INTERNSHIP REPORT

On

TELECOMMUNICATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE

Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted By

Austin John - 2201920310025

Deptt. of Electronics and Communication Engineering

G. L. BAJAJ INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
Plot no. 2, Knowledge Park III, Gr. Noida
Session: 2023-24

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGENO.

LIST OF FIGURES iv
ABSTRACT v

1. Overview of Optical Fiber Communication 1-4

1.1 Basic Components 1

1.2 Construction 1
1.3 Principal of Total Internal Reflection 1
1.4 Window Concept in Spectrum of OF 2
1.5 Advantages of fiber communication 2
1.6 classification of Optical fiber 2
1.7 Applications of OF 2
1.8 Basic Fibre Optic Communications 3
1.9 Optical Sources 4
1.10 DETECTORS 4
1.11 System Design 4

2. Overview of Telecom Networks 5-8

2.1 Components 5
2.2 Basic Telecom Network (PSTN) 5
2.3 Basic Mobile Network 6
2.4 Wired and Wireless Technology wise Data Speed Chart 6
2.5 Signaling and Switching 6
2.6 Pillars of Telecom Transmission 7
2.7 FDM, TDM, SDM and CDM 7
2.8 Transmission Modes 8

3. Satellite System Overview 9-13

3.1 Need of Satellite Communication 9

3.2 History and Evolution 10
3.3 Frequency Bands 11
3.4 Satellite Systems and Components. 11
3.5 Applications of Satellite Communication 12,13

ii
4. GSM Basics 14-18

4.1 Basic GSM 14

4.2 The Mobile Station (MS) 14
4.3 GSM Interfaces 15,16
4.4 Operation And Maintenance Center (OMC) 16
4.5 Billing Center 17
4.6 GSM Identities 17,18
4.7 Network Structure 18

5. IP Addressing 19-23

5.1 What is an IP Address? 19

5.2 Sources to get it 19,20
5.3 IPs Address Classification and identification 20
5.4 Subnetting 21
5.5 Supernetting 21
5.6 Network Design and Implementation 21,22
5.7 IPv6 22
5.8 IPv4 22.23

6. LTE & Network 24-27

6.1 LTE in BSNL 24

6.2 LTE Principles & Technologies 24
6.3 LTE Network Architecture 24,25,26
6.4 Different network interfaces in LTE 26
6.5 Basic functions of different Nodes 27

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

Fig 1.1 Schematic diagram of OFC 1

Fig 1.2 Principle of TIR 1
Fig 1.3 Block diagram for OFC 3
Fig 1.4 Detectors 4
Fig 2.1 Components of Telecom 5
Fig 2.2 Basic Telecom Network 5
Fig 2.3 Basic Media Network 6
Fig 2.4 Signaling and Switching 6
Fig 2.5 FDM 7
Fig 2.6 TDM 7
Fig 2.7 SDM 7
Fig 2.8 CDM 8
Fig 3.1 Satellite Communication 9
Fig 3.2 Clarke’s System 10
Fig 3.3 First satellite mission 10
Fig 3.4 Components of Satellite 11
Fig 3.5 Broadcast Nature 12
Fig 3.6 PSTN 12
Fig 3.7 Services by Satellite Commn 13
Fig 4.1 Basic GSM 14
Fig 4.2 Basic Mobile Station 14
Fig 4.3 Operation & Maintenance Centre 16
Fig 4.4 Network Structure 18
Fig 4.5 GSM Network Structure 18
Fig 5.1 Sources of IP 19
Fig 5.2 Table of classification of IP 20
Fig 5.3 Network Design 21
Fig 5.4 Difference IPv4 & IPv6 23
Fig 6.1 LTE network Architecture 24
Fig 6.2 SAE-GW 25
Fig 6.3 PDN SAW-GW 26
Fig 6.4 Table of Different network Interfaces 26
Fig 6.5 HSS 27

iv
 ABSTRACT

Telecom networks play a critical role in modern society, providing essential

communication services to individuals, businesses, and organizations. They enable
people to communicate with each other across vast distances, enabling global
communication and facilitating international trade and commerce. Telecom networks
are made up of various components, including transmission systems, switching
systems, and network management systems. These components work together to
ensure that communication signals are transmitted and delivered efficiently and
securely. In recent years, telecom networks have evolved significantly, driven by
advances in technology and changing communication needs.
Telecom networks are systems of interconnected communication devices and
equipment that enable people to communicate with each other over long distances.
These networks use various technologies and protocols to facilitate the transmission of
voice, data, and video signals between devices, including smartphones, computers,
and other communication devices.
Modern networks use advanced technologies like 5G, fiber-optic cables, and cloud
computing to provide faster, more reliable communication services to users. Telecom
networks are essential components of modern communication infrastructure, enabling
people to communicate and connect with each other in new and innovative ways.

