refer to organizational design structures, not abilities that Eric might assume.
Diff: 2
15
45) Eric sees this new assignment as an increase in ________, or an obligation or expectation for
him to perform at a new level.
A) functional structure
C) responsibility
D) authority
Answer: C
Explanation: Assuming authority is about giving orders and directing the work of others while
assuming responsibility is about fulfilling one's obligations with respect to the organization.
Since Eric is meeting expectations, "responsibility" is the correct response.
Diff: 2
46) Organizational design is the process in which managers change or develop an organization's
structure.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: By definition, organizational design requires a manager to develop an
organization's structure, or change the structure in some way.
Diff: 2
47) There are four basic elements in organizational design.

Answer: FALSE
Explanation: There are six elements: work specialization, departmentalization, authority and
responsibility, span of control, centralization and decentralization, and formalization.
Diff: 1
48) The original ideas about organizational design formulated by Fayol and Weber are now
largely obsolete.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Surprisingly, many of the ideas of Fayol and Weber about organizational design
are still valid today.
Diff: 2
49) When work specialization originally began to be implemented early in the twentieth century,
employee productivity initially rose.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Initially, managers saw huge increases in productivity as a result of specialization.
However, when work became overly specialized, employee morale and motivation dropped,
erasing many productivity gains.
Diff: 2
16
50) Today, most managers see work specialization as a source of ever-increasing productivity.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Today, managers see a limit to the amount of productivity increase they can see
from specialization. Specialization that is not deadening to employees tends to work best.
Monotonous assembly-line work seems to have diminishing returns.
Diff: 2
51) The advantage of work specialization is that it always results in high employee motivation
and high productivity.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: The opposite occurs–too much work specialization results in lower motivation and
productivity.
Diff: 2
52) Departmentalization is how jobs are grouped.

Answer: TRUE
Explanation: The grouping of jobs along lines of function, product, and other criteria defines
departmentalization.
Diff: 1
53) Staff authority is the ability to direct the work of any employee who does not have a higher
rank in the organization.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Staff authority is authority over support staff only, not general employees. Thus, a
payroll manager has authority over payroll staff but not other organizational employees.
Diff: 2
54) Grouping jobs on the basis of major product areas is termed customer departmentalization.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Grouping along the lines of product areas is termed product departmentalization,
not customer departmentalization.
Diff: 2
55) Line authority can be exerted only after a manager checks with his or her superior.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Line authority does not require checking with superiors. It can be exerted as the
manager sees fit without any kind of consultation.
Diff: 2
17
56) Unity of command prevents an employee from trying to follow two conflicting commands at
once.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: The original management theorists stated that subordinates should not be put in the
position to try to follow two or more conflicting commands at once. Unity of command ensures
that the command from the highest organizational level is followed.
Diff: 2
57) Power is a right that a manager has when he or she has a higher rank in an organization.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Power can arise from rank, but it also can arise from a particular skill, knowledge,
or access within the organization. For example, the boss's secretary has power to gain access to
the boss without having a high rank in the organization.
Diff: 2
58) When decisions tend to be made at lower levels in an organization, the organization is said to
be centralized.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Centralized decisions originate at higher rather than lower levels of an
organization.
Diff: 2
59) Traditional organizations are structured in a pyramid, with the power and authority located in
the pyramid's broad base.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: The power and authority in a traditional organization resides at the narrow point of
the pyramid where top management is located, not the base.
Diff: 2
18
60) In a short essay, list and explain three key elements in designing an organization's structure.
Answer: (any three of the following)
Work specialization
This concept describes the degree to which tasks in an organization are divided into separate
jobs. The essence of work specialization is that an entire job is not done by one individual, but
instead is broken down into steps, with each step completed by a different person.
Departmentalization
The basis by which jobs are grouped together is called departmentalization. The five common
forms of departmentalization include functional, product, geographical, process, and customer
departmentalization.
Chain of command
This is the continuous line of authority that extends from upper organizational levels to the
lowest levels and clarifies who reports to whom. It helps employees answer questions such as
"Who do I go to if I have a problem?" and "To whom am I responsible?"
Span of control
The question of how many employees a manager can efficiently and effectively supervise is
important because, to a large degree, it determines the number of levels and managers an
organization has. Trends in today's organizations show wider spans of control that reflect better-
trained employees who are more independent and accountable.
Centralization and decentralization

Centralization describes the degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in
the organization. If top managers make the organization's key decisions with little or no input
from below, then the organization is centralized. In contrast, the more that lower-level employees
provide input or actually make decisions, the more decentralized the organization is.
Authority, responsibility, and power

Authority is the right to give directions and expect them to be obeyed within an organization; the
amount of authority for a given position is inherent in that position, not related to the individual
who fills that position. Responsibility is the obligation to perform assigned tasks. While authority
is a right given by position, power is an ability to change things that is independent of position.
For example, a low-level employee with a particular skill has considerable power in an
organization if that skill is valuable to the organization.
Diff: 2
19
61) In a short essay, list and discuss three common forms of departmentalization.
Answer: (any three of the following)
Functional departmentalization
Jobs are grouped by the functions (i.e., marketing, finance, human resources) performed. This
approach can be used in all types of organizations, although the functions change to reflect the
organization's objectives and work activities.
Product departmentalization
Jobs are grouped by product line. In this approach, each major product area is placed under the
authority of a manager who is a specialist in, and is responsible for, everything having to do with
that product line. Examples might include men's shoes, women's shoes, men's clothing, women's
clothing, and so on.
Geographical departmentalization
Jobs are grouped on the basis of a territory or geography that is served. Territory might reflect
the location of employees, customers, plants, and so on.
Process departmentalization
This method groups jobs on the basis of product or customer flow. In this approach, work
activities follow a natural processing flow of product or even customers. An example of process
departmentalization is a motor vehicles office that is organized around a process that customers
use to obtain permits, licenses, and other services.
Customer departmentalization
Jobs are grouped on the basis of common customers who have common needs or problems that
can best be met by having specialists for each. An example of customer departmentalization
includes separate retail, wholesale, and government customers at a large firm.
Diff: 2
62) A(n) ________ organization has a high degree of specialization, formalization, and
centralization.
A) organic
B) horizontal
C) learning
D) mechanistic
Answer: D
Explanation: By definition, a mechanistic organization is hierarchical and highly specialized
with rigid, formal rules and decision making controlled at the top of the corporate pyramid. Both
organic and learning organizations are very nearly opposite to a mechanistic structure, featuring
highly empowered employees, few rules, and flexible, decentralized decision making.
"Horizontal" is incorrect because it does not describe a recognized organizational model.
Diff: 1
LO: 6.2: Identify the contingency factors that favor either the mechanistic model or the organic
model of organizational design.
20
63) Which of the following would likely be found in mechanistic organizations?
A) wide span of control
B) empowered employees
C) decentralized responsibility
D) standardized jobs
Answer: D
Explanation: A mechanistic organization would feature a narrow span of control, employees
who were not highly empowered, and centralized responsibility, making the choices indicating
the opposite incorrect. A mechanistic organization would feature precisely defined, highly
standardized jobs, which makes "standardized jobs" the correct response.
Diff: 2
64) A(n) ________ organization is able to change rapidly as needs require.

A) organic
B) hierarchical
C) vertical
D) mechanistic
Answer: A
Explanation: The hallmark of an organic organization is its ability to be flexible and change in
response to a dynamic business environment. Hierarchical, vertical, and mechanistic
organizations are entities that do not adapt well to new situations, so these choices are incorrect.
Diff: 1
65) Which term best describes an organic organization?

A) hierarchical
B) pyramid-shaped
C) flexible
D) fixed
Answer: C
Explanation: Flexibility is the key to an organic organization, making that choice correct. The
terms hierarchical, pyramid-shaped, and fixed all correlate with a mechanistic organization, so
each of these choices is incorrect.
Diff: 2
21
66) Which word best characterizes a mechanistic organization?
A) bureaucracy
B) collaborative
C) adaptable
D) informal
Answer: A
Explanation: A mechanistic organization is not collaborative, adaptable, or informal. Those
terms describe more organic models, such as a team or matrix structure. A mechanistic
organization is often called a bureaucracy.
Diff: 2
67) Strategy, size, technology, and the degree of uncertainty in the environment together make
up what are called ________.
A) contingency variables
B) control factors
C) structure variables
D) probable factors
Answer: A
Explanation: The inputs that determine an organization's structure are called contingency
variables–strategy, size, technology, and degree of uncertainty. Each of these variables can
change how a company is organized and structured. For example, as the size of an organization
changes, its structure also gets modified to accommodate its new stature. Since "contingency
variables" is the only choice that correctly identifies these variables, it is the right response.
Diff: 1
68) Together, contingency variables determine the ________.

A) success of an organization
B) culture of an organization
C) structure of an organization
D) size of an organization
Answer: C
Explanation: Contingency variables are the inputs that determine an organization's structure. For
example, in a highly uncertain business environment, the structure of an organization typically
changes to become more nimble and adaptable so it can change quickly. Since degree of
uncertainty is a contingency variable, this makes "structure of an organization" the correct
response and renders the other terms incorrect.
Diff: 2
22
69) A company that is trying to be a leader in innovation within its industry would be most likely
to have this kind of structure.
A) mechanistic
B) organic
C) simple
D) functional
Answer: B
Explanation: An organic model has been found to work best for innovation and creativity within
an organization, making "organic" the correct response. The other three choices identify
nonorganic approaches that work better for cost-cutting and efficiency than they do for
innovation.
Diff: 2
70) Larger organizations tend to have ________ than smaller organizations.

