1.

Chemical effects of electric current

The chemical effects of electric current involve the transformation of chemical substances when an
electrical current passes through them. The principles of these effects include electrolysis, which is the
separation of an electrolyte through the use of electricity, and Faraday's law of electrolysis, which
establishes a correlation between the amount of substance produced and the current that flows through the
cell. Electrochemical cells are utilized to maintain chemical effects for different electric currents and have
various applications. Some examples include:
The phenomenon of electrolysis is where the chemical
impact of electric current is most evident. It occurs
when an electric current is transmitted through an
electrolyte - a substance capable of conducting
electricity when dissolved in a solvent or a molten
state. As a consequence of this electric current, the
electrolyte undergoes chemical transformations.
Redox Reactions: The chemical effects of electric
current are essentially redox (reduction-oxidation)
reactions. At the anode, oxidation reactions occur,
where electrons are lost, and ions or molecules are converted into their oxidized forms. At the cathode,
reduction reactions occur, where electrons are gained, and ions or molecules are converted into their
reduced forms.
Electrochemical Cells: Electrochemical cells, such as galvanic cells and electrolytic cells, are used to
harness the chemical effects of electric current for various applications. In galvanic cells (like batteries),
spontaneous chemical reactions produce an electric current. In electrolytic cells, an external electric
current is applied to drive non-spontaneous chemical reactions.
Electrodes: In an electrolytic cell, there are typically two electrodes—an anode and a cathode. The anode
is the positively charged electrode, where oxidation (loss of electrons) occurs, releasing ions or electrons
into the solution. The cathode is the negatively charged electrode, where reduction (gain of electrons)
occurs.
Practical applications include:
Electroplating: The process of applying a layer of metal to the surface of an object, either for protective or
decorative purposes, is commonly referred to as metal deposition. This technique is often utilized in
various industrial and manufacturing applications to enhance the durability and aesthetic appeal of
products.
Batteries: There exists a range of portable power sources that cater to a diverse array of electronic
devices, vehicles, and backup power systems.

Electrolytes and non-electrolytes are substances that behave differently when dissolved in a
solution concerning their ability to conduct electricity. Here's how they differ, along with
examples of how electrolysis occurs in various aqueous solutions:

1. Electrolytes:
 oElectrolytes are substances that, when dissolved in water or another solvent,
dissociate into ions and are capable of conducting electricity.
o Examples include:
 Sodium chloride: It dissociates into sodium ions and chloride ions in
water.
 Sulfuric acid: It dissociates into two hydrogen ions, one sulfate ion, and
two water molecules in water.
2. Non-Electrolytes:
o Non-electrolytes are substances that do not dissociate into ions when dissolved in
water, and therefore, they do not conduct electricity.
o Examples include:
 Glucose: It remains as glucose molecules when dissolved in water and
does not produce ions.
 Ethanol: Like glucose, ethanol remains intact molecules in solution.

Illustration of Electrolysis in Various Aqueous Solutions:

Electrolysis involves the decomposition of an electrolyte into its constituent ions at the
electrodes when an electric current is passed through the solution. Here are examples of
electrolysis occurring in various aqueous solutions:

1. Electrolysis of Water (H₂O):

o When an electric current is passed through water,
water molecules dissociate into hydrogen ions
(H⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
o At the anode, oxygen gas (O₂) is evolved by the
oxidation of hydroxide ions: 4OH⁻ → 2H₂O + O₂
+ 4e⁻
o At the cathode, hydrogen gas (H₂) is produced by
the reduction of hydrogen ions: 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ → H₂
2. Electrolysis of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Solution:
o When a sodium chloride solution is electrolyzed, it dissociates into sodium ions
(Na⁺) and chloride ions (Cl⁻).
o At the anode, chloride ions are oxidized to form chlorine gas (Cl₂): 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ +
2e⁻
o At the cathode, sodium ions are reduced to form sodium metal (Na): 2Na⁺ + 2e⁻
→ 2Na

Faraday’s laws of electrolysis

o First law: states that the mass of a substance deposited or liberated on an electrode
during electrolysis is proportional to the total quantity of electric charge passed
through the electrolyte. If m is the mass of a substance deposited when q passes,
m ∝ q or m=kq, where k is the constant.
o Second law: states that if the same quantity of charge passes through several
electrolytes, the mass of substance deposited at electrodes is proportional to their
 chemical equivalent. If m1∧m2 are masses of the substances deposited on various
electrodes. When the same current is passed for the same time through their
m 1 E1
electrolytes, E1∧E 2 are their chemical equivalents, therefore =
m 2 E2

To calculate the amount of electricity needed for a redox reaction, Faraday's law is
crucial. Therefore, understanding the stoichiometry and quantitative aspects of the
reaction is necessary for accurate calculations using Faraday's law.

Primary and Secondary Cells

Differences
Factors Primary Secondary
Rechargeability Not rechargeable
Chemistry Chemicals not easily
reversible
Lifetime Shorter
Working principle Generates electrical energy
through non-reversible
chemical reactions
Construction Anode: The anode
consists of a zinc casing.
Cathode: The cathode
contains a manganese
dioxide paste, which acts
as an electron acceptor
during the chemical
reaction.
Electrolyte: Common
electrolytes include
potassium hydroxide in
alkaline batteries or
ammonium chloride in
zinc-carbon batteries.
Can be recharged
Chemicals are easily
reversible
Longer
Store and release electrical
energy through reversible
chemical reactions
Anode: The anode in
secondary batteries can
vary depending on the
type.
Cathode: The cathode's
composition varies, with
materials like lithium
cobalt oxide in Li-ion
batteries.
Electrolyte: Electrolytes
in secondary batteries can
be liquid, gel, or solid.