v
 CHAPTER-1
OVERVIEW OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

1.1 Basic Components:

Information is received in the form of Voice, Data and Video, passes through
“Encoder” thus producing sequences of Pulses called BITS. These BITS then travel
inside the OPTICAL FIBRE CABEL and reaches a device called Decoder where they
are converted into “Output Pulses of Current” which we are familiar as Voice, Data
and Video.

1.2 Construction:
The Basic parts in an OFC is:
1. CORE: the internal part of the OFC in which the main phenomenon of Total Internal
Reflection takes place which is the main process of the OFC functioning.
2. CLADDING: the outer part of the OFC which acts like a covering to the core. It has more
radius than that of the Core.

Fig 1.1

1.3 Principle of TIR[Total Internal Reflection]:

The phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection in which a ray of light experiences reflection inside a
medium and travels within the same medium throughout the process.

Fig 1.2

1
1.4 Window Concept in Spectrum of OF:
Optical windows are flat, optically transparent plates that are typically designed to maximize
transmission in a specified wavelength range, while minimizing reflection and absorption.
There are mainly three types of Windows in an OF:

1. The first optical window is defined from 800-900nm, where the minimum signal loss is
4dB/km. In early 1970’s this window was used for operation of optical sources and
detectors.
2. The second optical window is centered at 1310nm also called O-band, which offers
0.5dB/km.
3. The third optical window is centered at 1550nm also called C-band, which gives the loss of
0.2dB/km.

1.5 Advantages of OFC:

1. They have excellent rejection of electromagnetic interference which are generally caused by
natural phenomenon such as lightning, or human mistakes like sparking or short.
2. No optic signals are trapped withing the OFC and thus there is no loss of the data that has been
transmitted in the form of Optical Signals.
3. The basic materials such as silicon dioxide used for Glass Fibers and Plastics are found abundantly
and thus there is easy access and manufacturing.
4. Some of the OF can withstand extreme temperatures before deteriorating.
5. They are thin and thus can be used anywhere and easily can be placed.

1.6 Classification of OF:

The OFC is classified into three main types:
1. SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX: In this the core radius is around 8-12 micro meter and the
cladding radius is around 125 micro meter.
2. MULTIMODE STEP INDEX FIBRE: In this the core radius is around 5-200 micro meter
and the cladding radius is between 125-400 micro meter.
3. MULTIMODE GRIN FIBRE: In this the core radius is around 50 micro meter and the
cladding radius is between the range of 125-400 micro meter.

1.7 Applications of OFC:

1. Telecommunication: Long Distance Transmission

Inter-exchanged function, Fiber in the Loop (FITL) – FTTC & FTTB

2
 2. Video Transmission:
Television broadcast, Cable television, Remote monitoring etc.

3. Broadband Services:
Provisioning of broadband services, such as video request services, home study courses,
medical facilities and train timetables etc.

4. High EMI areas:

Along railway track, through power substations can be suspended directly from power line
towers, or poles.

5. Military Applications:
Fiber sensors are used.

1.8 Basic Fiber Optics Communication:

A basic comm. System consists of: a transmitter, a receiver, & a medium.

• Optical Transmitters: – convert electrical signals to optical.

• Receivers: – convert optical signal to electrical.

• The basic elements in transmitters: Electronic interfaces, Electronics processing circuitry, Drive
circuitry, light source, optical interfaces, output sensing and stabilization, Temperature sensing and
control.

• The basic elements in an optical receiver: Detector, Amplifier, Decision circuits.

Fig 1.3

3
1.9 Optical Sources:

• Most common light sources: – light-emitting diodes (LEDs) & Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation (laser) diodes.

• It is particularly required in lasers to maintain stable output power by way of feedback mechanism.