A) more specialization
B) less departmentalization
C) less centralization
D) fewer rules and regulations
Answer: A
Explanation: It is inevitable that as an organization grows to a large size, a high degree of
specialization results. With so many employees to keep track of, it is only natural that groups
form that consist of individuals who share tasks or priorities. The other three choices are
incorrect because in larger organizations you would expect more, not less, departmentalization
and centralization and more, not fewer, rules to follow.
Diff: 2
71) As an organization grows to a size of over 2,000 employees, it finds it hard to avoid
becoming more ________.
A) mechanistic
B) organic
C) informal
D) adaptable
Answer: A
Explanation: Like an army, the realities of organizing large groups of people require a fairly
rigid, rule-bound structure. This causes large organizations to become more mechanistic as they
increase in size. If anything, as organizations grow they become less organic, informal, and
adaptable, making all of these choices incorrect.
Diff: 2
23
72) Joan Woodward conducted pioneering studies on how this affected the structure of
companies.
A) ethics
B) technology
C) values
D) corporate culture
Answer: B
Explanation: Woodward studied factories that used different technologies to produce goods,
discovering trends in the way technology affected organizational structure. Woodward did not
observe firms with respect to ethical, value-based, or cultural concerns, making all of these
choices incorrect for this question.
Diff: 1
AACSB: Information technology
73) Recent studies on Woodward's initial research found that if the technology was nonroutine,
this structure worked best.
A) mechanistic
B) traditional
C) inorganic
D) organic
Answer: D
Explanation: Woodward's findings showed that no matter how vertical differentiation differed,
low horizontal differentiation correlated with an organic model. A mechanistic or traditional
structure correlated with high horizontal differentiation, eliminating those two choices.
"Inorganic" is ruled out because inorganic is not a recognized model.
Diff: 2
74) Woodward concluded that the least complex of the technologies was ________.
A) unit production
B) mass production
C) process production
D) quality production
Answer: A
Explanation: Woodward found that unit production was the least complex while mass and
process production required more sophistication. Quality production is not a correct term.
Diff: 2
24
75) In Woodward's study, this type of production was the most complex and the most
sophisticated.
A) unit production
B) mass production
C) process production
D) technological production
Answer: C
Explanation: Woodward found that process production was very hierarchical, that is, vertically
differentiated into levels of organizational authority, but low in horizontal differentiation,
meaning there was little specialization. The other technologies did not match this profile, so the
other three choices are incorrect.
Diff: 2
76) The greater the environmental uncertainty, the more an organization needs to become
________.
A) organic
B) mechanistic
C) stable
D) high-tech
Answer: A
Explanation: Increased uncertainty in a business environment requires an organization to be
more flexible and adaptable–in other words, more organic. High uncertainty would militate
against being more mechanistic, and it would have little influence on the stability of an
organization or the degree to which it was "high-tech."
Diff: 2
77) The two prevalent organizational structure models in today's world are the organic
organization and the inorganic organization.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: The two structures are termed organic and mechanistic.
Diff: 1
78) A mechanistic organization is bureaucratic and hierarchical.

Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Mechanistic organizations are formal, hierarchical, impersonal, specialized, and
heavily dependent on rules and protocols.
Diff: 2
25
79) An organic organization tends to be flexible and have few formal rules.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: An organic organization tries to be nimble in a dynamic business climate, paring
down bureaucratic complexity and focusing on innovation, flexibility, and creativity.
Diff: 2
80) Innovators need the efficiency, stability, and tight controls of a mechanistic structure rather
than an organic structure.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Innovators usually do better in a flexible organic structure where they are given
leeway to think creatively.
Diff: 2
81) As organizations become larger, they tend to become more organic.

Answer: FALSE
Explanation: The greater the size of the organization, the more mechanistic it tends to be.
However, the relationship is not at all linear but rather seems to jump at certain levels in numbers
of employees. An organization with fewer than 100 employees, for example, may be very
organic, while adding just a few more employees could cause the organization to suddenly take
on more mechanistic characteristics.
Diff: 3
82) Joan Woodward attempted to view organizational structure from a technological perspective.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Woodward looked at how production methods affected organization structure.
Diff: 2
83) Woodward and more recent studies have concluded that mass production worked best with
an organic organizational structure.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Woodward found that a mechanistic structure, rather than an organic structure,
worked best with mass production technology.
Diff: 2
26
84) The stability of a mechanistic structure seems to work best in today's dynamic and uncertain
business environment.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Most managers feel that today's dynamic environment calls for a more organic
approach, not a more mechanistic approach.
Diff: 2
85) Traditional organizational designs tend to be more mechanistic and include ________.
A) simple, complex, and divisional structures
B) simple, functional, and dysfunctional structures
C) functional, divisional, and vertical structures
D) simple, functional, and divisional structures
Answer: D
Explanation: The original organizational theorists divided organizations into three categories:
simple, functional, and divisional. Several other categories and subcategories have subsequently
been added, but these traditional characterizations still stand up well today. For example, the
newly identified matrix model is a modification of the original functional design, with teams
forming from individuals within a functional system.
Diff: 1
LO: 6.3: Compare and contrast traditional and contemporary organizational designs.
86) A simple structure is ________ like a mechanistic organization, but ________ like an
organic organization.
A) centralized; informal
B) informal; decentralized
C) decentralized; formal
D) centralized; formal
Answer: A
Explanation: A simple structure is largely a one-person show, with a single person being the
originator and driving force behind the organization he or she formed. A single person makes
virtually all important decisions in a simple structure, making the system highly centralized.
However, since the simple structure is largely used in very small companies, it is also typically
very informal. The combination of being centralized and informal matches the choice with the
same description.
Diff: 3
27
87) What is a strength of a simple structure?
A) Employees are grouped with others who have similar tasks.
B) Power and authority are widely distributed.
C) Accountability is clear.
D) There are cost-saving advantages from specialization.
Answer: C
Explanation: Simple structures have a number of strengths, but they do not include
specialization, departmentalization, or decentralization. A simple structure is typically too small
for any of those attributes to emerge. What almost all simple structures do feature is a strong
sense of accountability. With a single person largely making all important decisions, simple
structures do not suffer from murkiness when it comes to determining who was responsible for
an action or decision. This makes the choice on accountability the correct response.
Diff: 2
88) What is a weakness of a simple structure?

A) Duplication of activities and resources increases costs and reduces efficiency.
B) Functional specialists become insulated and have little understanding of what other units are
doing.
C) Pursuit of functional goals can cause managers to lose sight of what is best for the overall
organization.
D) Reliance on a single person is risky.
Answer: D
Explanation: Simple structures are usually too small to suffer from duplication, too much
specialization, or losing sight of larger goals, so none of these choices is correct. The weakness
that simple structures do suffer from is putting "too many eggs in a single basket"–relying on a
single person to make all key decisions and perform all important functions. This makes
"reliance on a single person is risky" the correct response.
Diff: 2
89) This is a key characteristic in an organization with a functional structure.

A) adaptability
B) departmentalization
C) flexibility
D) little specialization
Answer: B
Explanation: The hallmark of a functional structure is departmentalization. An organization that
has functional structure is essentially a sum of individual parts, each one being a separate
department. Adaptability and flexibility are traits one would be likely to see in an organic
organization of some type, so those choices are incorrect. Similarly, one would expect to see a
great deal of specialization in a functional structure, making "little specialization" incorrect.
Diff: 2
28
90) This is a weakness of a functional structure.
A) favoring functional goals over organizational goals
B) favoring organizational goals over functional goals
C) failing to attain functional goals
D) overemphasizing organizational goals
Answer: A
Explanation: The risk that any functional structure with strong departments runs is that
departmental goals will begin to eclipse overall organizational goals. A department will become
so focused on its task that it might take actions that are less than beneficial or even harmful to the
organization itself. Given this tendency, it is easy to see that the choices regarding favoring and
overemphasizing organizational goals are not correct, as organizational goals are not likely to be
favored. The risk of not meeting functional goals is always possible, but certainly would not be
considered a weakness of the functional structure.
Diff: 3
91) Avoiding redundancy is a strength of which structure?

A) simple
B) divisional
C) functional
D) corporate
Answer: C
Explanation: In a functional structure, workers are grouped together according to specialty,
meaning that the chance of duplicating resources and equipment gets minimized. For example, if
an art department needs a super-expensive printer, it is likely that the organization will purchase
only one printer rather than have artists scattered in other segments of the organization requiring
their own printers. These facts all indicate that "functional" is the correct response.
Diff: 2
92) In a ________ structure each business unit has complete autonomy to reach its goals.
A) simple
B) functional
C) divisional
D) matrix
Answer: C
Explanation: A divisional structure combines a number of separate business units under the
umbrella of the main organization. These units are almost completely autonomous but benefit
from the resources and brand of the combined organization. The divisional structure allows more
autonomy for its subunits than any other structure, making divisional the correct response.
Diff: 2
29
93) A media company that has separate, autonomous companies for movies, TV, Internet, and
print journalism is most likely a ________ structure.
A) divisional
B) functional
C) simple
D) matrix
Answer: A
Explanation: An organization that features autonomous branches that function like independent
companies is likely to be a divisional structure. This media company fits the description of a
divisional structure, making that the correct response and ruling out a functional, simple, or
matrix structure.
Diff: 3
94) Having separate payroll departments in each division of a divisional structure is an example
of which of the following?
A) efficiency, because payroll departments compete
B) duplication, because a single payroll department could do the job
C) effectiveness, because separate payroll departments create jobs
D) efficiency, because separate payroll departments can share methods of operation
Answer: B
Explanation: Separate departments that perform the same task is an example of redundancy, not
efficiency or effectiveness. The organization is wasting resources by having different units
perform tasks that could be done by a single unit. This makes the choice regarding duplication
the correct response.
Diff: 3
95) As the number of employees in an organization grows, structure tends to become more
________.
A) bureaucratic
B) informal
C) decentralized
D) relaxed
Answer: A
Explanation: Size increases complexity, so an organization inevitably becomes more
bureaucratic and centralized as it increases in size–simply to manage the increase in complexity
it faces. This makes "bureaucratic" the correct response. The other three choices identify traits
that a larger organization tends to move away from as it grows: informality and less top-down in
decision making.
Diff: 1
30
96) Looking for ways to make their organization more flexible and innovative, today's managers
may choose this kind of structure.
A) simple
B) divisional
C) functional
D) team
Answer: D
Explanation: Simple, divisional, and functional structures are traditional organization types that
have many strengths but do not typically specialize in being flexible or innovative. That makes
the team structure the best candidate here, as it is typically employed in firms that seek to be
creative and adaptable.
Diff: 2
97) In a team structure, ________.