Application Used in remote controls, Commonly found in laptops,

flashlights, and toys
Examples 1. Alkaline batteries
2. Lithium primary
batteries
smartphones, tablets, and
electric vehicles (EVs).
1. Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
2. Nickel-cadmium
(NiCd)
sZinc-carbon batteries are used in low-drain portable devices. They operate based on a simple
electrochemical reaction. During the redox reactions, electrons are released at the anode and flow
through an external circuit to the cathode. This flow of electrons constitutes an electric current,
which can power the device connected to the battery.

o At the anode (zinc casing), zinc undergoes an oxidation reaction, losing electrons to
become zinc ions: Zn(s) → Zn²⁺(aq) + 2e⁻
o At the cathode, manganese dioxide (MnO₂) serves as the electron acceptor and reacts
with ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) from the electrolyte: MnO₂(s) + 2NH₄⁺(aq) + 2e⁻ →
MnO(OH)(s) + 2NH₃(aq)
o The overall chemical reaction in a zinc-carbon battery, zinc is oxidized, and manganese
dioxide is reduced: Zn(s) + 2MnO₂(s) + 2NH₄⁺(aq) → MnO(OH)(s) + Zn²⁺(aq) +
2NH₃(aq)

Rechargeable batteries, such as lithium-ion batteries, rely on reversible reactions to store and
release electrical energy.
 Charging (Recharging): During charging, lithium ions (Li⁺) are extracted from the lithium
cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂) cathode and intercalated into the graphite anode. This process is
reversible and stores energy.

o Cathode (Positive): LiCoO₂ → Li⁺ + CoO₂ + e⁻

o Anode (Negative): C₆ + Li⁺ → LiC₆ + e⁻

 Discharging: During discharging, the stored lithium ions move from the anode (graphite) to
the cathode (LiCoO₂), releasing electrical energy.

o Cathode (Positive): Li⁺ + CoO₂ + e⁻ → LiCoO₂

o Anode (Negative): LiC₆ → C₆ + Li⁺ + e⁻

Role of Electrochemical Cells:

o In a lithium-ion battery, the reversible reactions occur in an electrochemical cell with a

lithium cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite anode. An electrolyte allows the movement
of lithium ions between the two electrodes.
o During charging, an external voltage is applied to the battery, which drives the lithium
ions from the cathode to the anode, where they are stored in the graphite. This process
stores electrical energy.

A typical battery consists of electrodes, electrolytes, and separators. Here's an overview of their
roles and structures:

1. Electrodes:

 Anode: It is where the oxidation half-reaction occurs during discharge. The anode
provides a source of electrons for the electrochemical reaction.
 Cathode: The cathode is the positive electrode of the battery. It is where the reduction
half-reaction takes place during discharge. The cathode accepts electrons produced
during the oxidation at the anode.

2. Electrolyte:

 The electrolyte is the medium that allows the flow of ions between the anode and
cathode. It contains ions that participate in the electrochemical reactions. The nature of
the electrolyte depends on the type of battery:
o Liquid Electrolyte
o Gel Electrolyte
o Solid Electrolyte

3. Separator:
  It is a physical barrier placed between the anode and cathode. It prevents direct contact
between the two electrodes while allowing for the passage of ions. The separator prevents
short circuits within the battery.
 Separators are made of porous materials like ceramic materials.

Structure and Assembly:

The components of a battery are typically arranged in layers or coils within a cylindrical or
rectangular casing. The typical structure of a battery can be described as follows:

 When creating batteries, there are five main components to consider. First is the anode,
which can be a layer or coating applied to the inside of the casing or embedded within the
battery. The second component is the separator, which prevents direct contact and short-
circuiting between the anode and cathode. The third component is the electrolyte, which
is usually a liquid or gel that saturates the separator and enables ions to move between the
anode and cathode. The fourth component is the cathode, which is applied as a layer or
coating on the interior surface opposite the anode. Finally, the battery casing, usually
made of metal or plastic, encloses and protects the components, while also providing
structural integrity and electrical insulation.

Battery charging is the process of replenishing electrical energy in a secondary cell. This process
involves applying an electrical voltage to the battery, which drives reversible chemical reactions,
allowing it to store energy.

Chemical Changes During Charging:

The chemical changes that occur during the charging process of a secondary cell depend on the
type of battery chemistry. Let's take the example of a lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery:

1. Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-ion):

o Charging Reaction (Recharging): During charging, a voltage is applied to the
battery, causing lithium ions (Li⁺) to migrate from the cathode to the anode.
 Cathode: LiCoO₂ → Li⁺ + CoO₂ + e⁻
 Anode: C₆ + Li⁺ → LiC₆ + e⁻
o These reactions are reversible, allowing lithium ions to be stored in the anode.

Importance of Charging Rates and Voltage Limits:

1. Charging Rates:
o Charging rates refer to the speed at which a battery is charged. It's essential to
charge a battery at an appropriate rate to maintain its health and safety.
o Slow or moderate charging rates are generally preferred, as they generate less heat
and are less stressful on the battery. Rapid charging can generate excess heat,
leading to thermal stress and battery degradation.
2. Voltage Limits:
o Every battery chemistry has specific voltage limits that should not be exceeded
during charging to prevent overcharging, which can damage the battery.
o In lithium-ion batteries, there are voltage limits for both the upper and lower
voltage limit. Charging beyond the upper voltage limit can lead to the formation
of metallic lithium, compromising safety. Discharging below the lower voltage
limit can cause irreversible damage to the battery.