• Laser is very sensitive to temperature. Operating characteristics of a semiconductor laser-notably

threshold, current, output power, and wavelength change with temperature. Hence temperature
sensing and control is required to maintain stable temperature.

1.10 DETECTORS:

The detectors that are used in fiber optic communications are semiconductor photodiodes or
photodetectors. And they convert the received optical signal into a proper electrical signals.They are
such as:
Pin photodiode; cheaper, less temperature sensitive, and requires lower reverse bias voltage. –
Avalanche photodiode APD); used where receiver is to detect lower power.

Fig 1.4

1.11 System Design:

• Power budget: for a link to be feasible. Source Transmitting Power Less coupling Loss to
fiber+Connectors Losses + Fiber Loss + Splicing Loss Maintenance Margin  Receiver Sensitivity
• Rise time Budget: to check total link rise-time to be within permissible limit.

4
 CHAPTER – 2

OVERVIEW OF TELECOM NETWORK

2.1 COMPONENTS:

1. SOURCE: acts like a giver or from where the data is transmitted

2. MEDIUM: acts like a pathway or through which the data is transmitted.
3. DESTINATION: the final place or the location at which the data is sent. Is also called the receiver

Fig 2.1

2.2 Basic Telecom Network [PSTN]:

PSTN comprises of all the switched telephone networks around the world that are operated by local,
national or international carriers. These networks provide a proper infrastructure and services for
public telecommunication. The network consists of telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave
transmission links, cellular networks, communications satellites, and undersea telephone
cables interconnected by switching centers, such as central offices, network tandems, and
international gateways, which allow telephone users to communicate with each other.

Fig 2.2

5
2.3 Basic Mobile Network:

An overall cellular network contains a number of different elements from the Base Transceiver
Station [BTS] itself with its antennae back through a Base Station Control [BSC], and a Mobile
Switching Centre [MSC] to the Location Registers [HLR&VLR] and the link to the Public Switched
Telephone Network [PSTN].

Fig 2.3

2.4 Wired and Wireless Technology:

On the basis of physical medium. There are two types of networks
1. Wired:
Physical cables are used such as copper wires, twisted pair or fiber optics. This tech employs
wires to link devices to the internet or another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.
2. Wireless:
As the term says, “without a wire”, media that is made up of electromagnetic waves or
infrared waves. Antennae or sensors will be present on all wireless devices so that they can
have a connection for transmission of the data. One of the most popular example of wireless
communication is the “WiFi”. The types of wireless networks are- 2G, 3G, H [H+], 4G+, 5G.

2.5 Signaling and Switching:

Signaling:
The telecom network establishes and releases connections based on the various instructions received
on the form of signals. The interchange of such instructions are in a well defined pattern and follows
the certain syntax and protocols. They are used for call request, call set up, call connections and
release etc. the main functions of Signaling are: Supervising, Alerting and Addressing.
Switching:
It is the method which is used to establish a connections between subscribers within a desires or a
particular network.

Fig 2.4

6
2.6 Pillars of Telecom:

1. MODULATION:
It is the process of varying a high frequency carrier waveform in a relation to low frequency
signal waveform. The three parameters of a sine wave are “Amplitude”, “Phase” and
“Frequency”, thus they are named as AM, PM & FM.
2. MULTIPLEXING:
Combining multiple signals into high capacity signals is called “Multiplexing”. Data from
several of customers travels on a shared medium and thus multiplexing is used for efficient
and fast transfer of data. There are four types of multiplexing techniques- FDM,
TDM,SDM,CDM.
FDM:

Fig 2.5

TDM:

Fig 2.6

SDM:

Fig 2.7

7
CDM:

Fig 2.8

8
 CHAPTER-3

SATELLITE SYSTEM OVERVIEW

3.1 Need of Satellite Communication:

Satellite communication in telecommunication is in which the artificial satellites are used to provide
communication links between various points on the Earth. Satellite communication plays a vital a
vital role in the global telecommunications system. Approximately 2000 artificial satellites orbiting
earth relay analog and digital signals carrying voice, video, and data to and from one or many
locations worldwide.
Modern communication satellites use a variety of orbits including geostationary orbits,
Molniya orbits, other elliptical orbits and low Earth orbits.
For fixed services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio relay tech
complementary to that of submarine communication cables.
They are also used for mobile applications such as communication to ships, vehicles,
planes and hand held terminals and for TV and radio broadcasting, for which
applications of other tech, such as cable, is impractical or impossible.