A) there is a clear line of managerial authority
B) there is no clear line of managerial authority
C) authority comes from top managers only
D) no one has the authority to make decisions
Answer: B
Explanation: An organization that has a team structure is made entirely of work groups or teams.
Each team is fairly independent of others, causing traditional lines of managerial authority to be
cast aside or blurred. For example, within a team a project leader's request might take precedence
over the request of a manager of higher rank who is outside the team. This makes the choices
regarding authority from top managers and a clear line of managerial authority incorrect as they
describe traditional authority relationships. The choice regarding no one having authority is
incorrect because it assumes no authority for decisions and though teams make decisions
differently than traditional structures, they still ultimately assert authority and arrive at decisions.
Diff: 2
AACSB: Interpersonal relations and teamwork
31
98) In a team structure, team members ________.
A) are subject to decisions made by their supervisors
B) can influence decisions made by top managers
C) make decisions and are accountable for their decisions
D) make decisions only after first checking with management
Answer: C
Explanation: Within a team structure, team members are empowered to make and influence
decisions. This privilege does have its price–team members are held accountable for their
decisions and cannot make excuses that they were "only following orders." The choice regarding
accountability, therefore, is the correct response, making the choices regarding supervisors and
top managers, both traditional arrangements, incorrect. The choice regarding checking with
management is also incorrect because team members do not typically need to consult
management before making decisions that affect their team's functioning.
Diff: 3
99) All of the following are necessary for successful team structure EXCEPT ________.
A) well-trained team members
B) team members with cross-functional skills
C) team members with years of management experience
D) a fair and well-run team-based pay plan
Answer: C
Explanation: An effective team needs skilled, highly trained, versatile team members. It also
requires a specialized pay plan to avoid conflicts and misunderstandings. An effective team
typically does not need management experience, making the choice regarding team members
with years of management experience the correct response.
Diff: 2
100) In a ________, employees are recruited from functional departments to work on a specific
project for a limited time period.
A) team structure
C) product structure
D) matrix structure
Answer: D
Explanation: Of the contemporary organizational designs, only the matrix structure preserves
functional departments within its format. Team and product structures do not recruit group
members from existing functional departments, so those choices are incorrect. A divisional
structure does not typically engage in project work, so that choice also is incorrect.
Diff: 3
32
101) In a matrix structure, a group member will typically report to ________.
A) a project manager only
B) both a project manager and functional department head
C) a functional department head only
D) Group members are fully autonomous in a matrix structure, so they don't report to anyone.
Answer: B
Explanation: Since group members in a matrix structure are recruited from functional
departments, they report to their project manager and their department head. This makes the
choice regarding both a project manager and functional department head the correct response and
eliminates the choices regarding a project manager only and a functional department head only.
The choice regarding group members being fully autonomous is incorrect because matrix group
members do need to report to managers.
Diff: 2
102) When a group member in a matrix structure finishes a project, he or she ________.
A) returns to his or her functional department
B) stays with the group to take on a new project
C) enters a pool of available employees from the entire organization
D) starts looking for a new job
Answer: A
Explanation: A key difference between a matrix structure and a project structure is that group
members return to their departments after finishing a project in a matrix system. In a project
system, group members have no "home" department and go on to new projects when they
complete their current project. The choice regarding staying with the group describes the
arrangement in a team structure while the remaining two choices match the situation in a project
structure.
Diff: 2
103) By giving employees two direct superiors, a matrix structure violates this key element of
organizational design.
A) unity of command
B) chain of command
C) span of management
D) decentralization
Answer: A
Explanation: Unity of command requires that a single voice be dominant in the event that there
are conflicting orders in an organization. Since a matrix system can give a single employee two
bosses, it violates the unity of command tradition.
Diff: 2
33
104) A key difference between a team structure and a matrix structure is that a team structure
________ while a matrix structure does not.
A) empowers group members
B) works on projects
C) has fairly permanent groups or teams
D) holds group members accountable
Answer: C
Explanation: Both matrix and team structures feature small groups working together on projects
with empowered employees who are held accountable for their decisions. A key difference
between the two structures is that teams can be fairly permanent while matrix groups return to
their functional departments when their project is complete.
Diff: 2
105) In a project structure, when employees finish a project they ________.

A) return to their department
B) return to a different division
C) move on to another project
D) return to their regular work
Answer: C
Explanation: A project structure has employees who have no "home" department and move from
one project to the next in the organization. This identifies "move on to another project" as the
correct response and eliminates the other three choices as correct responses since the employee
would not return to a department, division, or "regular work."
Diff: 2
106) Which of the following areas has opened up new possibilities for how and where employees
work?
A) information technology
B) human resources
C) organizational design
D) global competition
Answer: A
Explanation: It's fair to say that the world of work will never be like it was 10 years ago. IT has
opened up new possibilities for employees to do their work in locations as remote as Patagonia
or in the middle of downtown Seattle. Although organizations have always had employees who
traveled to distant corporate locations to take care of business, these employees no longer have to
find the nearest pay phone or wait to get back to "the office" to see what problems have cropped
up.
Diff: 3
34
107) Which of the following is the biggest concern when doing work at anytime and anywhere?
A) employee payroll
B) security
C) employee accountability
D) customer satisfaction
Answer: B
Explanation: The biggest issue in doing work anywhere, anytime is security. Companies must
protect their important and sensitive information. However, software and other disabling devices
have minimized security issues considerably.
Diff: 3
108) Boundaryless organizations try to eliminate ________ within their organization.

A) horizontal specialization and vertical hierarchy
B) horizontal specialization only
C) vertical hierarchy only
D) vertical specialization only
Answer: A
Explanation: Boundaryless organizations try to eliminate both kinds of boundaries–vertical
boundaries that separate by rank and horizontal boundaries that separate by specialization. This
makes "horizontal specialization and vertical hierarchy" the correct response and renders the
other choices incorrect.
Diff: 2
109) A virtual organization is essentially ________ who come together for a particular project.
A) a group of employees from a single company
B) a group of free agents
C) a team of employees from different departments of a company
D) a group of top managers and CEOs
Answer: B
Explanation: A virtual organization maintains a small administrative staff but relies on
freelancers to perform tasks, complete projects, and do the work of the organization. The
freelancers do not come from a single organization, nor are they high-ranked corporate
managers. Instead, the freelancers come from a variety of different places and typically are
unaffiliated with any permanent organization or company.
Diff: 2
35
110) How does a virtual organization save on costs?
A) by hiring people who specialize in what they do
B) by hiring fewer people than they need and making them work much longer hours
C) by eliminating all administrative duties
D) by keeping only a small permanent staff for administrative purposes only
Answer: D
Explanation: A virtual organization can temporarily grow to a large size by hiring large numbers
of freelancers. However, it keeps costs to a minimum by paying these individuals only for actual
work they do and not providing benefits and compensation when there is no work for them to
perform. This makes "keeping only a small permanent staff" the correct response. "Eliminating
all administrative duties" is incorrect because a virtual organization does keep a small
administrative staff. "Hiring people who specialize in what they do" is incorrect because hiring
people with specialties does not necessarily keep costs down. "Hiring fewer people than they
need" is incorrect because virtual organizations typically do not hire fewer workers than are
necessary.
Diff: 2
111) A ________ subcontracts part of a project to outside suppliers.

A) virtual organization
B) boundary organization
C) matrix structure
D) network organization
Answer: D
Explanation: A network organization takes on projects knowing that it has resources to complete
only some phases of the work. The network organization then relies on subcontracting to outside
firms or groups that specialize in the services needed by the project. None of the other choices–
virtual, boundary, or matrix structures–have these qualities, so all of these choices are incorrect
for this situation.
Diff: 2
36
112) A building contractor follows the network organization model when he does which of the
following?
A) does the framing and tiling by himself
B) hires three workers to help with framing
C) gives orders to workers
D) farms out the plumbing to a plumbing firm
Answer: D
Explanation: A building contractor functions as a network organization when he farms out work
to others. The contractor, for example, may do one part of the job himself and subcontract phases
of the job that he is not qualified to do. This makes "farms out the plumbing" the correct
response. Doing the framing and tiling on his own, hiring workers, or issuing orders does not
qualify the contractor as a networker; that occurs only when he actually subcontracts a part of the
job to another organization or individual.
Diff: 3
Eric the Redd (Scenario)
Eric Redd graduated from college and was hired by a corporation that manufactured parts for the
automotive industry. The employees on the assembly line seemed bored, and their motivation
was low. Eric's employer decided to try to reorganize to increase productivity. During his career,
Eric will see his job change from an engineer to a more complex job assignment.
113) Eric, who is trained as an engineer, is now in a group with production workers and
marketing specialists from different departments designing a new product that the company plans
to offer. This situation could be described as a(n) ________.
A) alternative assignment
B) collective assignment
C) advanced assignment
D) project assignment
Answer: D
Explanation: Since Eric is working with employees from different departments, it appears that
he is working on a project team within a matrix structure. He will go on to design the new
product, then move back to his original position in the organization. None of the other terms
given here matches a recognized work structure, so they are incorrect.
Diff: 2
114) One of the strengths of a simple structure is that it is flexible.

Answer: TRUE
Explanation: The simple structure is most widely used in smaller businesses and its strengths
should be obvious. It's fast, flexible, and inexpensive to maintain, and accountability is clear.
Diff: 2
37
115) A strength of a functional structure is that it avoids duplication of activities.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Putting specialties together makes departments efficient. For example, expensive
equipment can get used in one central place, eliminating the need for the same equipment to be
located elsewhere in the organization.
Diff: 2
116) A weakness of the divisional structure is that duplication of activities tends to occur.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: A divisional structure can duplicate entire departments whose tasks could
otherwise be carried out by a single, centrally located department.
Diff: 2
117) In a team structure, team members are not held responsible for their decisions.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: The opposite occurs–team members make decisions and are accountable for their
decisions.
Diff: 2
118) In a team structure, there is a clear line of managerial authority from top to bottom.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: A team makes decisions on its own. For the most part, a team is not subject to
decisions or orders that come from outside the team.
Diff: 2
119) Employees in an organization with a matrix design can have two bosses for the same job.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: An employee in a project group can have a project manager in addition to a
manager from his or her functional department.
Diff: 2
120) A significant advantage of the matrix structure is the clear chain of command from top to
bottom of the organization.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: In a matrix structure in which employees can have multiple supervisors, the chain
of command can become confused and conflicts can arise.
Diff: 2
38
121) When employees in a matrix structure finish a project, they go back to their functional
department.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: A matrix structure maintains departments. When projects are finished, employees
return to their original department.
Diff: 2
122) When employees in a project structure finish a project, they go back to their original
department.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: In a project structure, an employee has no original department. Instead, after the
project ends the employee enrolls in a new project.
Diff: 2
123) Vertical boundaries separate employees by their rank in an organization.

Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Vertical boundaries refer to the classic corporate pyramid in which rank is
measured by how high vertically an employee is on the pyramid.
Diff: 2
124) Internal boundaries separate the organization from its customers, suppliers and
stakeholders.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: External boundaries separate the organization from its customers, suppliers and
stakeholders.
Diff: 2
125) A virtual organization relies on free agents who have no permanent status or position in the
organization.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Virtual organizations keep a skeleton staff and rely on the talents of free agents
who perform the work that the organization does.
Diff: 2
39
126) Managers want to eliminate boundaries in organizations primarily to increase stability and
reduce flexibility.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Managers primarily want to increase flexibility in boundaryless organizations
without jeopardizing stability.
Diff: 2
127) Horizontal boundaries separate employees by the specialization of their job.

Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Horizontal boundaries mark the difference between, for example, an ad executive
and a member of a creative advertising team. Both may have equal ranks in the organization, but
they are separated by what they do.
Diff: 2
128) A network organization uses its own employees and outside suppliers to provide manpower
for projects.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: A network organization uses its own employees to do some work activities and
networks of outside suppliers to provide other needed product components or work processes.
This organizational form is sometimes called a modular organization by manufacturing firms.
Diff: 2
40
129) In a short essay, list and discuss two contingency variables that should be considered in
determining an appropriate structure in organizational design.
Answer: (any two of the following)
Strategy and structure

An organization's structure should facilitate the achievement of goals. Since goals are influenced
by the organization's strategies, it's only logical that strategy and structure should be closely
linked. More specifically, structure should follow strategy. If managers significantly change the
organization's strategy, they will need to modify structure to accommodate and support the
change.
Size and structure

There is considerable evidence that an organization's size significantly affects its structure. For
instance, large organizations–those with 2,000 or more employees–tend to have more
specialization, departmentalization, centralization, and rules and regulations than do small
organizations. However, the relationship isn't linear. Rather, size affects structure at a decreasing
rate; that is, size becomes less important as an organization grows.
Technology and structure

Every organization has at least one form of technology to convert its inputs into outputs. The
processes or methods that transform an organization's inputs into outputs differ by their degree of
routineness. In general, the more routine the technology, the more standardized and mechanistic
the structure can be. Organizations with more nonroutine technology are more likely to have
organic structures.
Environment and structure

The greater the uncertainty in the environment, the greater the need for the flexibility offered by
an organic design. On the other hand, in stable, simple environments, mechanistic designs tend to
be most effective.
Diff: 2
130) In a short essay, describe the characteristics of a simple structure.

Answer: The simple structure is most often associated with small entrepreneurial ventures and is
common among organizations where the owner and manager are one and the same. Simple
structures possess low departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a
single person, and little formalization. As firms grow, structure tends to become more specialized
and formalized, departments and new levels of management are created, and the firm takes on a
more bureaucratic nature. The great weakness in a simple structure is that it relies too much on a
single individual. If that person is unavailable for some reason, the organization grinds to a halt.
Diff: 2
41
131) In a short essay, describe the characteristics of a functional structure.
Answer: A functional structure is an organizational design that groups similar or related
occupational specialties together. It is a functional approach to departmentalization applied to the
entire organization. For example, an organization could be structured by the separate functions of
operations, finance, human resources, marketing, and R&D. Strengths of a functional structure
include advantages from specialization–economies of scale and little redundancy. Weaknesses of
a functional structure involve employees putting the functional goals ahead of the goals of the
entire organization.
Diff: 2
132) In a short essay, describe the characteristics of a divisional structure.

Answer: The divisional structure is an organizational structure made up of separate business
units or divisions. In this design, each unit maintains limited autonomy, with a division manager
responsible for performance and determining who has strategic and operational authority within
the divisional unit. However, the parent corporation typically still acts as an external overseer to
coordinate and control the various divisions. Strengths of the divisional structure include a focus
on results as divisions are highly motivated to achieve their goals. Weaknesses of this approach
include the redundancy that might arise from having autonomous divisions operating at the same
time.
Diff: 2
133) In a short essay, describe the matrix structure. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer: The matrix structure is an organizational structure that assigns specialists from
different functional departments to work on one or more projects being led by project managers.
Each product is managed by an individual who staffs his or her product team with people from
each of the functional departments. The addition of this vertical dimension to the traditional
horizontal functional departments, in effect, "weaves together" elements of functional and
product departmentalization, creating a matrix arrangement. One unique aspect of this design is
that it creates a dual chain of command, which violates the classical organizing principle of unity
of command. Employees in a matrix organization have two managers who share authority: their
functional area manager and their product or project manager. The project managers have
authority over the functional members who are part of their project team in areas related to the
project's goals. However, decisions such as promotions, salary recommendations, and annual
reviews typically remain the functional manager's responsibility. To work effectively, project
and functional managers have to communicate regularly, coordinate work demands on
employees, and resolve conflicts together.
Diff: 3
42
134) Global competition forces firms to ________.
A) become lean, fast, and flexible
B) build up enormous cash reserves
C) think locally
D) become more hierarchical
Answer: A
Explanation: Competing in a global market adds unpredictability to a business, typically forcing
it to become more adaptable and quick to respond to change, making "lean, fast, and flexible" the
correct response. Global competition requires the opposite of thinking locally or becoming more
hierarchical (less flexible). Going global does not necessarily affect cash requirements, so "build
up enormous cash reserves" is incorrect.
Diff: 2
AACSB: Diverse and multicultural work environments
LO: 6.4: Discuss the design challenges faced by today's organizations.
135) A learning organization develops the capability to ________.

A) add new training programs to keep employees up to date
B) accept the conventional wisdom of the industry
C) continuously learn, adapt, and change
D) attract new employees who have special knowledge
Answer: C
Explanation: A learning organization does not just train employees, gain insights, or hire
knowledgeable people. Instead, a learning organization specializes in adapting to new conditions
and developing new methods and ideas as an organization. For example, a learning organization
might collectively discover innovative new ways to improve a process or a product. This makes
"continuously learn, adapt, and change" the correct response.
Diff: 2
136) A learning organization requires employees to ________.

A) encode information to prevent competitors from stealing ideas
B) collaborate with competitors
C) make all ideas public
D) share information and collaborate with one another
Answer: D
Explanation: Collaboration is critical to a learning organization, making "share information and
collaborate with one another" the correct response. Note that collaboration is limited to the inside
of the organization, making both "collaborate with competitors" and "make all ideas public"
incorrect. "Encode information" is wrong because it focuses on employees failing to share
information, something that a learning organization would not do.
Diff: 2
43
137) All of the following are characteristic of learning organizations EXCEPT ________.
A) a strong sense of community
B) a collaborative environment
C) managers who serve as facilitators
D) fear of making mistakes
Answer: D
Explanation: To function well, learning organizations need a strong sense of community and
skilled managers who facilitate collaboration. This leaves "fear of making mistakes" as the
correct response–learning organizations want their employees to be creative and recognize that
part of the creative process is to make mistakes.
Diff: 2
138) Organizational learning can't take place without ________.

A) complete privacy for employees
B) a clear chain of command
C) a shared vision of the future
D) a stable structure or hierarchy
Answer: C
Explanation: Learning organizations are often boundaryless organizations in which such things
as chain of command, a rigid hierarchy, and excessive privacy are out of place. One thing that
learning organizations do require is a vision of the future to guide employees toward common
goals.
Diff: 2
139) In a learning organization, it is important that all employees ________.

A) collaborate
B) study each night
C) have a strong sense of leadership
D) share the same vision for the organization
Answer: D
Explanation: Employees in a learning organization may or may not collaborate with one
another, depending on the situation. They may or may not be good leaders, and in most cases do
not need to study to succeed. What employees do require in a learning organization is a shared
vision for the organization. That shared vision allows them to work together and further
organizational goals.
Diff: 2
140) All learning organizations share a distinct structure.

Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Learning organizations take on a variety of different structures. Each structure is
customized for the organization and the work that it does.
Diff: 2
44
141) The biggest issue in workers working at home or off-site involves fairness.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: The biggest off-site work issue is security.
Diff: 2
142) A learning organization puts an enormous amount of effort on making sure that all of its
employees are enrolled in some kind of university level class.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Learning organizations focus on learning, adapting, and changing within the
business environment, not taking classes.
Diff: 2
143) Organizations that implement flextime programs allow employees to work at home for
some of the work day.
Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Working from home is called telecommuting and gives employees flexibility with
regard to time and location of work. Flextime gives flexibility in time.
Diff: 2
144) Contingent workers may make up to 40 percent of the workforce by the end of the decade.
Answer: TRUE
Explanation: The use of contingent workers who do jobs by the piece is increasing every year.
Diff: 3
AACSB: Ethical understanding and reasoning
145) In a short essay, describe the boundaryless organization.