Fig 3.1

9
3.2 History and Evolution:

The very first concept of the satellite was proposed by a 27 year old Royal Air Force officer Arthur
C. Clarke in a paper titles “Extra-Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Station Give World-wide Radio
Coverage?” published in the October 1945 issue of wireless world. He peoposed that a satellite
should be kept at an altitude of 35,786 km above earth’s surface would be moving at the same speed
as earth’s rotation. At this altitude the satellite would remain in a fixed position relative to a point on
earth. This orbit, now called a “geostationary orbit”, is ideal for satellite communications, since an
antenna on the ground can be pointed to a satellite 24 hours a day without having to track its
position. Clarke calculated in his paper that thre satellites spaced equidistant in orbit would be able to
provide radio coverage that would be almost worldwide with the sole exception of some of the polar
regions.

Fig 3.2

The first artificial satellite Sputnik1 was launched by the U.S. government from Cape Canaveral,
Florida on December 19, 1958.
On April 6, 1965 the first Intelsat satellite was launched it was launched and was designed and buit
by Rosen’s team at Hughes Aircraft Company. Nineteen days after Intelsat 3 F-3 was placed over the
Indian Ocean, the landing of the first human on the Moon on July 20, 1969, was broadcast live
through the global network of Intelsat satellites to over 600 million television viewers.

Fig 3.3

10
3.3 Frequency Bands:

With the variety of satellite frequency bands that can be used, designations have been developed so
that they can be referred to easily.
The higher frequency bands typically give access to wider bandwidths, but are also more susceptible
to signal degradation due to ‘rain fade’ (the absorption of radio signals by atmospheric rain, snow or
ice).
Because of satellites’ increased use, number and size, congestion has become a serious issue in the
lower frequency bands. New technologies are being investigated so that higher bands can be used.

C- Band : U/L : 5.925 – 6.425 GHz. D/L : 3.7 – 4.2 G Hz. Total 500 M Hz BW.
Extended C- Band : U/L : 6.725 – 7.025 GHz. D/L : 4.5 – 4.8 G Hz. Additional 300 MHz BW.
Ku band : U/L : 14.0 - 14.5 G Hz. D/L : 10.95 – 11.2 and 11.45 - 11.7 GHz. A total of 500 MHz
BW in Ku band.

3.4 Satellite Systems and Components:

Antennas: Satellite antenna systems are used to receive and transmit signals to and from Earth.
Command and Data Handling: The operational heart of a satellite, command and control systems
monitor every aspect of the satellite and receive commands from Earth for operation.
Guidance and Stabilization: Sensors monitor the satellite’s position to ensure it remains in the
correct orbit and is oriented toward the correct target. If necessary, thrusters and other manoeuvres
allow a satellite to fine-tune its position and orientation.
Housing: Constructed from strong materials that can withstand the harsh space environment.
Power: Most satellites rely on a solar array to convert sunlight into energy.
Thermal Control: Guards satellite equipment against extreme changes in temperature.
Transponders: Uplink and downlink signals arrive and depart at different frequencies.
Transponders convert uplinked frequencies to downlink frequencies and then amplify the converted
transmission for sending to Earth.

Fig 3.4

11
 3.5 Applications of Satellite Communication:

Broadcast Nature of Transmissions:

•Ideally suited for point to multi-point transmission or broadcasting over large areas.
•Suitable for TV broadcasting and teleconferencing, facsimile, data and news dissemination.

Fig 3.5

Satellites based Mobile Communication:

• Provides mobile telephone services to users through satellites.
• Uses L-band (1-2 GHZ) for establishing direct connectivity between satellites and user terminals.
• Commonly referred to as Mobile Satellite Service ( MSS ).

Fig 3.6

12
Services through Satellite Communication:

• VSAT: Very Small Aperture Terminals Provide voice and B/B services in remote inaccessible
areas. The majority of VSAT antennas range from 75 cm to 1.2 m. Data rates typically range from 56
Kbit/s up to 4 Mbit/s. VSATs access satellites in geosynchronous orbit .
• DSPT: Digital Satellite Phone Terminals in general what we call as "Satellite Phone". It is useful in
remote areas where you do not have landline or cell phone signals.
• SCPC: Single Channel per Carrier (for dedicated connections for VSAT).
•MCPC: Multi Channel per Carrier -each carrier is utilized to transmit multiple channels. MCPC is
used much more than SCPC because it makes much more efficient use of expensive satellite
bandwidth.
•DCME: Digital Circuit Multiplication Equipment is a type of voice compression equipment that is
installed at either end of a long distance link typically communications satellite.