Answer: Another approach to contemporary organizational design is the concept of a
boundaryless organization, an organization whose design is not defined by, or limited to, the
horizontal, vertical, or external boundaries imposed by a predefined structure. To minimize or
eliminate these boundaries, managers might use virtual or network structural designs. Advances
in technology have facilitated the movement toward more boundaryless organizations.
Diff: 2
45
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microscopical hæmorrhages (this has already been referred to);
these hæmorrhages were not confined to any particular position in
the body nor to any one organ. In the animals which showed
symptoms of epilepsy, occasionally thickening of the pia mater was
found, but invariably in such cases small hæmorrhages were found
immediately under the arachnoid, not covering any great area, but
apparently causing pressure upon small areas of the cortex. In
others, again, the hæmorrhages were found lower down in the brain,
and a few in the spinal cord. At times a large amount of hæmorrhage
was to be found present at the base of the brain, spreading
downwards from the medulla into the spinal canal, but this only
occurred in such animals as died with encephalopathic symptoms. In
animals which had signs of more chronic poisoning—that is to say,
gradual loss of body weight, emaciation, constipation, contraction of
the abdomen, and paresis, particularly of the hind-limbs and the
muscles of the back—hæmorrhages were found in the muscles,
liver, spleen, lung, heart, various positions in the abdomen, in the
spinal cord, in the nerve-supply of the affected muscle, and even in
the brain, none of them large enough to produce absolute
destruction of more than a very minute portion of the organ in which
they were situated.
Now, all these symptoms, and, more important still, the
phenomena of hæmorrhage, were found in all the animals which
exhibited similar symptoms, whether they were poisoned by
inhalation of dusty lead compounds or fed upon lead compounds
associated with alcohol; but even in some of the animals which were
fed upon lead compounds—particularly white lead—and which had
exhibited no definite symptoms of paralysis, or, for that matter, any
symptom referable to poisoning, here and there slight histological
changes which were referable to minute hæmorrhages.
The experimental work therefore carries us very considerably
forward in correlating the symptomatology and pathology of lead
poisoning. The symptoms produced in susceptible animals by the
actual inoculation of a lead compound differ only in degree and
rapidity of onset from those produced in animals submitted to
inhalation with similar compounds. Feeding, on the other hand—that
is, ingestion by way of the gastro-intestinal canal—even in large
quantities, did not produce poisoning to any great extent, except
when some material such as alcohol was added, thereby breaking
down the animal’s resistance. Another interesting fact is given—that
if lead is taken by the mouth in addition to milk a great deal of the
poisonous effect is got rid of; thus of two animals—Nos. 46 and 47—
which received lead nitrate in their food, the one in water and the
other in milk, the one which received it in milk showed no effects
even after four months’ experiment, whereas at the end of four
months the animal which was receiving the compound in its water
died. This brings out a point already insisted upon—namely, that in
all lead factories it is highly important that no work should be
undertaken first thing in the morning, before the workers have had a
proper meal, and that in the absence of a proper meal milk is the
best substitute. It is highly probable that the soluble lead salt
becomes united in some form of albuminate which is dealt with later,
and perhaps turned into a sulphide and excreted without absorption.
There is no possible doubt, from the large series of experiments
which I have performed, that lead inhaled is far more poisonous than
when absorbed in any other way; further, that the amount of
poisoning produced differs somewhat according to the type of
compound inhaled, and the experiments, moreover, give some
suggestion as to the dose which is likely to produce poisoning. It is
seen, where the animal is inoculated with white lead, the dose
required to produce symptoms is below 1 gramme per kilogramme of
body weight, but above 0·2 gramme per kilogramme of body weight.
In feeding, 0·8 gramme, and even 1 gramme, per diem for eighteen
months produces no effect, although the same quantity plus an
excess of alcohol rapidly produces the disease. On the other hand,
as small a dose as 0·1 gramme of nitrate of lead given in water for
four months produced death.
Turning to the inhalation experiments, the quantity of dust
breathed when as high as 0·0007 gramme per litre produced
symptoms after only twelve inhalations for a period of about thirty-
seven days; whereas when the dose was reduced to 0·0001
gramme per diem the time required to produce symptoms of
poisoning was 120 days; in fact, this last dose (0·0001) for the
animal under experiment was almost the lower limit, as this animal
showed an almost steady line of weight for a considerable time, the
weight remaining up for the first hundred days, a slight variation
taking place from week to week until a progressive diminution set in.
Practically all the animals poisoned manifested a very distinct
diminution in body weight; in four only other symptoms of poisoning
appeared first. This is a fact that is often to be noted amongst lead-
workers, and if a progressive diminution in weight takes place, there
is strong reason for supposing that a considerable alteration in the
metabolism of the body has taken place; but it does not follow that
microscopical hæmorrhages or other definite effects of poisoning are
present, although such is probable.
Finally, in summing up the conclusions to be drawn from the above
experiments, it has been suggested that such experiments as
inoculation, experimental inhalation, or even feeding, are no criterion
of the circumstances under which industrial workers become infected
with lead. It is perhaps hardly necessary to refer to this point, but for
the fact that it is possible this book may be made use of by those
who are not in the habit of dealing with experimental pathology. One
of the first and most important matters in dealing with any form of
poisoning is to obtain knowledge of the actual symptoms both
clinically and physiologically, as well as pathologically, of the effects
of any drug, and to determine if the symptoms so produced in an
experimental animal conform to the symptoms as seen in man. For
the purpose, therefore, an animal is required which is susceptible to
the poison, and therefore cats were used in the foregoing
experiments, as it is absolutely impossible to keep a domesticated
cat in any white lead works, for the animals invariably become
poisoned by lead.
The second point in prosecuting an inquiry into the pathology of
any disease is to determine the train of poisoning when definite
dosage, both in quantity and compound, is made use of. By feeding
an animal with a compound only, the absorption through the gastro-
intestinal canal could be studied; whereas by inoculating some of the
compound—in suspension if it be insoluble, or in solution if it be
soluble—into the subcutaneous or muscular tissue, the direct action
of the body fluids on the compound may be studied; and,
furthermore, its absorption by the membranes—that is, the cell
membranes and the animal tissues—are determined. It is necessary
to give at first a dose big enough to produce definite symptoms, and
then to gradually decrease the dose to find the minimum amount
producing symptoms within a reasonable amount of time. Inoculation
experiments therefore give an answer to a number of these
questions, and are the basis upon which further inquiry is conducted;
they form a criterion from which it is possible to judge the effect of
inhalation, and the same remarks which have been made with
regard to inoculation refer to inhalation experiments. It is essential
first of all, in the experimental animals, to subject them to rigorous
enough conditions to obtain definite symptoms, and then, by varying
the experiments, to study the amount, entrance, and general
behaviour, of the poison, correlating the evidence so obtained from
the definite knowledge already gained with the previous
experiments.
It is hoped that this brief note on experimental evidence will assist
in the elucidation of the foregoing experiments to those who are not
conversant with the application of experimental evidence.
Further Experiments relating to Lead Poisoning amongst
Painters.
—A series of further experiments were made, with particular
reference to lead poisoning exhibited by painters; and as these
experiments and their results could not have been undertaken
without the previous knowledge gained of the pathology of lead
poisoning due to the inhalation of particles of dust floating in the air,
their discussion has been reserved until the previous section had
been dealt with.
It has been supposed by some that surfaces painted with lead
paint give off certain emanations containing the metal lead as an
organic compound. As the incidence of lead poisoning amongst
painters is exceedingly high, as far as any statistical evidence can be
obtained (see p. 48), it would seem that the painter is peculiarly
exposed to infection by lead dust; and if, in addition, organic
compounds of lead were given off, he would be still more liable to
lead poisoning.
Two methods of experiment were used:
1. The exposure of animals to the fumes given off from freshly
painted surfaces, the paints used being compounded with white
lead, lead sulphate, zinc sulphide, and zinc oxide.
Animals were exposed in a cage similar to that used in the
inhalation experiments previously described, but, instead of blowing
in the contaminated air, the cages were so arranged that boards
freshly painted with the special paint under experiment were
introduced into the cage daily, the animals remaining the whole time
in the chamber. Special precautions were taken with regard to
ventilation.
2. An animal was placed in a chamber, and the compound to be
tested was heated electrically by means of a coil surrounding the
glass tube in which the compound was placed. The current was
regulated by means of resistances, so that the thermo-couple and
galvanometer gave a constant reading of 59° C. Air was constantly
passed through the tube over the heated substance and into the
animal’s cage, which was efficiently ventilated. In this way any
emanations which were given off from the normal room temperature
or up to 59° C. were carried over into the animal’s cage, and there
breathed. The apparatus was so arranged that the heating coil
extended close to the point of delivery into the cage.
The result of these experiments showed that the animals confined
in cages and exposed to freshly painted surfaces, where the paint
used was white lead, zinc oxide, or lead sulphate, very soon showed
signs of poisoning, and they became emaciated and suffered from
recurrent attacks of salivation. The animals exposed in the cages in
which air was passed over either white lead paste, zinc paste, or
lead sulphate paste, showed no signs of illness, although kept in the
cage and subjected to the inhalation of any fumes which might be
given off for three months, spending the whole of the day in the
cage, but being removed during the night to separate cages.
It therefore seemed clear that, whatever illness was produced in
the animals exposed to fresh paint, they were not suffering from
absorption of lead, but of some other compound of which the paint
was made. Various constituents of the paint were therefore tried—
namely, the metallic bases, lead or zinc, and linseed-oil, with
turpentine and lead acetate mixed with turpentine. The animal
exposed to the turpentine alone very rapidly showed signs of
disease—salivation, a tendency to diarrhœa, strabismus, but the
latter only after a two-hour exposure, whilst the quantity of turpentine
present in the cage air did not exceed 10 milligrammes per litre.
The animal exposed to turpentine and lead acetate exhibited few
symptoms, but the same in kind as the animal exposed to turpentine
alone. The linseed-oil animal showed no signs of disease whatever.
The animals exposed to the metallic bases of the paint—namely,
zinc oxide or white lead—showed no signs of poisoning as long as
the compound itself was not thrown into the air in the form of dust;
but when lead dust was present in the air the animal rapidly showed
the ordinary signs of lead poisoning. The animal exposed to zinc
oxide dust showed very little sign of discomfort, but by prolonged
exposure early kidney disease was produced, and signs of chronic
inflammation were detectable in the lung.
It is interesting to note in this connection that Lehmann[7]
describes symptoms produced in cats when exposed to the vapour
of turpentine. The animals which I exposed to turpentine vapour
exhibited the same symptoms as those described by Lehmann. He
gave no result of the histological inquiry of the animals so exposed,
but in no case, apparently, was the animal killed after exposure. In
my animals exposed to the vapour of turpentine very definite disease
of the kidney was produced, the inflammation tending rather to the
tubular than the interstitial variety of nephritis. The tubules were
found blocked with débris, their contour irregular and destroyed, and
their substance pale and almost hyaline; whilst areas of cloudy
swelling, together with small hæmorrhages, were to be found
scattered about the kidney. The heart muscle was flabby, and the
heart tending to dilatation; whilst microscopically hæmorrhages could
be found throughout the organ of a minute capillary nature, and
passing between and disturbing the muscle bundles.
No changes of any sort were found in the tissues of the animals
exposed to the emanations given off from white lead paste. By
analyses these emanations were found to contain no lead, but traces
of aldehyde, formic acid, and CO2. It follows, therefore, that the
effect of turpentine when inhaled by the painter must be to act as a
contributory cause of lead poisoning, and it is interesting in this
connection to recall the fact noted on p. 38, that Garrod has
described gout as occurring constantly among painters. The
statement already quoted, that gout is not common among workers
in white lead factories, where the exposure to lead is very much
greater than among painters, points to turpentine as the cause of the
increased incidence of gout among house-painters rather than lead
absorption. The importance of dust containing lead as a source of
illness and lead poisoning in painters must not be minimized, as in
sand-papering, etc. (see p. 137). The importance of lead dust
inhaled in this way is perfectly understood. It is, however, highly
probable that the combined action of the turpentine with the lead
accounts for the fact that headache is a common symptom of early
disease in painters, which is not the case among white-lead workers.
REFERENCES.
[1] Goadby, K. W.: Journal of Hygiene, vol. ix., No. 1, 1909.
[2] Goadby, K. W., and Goodbody: The Lancet, vol. ii., p. 988, 1909.
[3] Goadby, K. W.: Report of the Committee on Lead, etc., in Potteries, vol.
iii., p. 478, 1910.
[4] Moore: Private communication.
[5] Armit: Journal of Hygiene, vol. viii., No. 5, 1908.
[6] Straub: Berl. Med. Woch., p. 1469, 1911.
[7] Lehmann: Archiv für Hygiene, vol. xxxiv., p. 321, 1899.
CHAPTER VII
SYMPTOMATOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS
Acute Poisoning.—Acute poisoning by lead is not common.