Fig 3.7

13
 CHAPTER – 4

GSM BASICS

4.1 Basic GSM:

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications. It is a widely used mobile network
technology that enables voice and data communication for mobile devices. GSM networks operate
on different frequency bands and use digital technology to provide reliable and secure
communication. GSM networks support features like call forwarding, call waiting, and text
messaging, making it a fundamental technology for mobile communication.
1. The Mobile Station [MS]
2. The base stations sub-system [BSS] – comprising a BSC and several BTSs
3. The network and switching sub-system [NSS] – comprising an MSC and associated registers.

Fig 4.1

4.2 The Mobile Station[MS]:

A mobile station refers to a device that can connect to a mobile network, such as a smartphone or a
tablet. It consists of two main components: the mobile device itself and the Subscriber Identity
Module (SIM) card. The SIM card contains important information, such as the user's phone number
and network authentication details. With a mobile station, users can make calls, send messages, and
access various mobile services provided by the network.

MS = ME + SIM
Fig 4.2
14
4.3 GSM interfaces:
1. Abis Interface [BTS-BSC]:
If the BTS and BSC are not combined, A-bis interface will be used. Otherwise, BS interface will
be used. Several frame unit channels are multiplexed on the same PCM support and BSC and BTS
can be remote from each other. Its main functions are:
• Conversion of 260 – bit encoded blocks (corresponding to 160x8 – bit samples for 20ms)
• Encoded block synchronization
• Vocal activity detection
• Alarm dispatch to BSC via PCM
• Test loop back operation

2. B-Interface [MSC-VLR]:
The VLR is the location and management data base for the mobile subscribers roaming in the area
controlled by the associated MSC(s). Whenever the MSC needs data related to a given mobile station
currently located in its area, it interrogates the VLR. When a mobile station initiates a location
updating procedure with an MSC, the MSC informs its VLR which stores the relevant information.
This procedure occurs whenever an MS roams to another location area. Also, when a subscriber
activates a specific supplementary service or modifies some data attached to a service, the MSC
informs (via the VLR) the HLR which stores these modifications and updates the VLR if required.

3. C-Interface [HLR-MSC]:
The Gateway MSC must interrogate the HLR of the required subscriber to obtain routing
information for a call or a short message directed to that subscriber.

4. D-Interface [HLR-VLR]:
This interface is used to exchange the data related to the location of the mobile station and to the
management of the subscriber. The main service provided to the mobile subscriber is the capability
to set up or to receive calls within the whole service area. To support this, the location registers have.
to exchange data. The VLR informs the HLR of the location of a mobile station managed by the
latter and provides it (either at location updating or at call set-up) with the roaming number of that
station. The HLR sends to the VLR all the data needed to support the service to the mobile
subscriber. The HLR then instructs the previous VLR to cancel the location registration of this
subscriber. Exchanges of data may occur when the mobile subscriber requires a particular service,
when he wants to change some data attached to his subscription or when some parameters of the
subscription are modified by administrative means

5. E-Interface [MSC_MSC]:
When a mobile station moves from one MSC area to another during a call, a handover procedure has
to be performed in order to continue the communication. For that purpose the MSCs have to
exchange data to initiate and then to realize the operation. After the handover operation has been
completed, the MSCs will exchange information to transfer A-interface signaling as necessary.
When a short message is to be transferred between a Mobile Station and Short Message Service
Centre (SC), in either direction, this interface is used to transfer the message between the MSC
serving the Mobile Station and the MSC which acts as the interface to the SC.

15
6. F-Interface [MSC-EIR]:
This interface is used between MSC and EIR to exchange data, in order that the EIR can verify the
status of the IMEI retrieved from the Mobile Station.

7. G-Interface [VLR-VLR]:
When a mobile subscriber moves from a VLR area to another Location Registration procedure will
happen. This procedure may include the retrieval of the IMSI and authentication parameters from the
old VLR.