Industrially it hardly ever occurs. Zinn[1] states that, out of 200 cases
of industrial lead poisoning in his clinic in Berlin, only one was to be
regarded as an acute case. In most instances the poisoning is due to
swallowing some compound of lead, either as an abortifacient or to
commit suicide.
The pathology and symptoms of such acute lead poisoning
depend in the first place upon the nature of the salt of lead
swallowed, as, for instance, after swallowing sugar of lead a burning
taste is complained of, with acute gastric pain, generally coming on
within an hour of taking the poison, salivation, metallic taste in the
mouth, acute hiccough, and griping pain in the abdomen. The mouth
is stained a whitish-grey. Later there is a great fall in blood-pressure,
the skin becomes moist, or a cold sweat may appear. The respiration
and pulse drop; finally comes vertigo, acute headache, coldness of
the extremities, anæsthesia, and death in one or two days, or the
case passes on to one of chronic poisoning. If the patient survives
for the first two or three days, retinal changes frequently make their
appearance, and occasionally acute fever may supervene. Various
paralyses also appear, and the case then becomes one of subacute
or chronic poisoning.
The lethal dose for healthy adults is probably as large as 50
grammes for lead acetate, for lead carbonate 25 grammes; these
doses are, of course, only approximate.
Post mortem in a case of acute lead poisoning by ingestion, the
mouth and stomach show the presence of a lead salt in the mucous
exudation, together with corrosive gastritis and considerable swelling
and œdema of the mucous membrane. The large intestine is
generally stained darkly, from a light brown to a deepish black; this
staining may not appear until quite low down in the intestine. There
is hyperæmia of the liver, much engorgement of the vessels in the
mesentery, the kidney, and the brain. The rest of the intestinal
viscera show signs of engorgement. Fluid may be present in the
peritoneal cavity, and occasionally in the other serous cavities.
The histological examination of the various organs exhibits the
same microscopical hæmorrhages as are found in the cases of
chronic poisoning to be described later.
Although acute lead poisoning is rare in industrial experience, it
may occur from time to time. Several cases are on record where a
workman developed an acute attack of poisoning as a result of
immersion in a white lead beck; another case is described which
followed immersion in a tank of solution of lead acetate.
An accident of this description may conceivably occur; the
treatment of such a case should be energetic, as the poisoning is
chiefly due to lead swallowed. An emetic should be given, followed
by sublimed sulphur, or, better still, the stomach washed out with
dilute hydrogen sulphide water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid,
so as to change any lead present in the stomach into the least
soluble form. A brisk purge should be given, and the patient
encouraged to drink considerable quantities of lemonade containing
sodium or potassium citrate. Alcohol, even during collapse, should
be avoided; a hypodermic injection of strychnine is preferable. It
must be borne in mind that lead is absorbed in the upper part of the
intestine, and only in a minute degree, if at all, from the stomach; it is
re-excreted mainly by the large bowel and by the urine; to some
extent also by the sweat and saliva. Treatment is therefore directed
towards (a) forming an insoluble compound as far as possible; (b)
promoting the elimination of the poison; (c) placing as little work as
possible upon the tissues most affected. Only milk should be given
as food for two to three days.
The diagnosis of lead poisoning is not in itself of any great
difficulty where any one of the classical symptoms of lead poisoning
is present, such as lead colic, paresis, or the characteristic lead
anæmia or cachexia. On the other hand, the premonitory symptoms
of poisoning, as seen by a club doctor, particularly in persons
engaged in industrial processes, are more difficult to determine; but
for the appointed surgeon, who has an opportunity of watching them
from week to week, the gradual development of anæmia, extensor
weakness, and other early symptoms, should give no difficulty. The
clinical diagnosis requires to be made earlier by the appointed
surgeon than by the general practitioner; for the appointed surgeon’s
duty in a white lead works is not only to treat lead poisoning when it
is once established, but, by carefully noting premonitory signs, to
avoid the development of actual symptoms in susceptible persons. It
is convenient, therefore, to divide the diagnosis of lead poisoning,
from the clinical standpoint, into two divisions—incipient and
pronounced. Such incipient changes are for the most part noticed
amongst lead-workers, and in many cases are more strictly signs of
lead absorption than signs of lead poisoning.
The earliest symptoms of poisoning are found in the vascular
system, and the curious pallor of the face in persons who have
worked in lead for a considerable period is often pronounced,
although the conjunctiva may not show such a diminution in colour
as might be expected from the facial change, while the actual
determination of hæmoglobin may be almost normal. In addition to
this, a person of fresh colour working in lead, if susceptible, very
quickly loses his florid appearance, often heightened by the colour of
the face only remaining on the cheek-bones as a hectic flush. Such a
person will also show diminution in the colour of the conjunctival
vessels, and invariably a distinct yellowish appearance of his
sclerotics, due to the pigmentation of that tissue by broken-down
blood-pigment. The yellow colour of the eyes is definite evidence
that blood-destruction is in progress.
Following on the anæmia, or, more strictly speaking, the pallor of
the face, a well-marked wasting of the subcutaneous fat takes place.
In animals poisoned with lead in small or large doses—particularly in
small doses given over a considerable period—this wasting of all
subcutaneous and other fat is a very marked feature, so much so
that practically no kidney, mesenteric or abdominal fat is to be found.
The fat is lost in a greater proportion than other body tissues. In man
the infra-orbital fat, together with the fat about the buccinator muscle,
suffers early, and a curious facial contour is produced, two well-
marked folds being seen—one the ordinary naso-labial fold, and the
other situated at the anterior margin of the masseter. This, together
with the loss of the orbital fat, gives the face a curious pinched
appearance. Such a pinched appearance is also to be found in
animals (cats) poisoned by lead. The wasting frequently precedes
any other symptoms, and it is no uncommon thing to find that a man
who has been working in a lead process exposing him to inhalation
of dust for a year is losing weight. In one case a man of 10 stone 7
pounds was reduced in weight to 9 stone 2 pounds in fourteen
months, during the whole of which time he showed no signs at all of
lead poisoning, and only towards the latter end of the time did he
exhibit any blue line on his gums; there were no symptoms referable
to lead poisoning. Such a case is typically one of lead absorption,
which, if continued, would ultimately result in pronounced anæmia
with either colic or paralysis, probably the former. The man in
question was not engaged in any lead process, but was an
electrician attending to the electric light and motors in a smelting
works. His occupation necessitated work above the general ground-
level, and therefore he inhaled the fumes and finer dust particles
detached especially from the arc lamps which required adjustment.
In many persons who have worked in lead for long periods,
wasting does not progress beyond a certain point, and these
persons may be regarded as having established a certain degree of
immunity. Men are met with who have worked in white lead factories
and in smelting works for periods of from twenty to, in one case,
forty-three years, a considerable portion of such period being
antecedent to the time at which the regulations in force for dust
removal and general protection of the workers were established, and
they must have been exposed to much lead dust. Nevertheless they
were less emaciated than many who have only worked a year or two
years in a factory under modern hygienic conditions and special
regulations. Such persons are either immune from the
commencement, or they have established a certain degree of
tolerance towards the metal; the latter supposition is the more
probable, as there is reason to think several of them suffered from a
mild degree of poisoning during the earlier years of their
employment.
The rate of development of pallor and wasting are the important
facts in incipient poisoning. Anæmia, together with the presence of
basophile granules in the red cells, in a previously healthy person,
and diminution in the hæmoglobin to 75 per cent., is definite
evidence that absorption is leading on to poisoning—that is, blood-
destruction—and coincidently insidious damage to the finer
bloodvessels and their nerve-supply (see Chapter V.). Such a person
may at any moment develop a sudden attack of colic or paresis.
Associated with the wasting and pallor comes wasting of the
muscles themselves, quite apart from any nerve lesions, and with it a
certain degree of mental lethargy, slowness in comprehension, and
loss of power over individual muscles or groups of muscles, more
usually the latter. The mental lethargy shows itself in many ways—
amongst others, heaviness and drowsiness—and careful
examination should be made of any man who, previously a good
time-keeper, commences somewhat suddenly to be late in the
morning. The muscles of the hands and the arms, may show no
definite wasting as compared one with another; but early loss of
power, particularly of the extensors of the wrist or fingers, may be
present for six months to a year before definite wrist-drop makes its
appearance. In two cases under our own observation, loss of power
of the extensor muscles of the wrist was present—in the one case
for eight, and in the other case eleven, months before definite
paresis occurred. In the one case the first symptom of paralysis was
inability to extend the little fingers of both hands; the case was at
once suspended from work, and was given treatment. Within forty-
eight hours both wrists were so far affected that they could not be
extended. In the second case the first symptom of paresis other than
the loss of extensor power was the inability to oppose the thumb to
the first index-finger of the left hand; within seven days complete
wrist-drop of the left hand, partial drop of the right hand, including the
middle and ring fingers, occurred. Both cases made a complete
recovery.
By no means all wrists which show weakness of the extensor
muscles ultimately develop paralysis; for, on looking through the
records of the examination of three factories, only 4 per cent. of
persons whose wrists were noted as showing loss of extensor power
ultimately developed definite paralysis. In the extended position of
the hands, when the surgeon is examining for extensor weakness,
note should be made of any tremor, as fine tremor is frequently an
early symptom of ensuing paralysis. The tremor is generally fine,
increased on attempting to perform concerted acts (intention tremor);
some loss of co-ordination may be found.
Where the nerve supplying the muscle has suffered alteration in its
conductivity, as by the occurrence of a small hæmorrhage in its
sheath, gradual diminution in the nutrition of the muscle takes place;
but whether or not this is sufficient explanation for the chronic
wasting which is seen in the hands is not yet definitely proved.
In examining the hands outstretched for tremor and loss of
muscular power, wasting of the interossei may be seen before any
definite evidence of paralysis supervenes. On the palm of the hand
both the thenar and the hypothenar eminences may show flattening,
and attention should always be paid to this portion of the hand, as an
early flattening of the hypothenar eminence particularly is one of the
earlier symptoms of wrist paralysis.
Constipation.—Constipation is a well-known precursor of colic
in lead poisoning cases, but is by no means an invariable rule. About
15 per cent. of cases of lead colic suffer from intermittent diarrhœa.
A number of cases (see the table on p. 49) show that “rheumatic”
symptoms are amongst those associated with lead poisoning. Some
of these rheumatic symptoms, as has been explained, may be due to
minute hæmorrhages, in the muscle or elsewhere, setting up the
pains of a rheumatic nature in the part affected. One other symptom
occurs with considerable frequency both as a precursor of colic and
as an associated symptom in constipation, and even in diarrhœa
associated with lead poisoning, and often regarded as of rheumatic
origin—namely, lumbago. Complaints of lumbago in lead-workers
should always be regarded seriously, as they may be a guide in
discovering an early intoxication.
From what has been said of the excretion of lead into the large
intestine in poisoned animals, the symptom of lumbago often
complained of by lead-workers may, in some instances at any rate,
owe its origin to overloading of the large intestine, due to the
inhibitory action of lead on the intestinal muscles. It has been seen
that excretion of lead into the large intestine is the normal method of
excretion of the metal, and that concomitant congestion of the
vessels in the corresponding mesenteric area is an associated
symptom in poisoned animals. Local vasomotor spasm may also
contribute.
The Pulse.—The pulse in lead poisoning in the incipient stage
is perhaps not so important as when poisoning has become
pronounced. Considerable variation exists amongst different
observers with regard to the blood-pressure of lead-workers. Our
experience is, on the whole, that it tends to be high, and pressures of
150 to 170 mm. Hg are common. In an average of 100 cases we
found the highest pressure to be 178, and the lowest 115, the mean
150.
Collis[2], in a special report on smelting of materials containing
lead, gives the average blood-pressure of 141 smelters as 148·2,
and of 38 white lead-workers as 156·5.
Increase of tension undoubtedly takes place as lead absorption
becomes more established, and the well-known high arterial tension
of arterio-sclerosis is to be found in most workers employed in lead
for any considerable period. Even in the cases quoted above