8. H-Interface [HLR-AUC]:
When an HLR receives a request for authentication and ciphering data for a Mobile Subscriber and it
does not hold the requested data, the HLR requests the data from the AuC. The protocol used to
transfer the data over this interface is not standardized.

4.4 Operation and Maintenance Centre [OMC]:

The OMC centralizes all operations and maintenance activities for the MSCs and BSSs using remote
software control. It provides remote testing, operations, and maintenance capabilities for the entire
system from one central location. Each BSS, MSC, HLR, VLR, EIR, and AUC can be monitored and
controlled from the OMC.
The OMC supports the following network management functions:
• Event Management - General functions of the OMC include operator input and output messages,
application input commands, and application output reports.
• Fault Management - The OMC provides fault management such as diagnostics and alarms for the
MSC and BSS. It provides the means to isolate and minimize the effects of faults in the network
thereby enabling the network to operate in efficient manner.
• Security Management – It provides an extensive range of features to ensure that access to the OMC
functions is restricted to relevant personnel. The security features are as follows:
 Password Authentication of OMC operator
 Logging of OMC access attempt
 Configurable user access restrictions
 Automatic logoff
• Configuration Management - Configuration management for the BSS consists of generic download,
non-volatile memory download, database administration, and translations download. For the MSC,
software release updates, database administration (route analysis, IMSI analysis table), and
subscriber administration (connect/disconnect) are supported.
• Performance Management - Performance management supports data collection (such as traffic data,
handovers, statistics, plant measurements, and volume data) and basic reporting.

Fig 4.3

16
4.5 Billing Centre:

Charging analysis is the process of analyzing the Charging Case and then ultimately generating the
TT (Toll Ticketing) record so that an itemized bill can be produced and then sent on to the customer.
The tariff structure consists of two parts: • The network access component • The network utilization
component

4.6 GSM identities:

Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)

91 9418 11047 91 9417 196099

CC NDC SN CC NDC SN

BSNL HP MSISDN BSNL PUNJAB MSISDN

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity Number (TMSI):

The TMSI can be allocated to the mobile subscriber in order to be used instead of his IMSI during all
radio communications. The purpose is to keep subscriber information confidential on the air
interface. The TMSI is relevant on the local MSC/VLR level only and is changed at certain events or
time intervals. Each local operator can define its own TMSI structure.

Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

When a mobile terminating call is to be set-up, the HLR of the called subscriber requests the
MSC/VLR to allocate an MSRN to the called subscriber. This MSRN is returned via the HLR to the
GMSC. The GMSC routes the call to the MSC/VLR exchange where the called subscriber is
currently registered. The routing is done using the MSRN. When the routing is completed, the
MSRN is released. The interrogation call routing function (request for MSRN) is part of the MAP.
All data exchanged between GMSC-HLR-MSC/VLR for the purpose of interrogation is sent over S7
signaling. The MSRN is built up like an MSISDN.

LAI – Location Area Identity

Each Location Area within the PLMN has an associated internationally unique identifier (LAI). The
LAI is broadcast regularly by BTSs on the Broadcast Control channel (BCCH), thus uniquely
identifying each cell with an associated LA.

LAI = MCC + MNC + LAC

17
 CGI – CELL GLOBAL Identity
Each Cell Area within the PLMN has an associated internationally unique identifier (CGI). The CGI
is broadcast regularly by BTSs on the Broadcast Control channel (BCCH), thus uniquely identifying
each cell with an associated LA.
CGI = LAI+CI
CGI = MCC+MNC+LAC+CI

LAI= Location Area Identity(MCC + MNC + LAC)

MCC = Mobile Country Code, same as in IMSI
MNC = Mobile Network Code, same as in IMSI
LAC = Location Area Code, identifies a location area within a
GSM PLMN network. Maximum length of LAC is 16 bits.