showing no signs of lead poisoning, notwithstanding long duration of
employment in lead factories, there was a distinct increase of arterial
tension, not necessarily attributable to lead alone, but possibly also
to such incidental causes as gout, alcoholism, syphilis, etc. When
colic is present, marked diminution in the pulse-rate may be noticed
during the spasms, and even without the presence of colic a
diminution in the pulse-rate, with a definite increase of tension, as
estimated by the finger, is a matter of practical importance in the
diagnosis of absorption.
In quite early stages the pulse may be increased, and a small,
rapid pulse should be regarded as a suspicious sign. Only in the
later stages of the disease do alterations in the heart-sounds take
place.
Sphygmograph tracings of the pulse of lead-poisoned persons
shows the well-marked high tension type.
Lead Colic.—Probably the commonest symptom, and the one
for which first and foremost relief is sought, is abdominal colic. The
colic of lead poisoning, when once seen, is rarely mistaken a second
time. The pain is generally referred to the lower portion of the
abdomen, low down, and often the sufferer points to a position
immediately above the pubes; pain may often be referred also to the
right iliac fossa, and on this account the possibility of appendicitis, or
even perityphlitis or chronic colitis, must not be forgotten.
Colic, as shown in the statistics on p. 49, is the chief symptom
complained of. No doubt, as has been previously suggested, the fact
that colic is so common a symptom induced earlier pathologists to
regard the entrance of lead through the gastro-intestinal canal as
being the portal of lead infection. We have, however, demonstrated
in the chapter on Pathology that the absorption of lead, particularly in
industrial processes, is mainly by way of the lung, and in the résumé
of the literature it has already been pointed out that strong evidence
exists for regarding colic and other abdominal symptoms associated
with pain as due to vaso-motor disturbances in the splanchnic and
mesenteric areas.
Lead colic is usually irregular, with marked exacerbations and
remissions, and in the acute form the legs are drawn upwards
towards the abdomen, the body is flexed at the hips, the face
anxious and drawn, whilst the body is covered with a cold sweat, the
eyes are staring, and convulsive movements of the limbs occur. The
sufferer often finds relief from firm pressure upon the abdomen, a
point of considerable importance in diagnosis; the pain is not
increased, but distinctly relieved, by firm pressure.
If the abdomen be digitally examined during a paroxysm of pain,
the intestines will be found contracted under the fingers, often in an
irregular fashion. In an animal acutely poisoned with lead the
intestines are found irregularly contracted during a very large portion
of their length, and when removed from the body have the
appearance of a string of sausages. There is evidence that
spasmodic contraction of the circular fibres of the muscles of the
mucosa has taken place, and the wave of peristalsis, moving
forward, meets with a block at these points of constriction, thereby
causing pain.
The colic affecting the lower part of the abdomen may possibly be
related to the excretion of lead into the large intestine, and the
affection of the bloodvessels in the mesentery, and in animals
poisoned by means of lead the vessels in the mesentery, particularly
in the region of the ileo-cæcal valve and the large intestine, are
engorged with blood.
During a paroxysm the patient frequently screams in agony and
rolls about upon the bed or the floor. Temporary relief may be
obtained by leaning upon a pillow placed upon the back of a chair.
The relief afforded by such procedure is also strongly in favour of the
vaso-motor origin of the pain. During the spasm the abdomen is
retracted, and fibrillary twitching of the abdominal parietes may often
be seen; a constant desire to go to stool is generally present, but
only results in straining and, perhaps, the passage of a little mucus
and blood.
Vomiting is often associated with this stage, and the patient
frequently vomits a considerable amount of thick, tenacious mucus.
The vomit is not uncommonly regarded by the patient as composed
of white lead, if he has been working in that industry. Tanquerel in
1,217 cases noted vomiting 400 times, and marked retraction of the
abdomen 649 times. Occasionally the patient complains of a sense
of great weight in the abdomen, particularly in the intervals between
the spasms of pain.
During the exacerbations of colic very marked diminution in the
pulse-rate takes place, a fact that has already been referred to in the
section dealing with vaso-motor disturbances. The pulse may be as
low as 20 beats per minute, but it varies generally between 40 and
50 per minute.
Very occasionally the first stage of colic is associated with a slight
rise of temperature. This must be regarded as an intercurrent
affection rather than as one definitely associated with lead poisoning.
Probably in such circumstances a gastritis other than the lead vaso-
motor colic is the reason for the elevation of temperature, but it may
confuse the diagnosis, suggesting rather an acute gastritis than lead
colic. Under normal conditions the temperature falls during the colic,
the extremities are cold, and the body is covered with a moist
perspiration, the temperature dropping to 96°, and even lower.
On palpating the abdomen during these acute exacerbations, it is
found that not only the gastric region, but the whole of the abdomen,
is affected. Occasionally the acute pain is referred to the navel, but
generally to the lower region of the abdomen; and very frequently the
pain is described as running down into the scrotum, whilst there may
also be pain complained of as far as the knee-joint, but this last is
unusual. There may or may not be well-marked peristalsis taking
place, but quite commonly large hardened tumours can be felt in
various situations in the abdomen, corresponding to the contracted
intestinal walls. Shifting tumours, then, may be regarded rather as a
diagnostic sign of the acute forms of lead colic.
The colic rarely commences without some slight prodromal
symptoms of dyspepsia or gastric discomfort; generally for two or
three days preceding the attack there is loss of appetite, with a
distaste for food, and obstinate constipation, particularly a general
feeling of languor associated with an unpleasant taste in the mouth.
Tanquerel, and later Grissolle[3], among others, described a form of
stomatitis which they thought was a prodromal symptom of an attack
of lead colic. Our own experience, however, does not at all coincide
with these statements.
Very occasionally the sufferer from acute colic may die during a
paroxysm due to heart failure, but we have had no experience of
such a fatality, although such an occurrence has been recorded on
more than one occasion.
After the first acute attack of colic, which generally commences
suddenly, often without previous warning, but is as a rule ushered in
by irregular and finally complete constipation, or with diarrhœa
alternating with constipation, the colic still occurs at irregular
intervals; and although the constipation be relieved by enemata or
the use of strong purgatives, paroxysmal pain will recur for days, and
even weeks. In one particular case colic recurred at intervals for
eight weeks, although the bowels were open each day and the
patient had been under regular treatment, whilst the anæmia and
other general symptoms of poisoning had disappeared.
According to the researches of Meillère[4] and others, lead is
stored up in the body in various situations, and is gradually
eliminated, such elimination taking place mainly through the fæces,
and only to a limited extent through the urine. Probably the
elimination of lead through the lower part of the intestine accounts
for the recurrent attacks of colic.
Amino[5], Chatin[6], and Harnack[7], regard this colic as due to
vaso-constriction taking place in the splanchnic area, and the rapid
action of such drugs as atropin, chloroform, and nitroglycerine,
support this view. In fact, Mayer[8] in 1881 demonstrated that in lead
colic the splanchnic vessels undergo well-marked minute
inflammatory changes. Others, from investigations carried on in
persons who had died of lead poisoning, regard the acute pain as
set up by irritation of the sympathetic nervous system, particularly of
the solar plexus, irritation of the nerves in this region presumably
setting up reflex colic.
The inhalation of amyl nitrite during an attack of colic will often
entirely relieve it, and the pulse will immediately rise to the normal
rate. It is difficult, however, in observing a case of colic, to determine
whether the colic is preceded by slowing of the pulse and the rise of
blood-pressure, or whether the colic is the immediate exciting cause
of the constriction of the vessels and the alteration of the pulse-rate.
Chronic Colic.—The acute form of lead colic frequently passes
on to a chronic condition; the attacks become much less intense,
and may at times only amount to general discomfort in the abdomen,
but the symptoms may last for several weeks, and even months, with
no abdominal discomfort for a period of a week or ten days, then
recurrence of pain, gradually increasing until it has attained a
considerable degree of intensity, and then passing away, only to
reappear in two or three days’ time. In such cases of prolonged colic
after an interval of two or three weeks, small doses of strychnine or
tincture of nux vomica will determine the onset of an attack of colic,
showing that the intestinal muscular tissue remains in a state of
hypersensibility long after the attack appears to have passed away.
A particular form of colic of long duration with exacerbations and
remissions has been known for many years in the French navy,
called “seamen’s colic.” Before this time outbreaks had occurred in
various parts of the world, and John Hunter[9] described a form of dry
bellyache occasioned by drinking certain West Indian wines, the
wines in question having been stored in contact with lead—in fact,
the vigorous Saxon of John Hunter peculiarly describes this chronic
form of lead colic.
Although the prodromal stages of malaise, lassitude, loss of
appetite, nausea, etc., generally precede both the acute and the
chronic forms, colic often commences suddenly. Men may be
examined in the factory in the morning, when the ordinary routine
examination has elicited no symptoms, and yet cases of acute colic
have occurred later in the same day in the very men examined.
The chief points associated with lead colic are—
1. The intermittent character.
2. The relation of the colic mainly to the lower part of the
abdomen.
3. The slowing of the pulse.
4. The relief afforded by firm pressure on the abdomen.
To which may be added the action of amyl nitrite and other drugs
of a similar physiological action.
Headache.—Persistent headache is another of the symptoms
associated with lead poisoning, but it is not common as an early
symptom. The headache complained of by painters is probably not
due to lead poisoning, but, as has been suggested, to turpentine.
The headache of lead poisoning is invariably a later symptom, and
frequently follows an attack of colic a week or more after the
abdominal pain has ceased. The position of the headache varies; it
may be of the vertex type, almost entirely confined to the vertex and
occipital regions. On the other hand, it is frequently irregular, and
neuralgic in type; but in this type, frontal and temporal, more
particularly temporal, the patient describes the pain as if a blunt
instrument were being pushed through his head from both temporal
regions at the same time. Earache, or pain in the region of the
petrous portion of the temporal bone, may at times suggest ear
disease, but this situation is not so common as suboccipital or
temporal pain.
The headache in these situations is no doubt associated with the
meningeal artery in the temporal region, and with the sinuses in the
occipital region. The headache, not unlike the colic, undergoes
remissions and exacerbations. With the exacerbations vertigo is
common, and on more than one occasion in our experience a person
suffering from persistent lead headache and vertigo has been
arrested as suspect of alcoholism. Headache and vertigo without
either colic or paresis is by no means uncommon, and may be
associated with pains in the arms and legs. These pains are
generally referred to by the patient as rheumatic, and it is a little
interesting to call to mind the number of instances in which
rheumatic symptoms are returned as associated with lead poisoning
in the statistics given on p. 48. It is probable that these pains are
neither muscular nor purely nervous in origin, but are primarily due to
small lesions of the bloodvessels, as described in the chapter on
Pathology, occurring in various parts of the body, and thereby setting
up localized irritation, too minute to form an area which can be
discovered by palpation, but sufficiently pronounced to produce
irritation and reflex pain, in some respects similar to “bends” in
compressed air disease. This special type of rheumatic pain differs,
of course, from the lumbago associated with constipation.
Persistent headache is an exceedingly grave feature, and
although it may at times disappear quickly on treatment, mental
clouding and alteration of the higher functions is always to be feared;
not infrequently persistent headache ushers in a final and fatal
encephalopathy. In such a case the headache persists, becomes
more and more excruciating, the patient rapidly shows loss of mental
power, and may gradually sink into a condition of delirium. On the
other hand, an attack of acute delirium may suddenly supervene,
commencing with sudden loss of consciousness, followed by
irregular movements of all the limbs, frothing at the mouth and nose,
and finally mania. Recovery is by no means uncommon, and after a
sudden attack of this description the patients are entirely ignorant of
the whole circumstance; they may occasionally recover powers of
locomotion, and wander to long distances, unable to give an account
of themselves or to remember their names, and only after a
considerable time recover consciousness of their identity; but this
type of case is comparatively rare.
The case quoted by Mott[10] gives a typical history of mental
affection due, no doubt, to lead, but partially complicated by alcohol.
The Burtonian Line.—Much controversy has raged around the
significance of the blue line on the gums to be seen in certain

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Fundamentals of Management 10th

Edition Robbins Test Bank

1) Organizational design requires a manager to ________.

3) Which of the following are NOT basic elements of organizational design?

5) Which statement accurately defines work specialization?

6) Early supporters of work specialization saw it as ________.

8) Today, managers favor this approach with regard to work specialization.

9) Functional departmentalization groups jobs by ________.

15) The chain of command answers this question.

17) In the chain of command, each person above you ________.

18) Staff managers have authority over ________.

23) ________ is the obligation or expectation to perform a duty.

24) The personal secretary of a top manager may have ________.

26) As represented in a power cone, power is based on ________.

27) As represented in a hierarchical organization diagram, authority is based on ________.

36) A traditional "top down" organization is ________ organization.

42) Today's managers expect employees to ________.

47) There are four basic elements in organizational design.

52) Departmentalization is how jobs are grouped.

Centralization and decentralization

Authority, responsibility, and power

64) A(n) ________ organization is able to change rapidly as needs require.

65) Which term best describes an organic organization?

68) Together, contingency variables determine the ________.

70) Larger organizations tend to have ________ than smaller organizations.

78) A mechanistic organization is bureaucratic and hierarchical.

81) As organizations become larger, they tend to become more organic.

88) What is a weakness of a simple structure?

89) This is a key characteristic in an organization with a functional structure.

91) Avoiding redundancy is a strength of which structure?

97) In a team structure, ________.

105) In a project structure, when employees finish a project they ________.

108) Boundaryless organizations try to eliminate ________ within their organization.

111) A ________ subcontracts part of a project to outside suppliers.

Eric the Redd (Scenario)

114) One of the strengths of a simple structure is that it is flexible.

123) Vertical boundaries separate employees by their rank in an organization.

127) Horizontal boundaries separate employees by the specialization of their job.

Strategy and structure

Size and structure

Technology and structure

Environment and structure

130) In a short essay, describe the characteristics of a simple structure.

132) In a short essay, describe the characteristics of a divisional structure.

135) A learning organization develops the capability to ________.

136) A learning organization requires employees to ________.

138) Organizational learning can't take place without ________.

139) In a learning organization, it is important that all employees ________.

140) All learning organizations share a distinct structure.

145) In a short essay, describe the boundaryless organization.

Acute Poisoning.—Acute poisoning by lead is not common.

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