4.7 Network Structure:

• GSM Service Area

• PLMN Service Area
• MSC Service Area
• Location Area
• Cells

Fig 4.5

Fig 4.4

18
 CHAPTER – 5

IP Addressing

5.1 What is an IP Address?

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is the unique identifying number assigned to every device
connected to the internet. An IP address definition is a numeric label assigned to devices that use the
internet to communicate. Computers that communicate over the internet or via local networks share
information to specific location using IP addresses.
IP addresses have two distinct versions or standards. The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) address
is the older of the two, which has space for up to 4 billion IP addresses and is assigned to all
computers. The more recent Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) has space for trillions of IP addresses,
which accounts for the new breed of devices in addition to computers. There are also several types of
IP addresses, including public, private, static, and dynamic IP addresses.
Every device with an internet connection has an IP address, whether it's a computer, laptop, IoT
device, or even toys. The IP addresses allow for the efficient transfer of data between two connected
devices, allowing machines on different networks to talk to each other.
Each host on the internet is assigned a 32-bit or 128 bit address called its internet address or IP
address.

5.2 Sources

Fig 5.1

19
INTERNET ENGINEERING TASK FORCE [IETF]:
It develops and promotes voluntary internet standards in a particular way that comprise of the
internet protocal i.e IP/TCP. It is an open standard organization with no formal membership or any
requirements. The IETF started out as an activity supported by the U.S. federal government but since
1993 it has operated as a standard development function under the guidance of the internet society.

THE INTERNET ASSIGNED NUMBERS AUTHORITY [IANA]:

This is a department of internet corporation for assigned names and number that is a non profitable
private american corporation that overseas global IP addresses allocations, root zone management
etc.

ASIA PACIFIC NETWORK INFORMATION CENTER [APNIC]:

It is the regional internet address registry for the asia-pacific region. It is one of the world’s five
RIRs and is part of the Number Resources Organization.

5.3 IP Address Classification and Identification

IP Address is divided into two parts:

 Prefix: The prefix part of IP address identifies the physical network to which the computer is
attached. . Prefix is also known as a network address.
 Suffix: The suffix part identifies the individual computer on the network. The suffix is also
called the host address.

Fig 5.2

20
5.4 Subnetting

 Chopping up of a network into a number of smaller networks is called subnetting.

 Moving some host’s bits to the network portion or it allows to assign some of the bits,
normally used by the host portion of the address, to the network portion of the address.
 1 bit subnetting = Two networks
 2 bit subnetting = Four networks
 3 bit subnetting = More than 8 networks
The format of the subnetting IP address is = <network number, subnet number. host number>
It allows efficient use of full network address space and any of the classes of an IP address can be
subnetted.

5.5 Supernetting

 It is just the reverse of subnetting.

 Moving some network’s bits to the host portion or it allows to assign some of the bits,
normally used by the network portion of the address, to the host potion of the address.
 1 bit super netting = combining Two networks
 2 bit super netting = combining Four networks
 3 bit super netting = combining 8 or more than that.
The format of super netted IP address is = <network number, supernet number, host number>
It is used to combine networks in single network as per actual requirement and only consecutive
logical networks can be combined.

5.6 Network Design and Implementation

This involves three basic tasks:
1. Selecting the devices suitable for the particular situation.
2. Determining how the devices will be connected.
3. Deciding the address space to be used for the networked machines.

Fig 5.3

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IMPLEMENTATION OF IP ADDRESS:
The number of machines you expect to support will affect several decisions you will need to make at
this stage of setting up a network for your site. Your organization may require a small network of
several dozen standalone machines located on one floor of a single building. Alternatively, you may
need to set up a network with more than 1000 hosts in several buildings. This arrangement may
require you to further divide your network into subdivisions called subnets. The size of your
prospective network will affect the:
 Network class you apply for
 Network number you receive
 IP addressing scheme you use for your network
Obtaining a network number and then establishing an IP addressing scheme is one of the most
important tasks of the planning phase of network administration.

5.7 IPv6

An IPv6 address is made of 128 bits divided into eight 16-bits blocks. Each block is then converted
into 4-digit Hexadecimal numbers separated by colon symbols.
For example, given below is a 128 bit IPv6 address represented in binary format and divided into
eight 16-bits blocks:
– 0010000000000001 0000000000000000 0011001000111000
1101111111100001 0000000001100011 0000000000000000
0000000000000000 1111111011111011
Total Addresses = 2^128 = 3.4x10^38

Why IPv6?
IP version 4 was designed in the early 80’s. it is 32 bits long. It has issues like:
 Space saturation due to exponential internal growth
 Security concern
 Data priority
 It does not have a mechanism to configure a device which has globally unique IP address.
 It does not provide mobility.
As IPv6 also reserves blocks of numbers for particular purpose or prohibits using specific numbers
entirely, the total number of IPv6 addresses should be slightly less. Nonetheless, the amount of IPv6
addresses is almost endless, so future demand should be met.

5.8 IPv4

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth edition of the Internet Protocol. It is a system of
identifying individual computers and digital devices on the Internet by assigning each one with a
unique address. IPv4 address consists of a set of four numbers separated by a period character (“.”),
often referred to as a “dot.” Each number can be from 0 to 254. Some addresses may not be assigned
because they are reserved for special uses. IPv4 can accommodate up to 4 billion unique addresses,
but these have already been used up as the Internet continues to grow.
You can think of IPv4 as the unique ID which a computer, smartphone, or game console displays to
communicate with similar devices.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IPV4 AND IPV6

Fig 5.4

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 CHAPTER – 6

LTE & NETWORKS

6.1 LTE in BSNL

• BSNL is in the phase of rollout 4G services on the 2100 Mhz band in all 21 licensed service areas
(LSAs).
• DoT has approved BSNL plan that seeks additional 5 MHz airwaves in the 2100 Mhz band to
launch fourth-generation (4G) services pan-India.
LTE employs Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) for downlink data
transmission and Single Carrier FDMA (SCFDMA) for uplink transmission.

6.2 LTE Principles and Technology

 Higher peak data rates: 100Mbps(downlink) and 50 Mbps(uplink).

 Improved spectrum efficiency: 2-4 times better than compared to the existing networks
 Improved latency: less than 12ms.
 Support of scalable bandwidth: 1.4,3,4,5,10,20 Mhz.
 Support for interworking with legacy network.
 Better mobility: 0-15km/h – best performance, 15-120km/h – high performance and 120-
350km/h – real time services.
 Cost efficient: reduced capital and operational expenditure including backhaul.

6.3 LTE network Architecture

System Architecture Evolution (SAE) is the term used to describe the evolution of the core network
into the Evolved Packet Core (EPC).

Fig 6.1

24
The LTE Network consists of mainly two parts:
•The Enhanced UTRAN part which is composed of only EnodeB.
•The EPC part which includes the main components of the LTE

EnodeB –
 The EnodeB provides the Radio physical layer and Radio resource management of the formal
NodeB
 Through the new Added X2 interface , the EnodeB can do a call handover without the EPC
involvement.
 Enode B provides the user data routing through the SAE-GW.
 Provide the MME Selection Algorithm.

Mobility Management Entity –

 The MME provides a Session management function through Attach/Detach procedures ,
Bearer Management Across EPC (setup/release)…etc
 The MME provides a Mobility management function through Tracking Area Updates and
also MME tracking area update through S10 interface.
 The MME is connected to the HSS subscriber management through the S6a interface , thus
provide a user authentication.

SAE Gateway –
 The serving gateway is a network element that manages the user data path (SAE bearers)
within EPC.
 It is connected to eNB via the S1-U interface. It receives uplink packet data from here and
transmits downlink packet data on it.
 Thus the serving gateway is some kind of distribution and packet data anchoring function
within EPC.
 It relays the packet data within EPC via the S5/S8 interface to or from the PDN gateway.
 A serving gateway is controlled by one or more MMEs via S11 interface.

Fig 6.2

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PDN-SAE Gateway –
 The PDN gateway provides the connection between EPC and a number of external data
networks.  It is comparable to GGSN in 2G/3G networks.
 A major functionality provided by a PDN gateway is the QoS coordination between the
external PDN and EPC.
 PDN gateway can be connected via S7 to a PCRF(Policy and Charging Rule Function).

Fig 6.3

6.4 Different Network Interfaces on LTE

Fig 6.4

26
6.5 Basic Functions of different Nodes

There are multiple types of nodes in LTE but the mains ones are EnodeB , SGW, PGW & HSS.
Three of them have been explained above in the subheading “Network Architecture”.

HSS:
It stands for Home Subscriber Service.
Some of the functions of HSS are-
 Provides the subscriber Data Management and mobility information(User Number, Location,
Profile, Qos etc.
 Contains the Authentication Center (AuC) functionality.
The HSS is already introduced by UMTS release 5. With LTE/SAE the HSS will get additionally
data per subscriber for SAE mobility and service handling and can be accessed by the MME via S6a
interface.

Fig 6.5

THANK YOU

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