Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EBOOK Instructional Design 3Rd Edition 3Rd Edition Ebook PDF Download Full Chapter PDF Kindle
EBOOK Instructional Design 3Rd Edition 3Rd Edition Ebook PDF Download Full Chapter PDF Kindle
This book is intended to be of assistance to anyone who ment), learners, and learning tasks. The section also
is interested in facilitating learning. contains the chapter on assessment of learning.
We hope that this text is helpful to people who are The third section, Instructional Strategies, is concerned
both interested in learning what has become known as primarily with micro-level strategies to facilitate learn-
“mainstream” instructional design, as well as alterna- ing. A separate chapter is provided for strategies leading
tives, innovations, and enrichments. In addition to a to the learning of eight distinct categories of learning:
number of truly valuable contributions from recent declarative knowledge, concepts, principles, proce-
work, we find that not all that is characterized as “new” dures, domain-specific problem solving, cognitive
in our field is in fact so new, and hope to provide a thor- strategies, attitude change and motivation, and psy-
ough-enough background to allow the reader to decide. chomotor skills. The approach to design of instructional
This text is predicated upon the belief that designers strategies is tied closely to cognitive learning theory and
need both skill in using procedures from accepted prac- related research, in which the cognitive requirements
tice as well as the ability to engage in problem solving of particular learning tasks, along with context and
from the standpoint of underlying concepts and princi- learner characteristics, are used to inform instructional
ples. Thus, although we offer extensive procedural as- strategy decisions. The final chapter in this section is de-
sistance, we emphasize the foundations and first voted to macro-level strategies and integration of learn-
principles upon which most of the models and proce- ing in larger units of study.
dures in our field are built. The text provides a founda- The fourth section, Implementation, Management, and
tion upon which users can adapt the design process to Evaluation, is comprised of a chapter on implementation
fit their unique contexts. of instruction, a chapter on management of instruction,
Despite the youth of the instructional design spe- and a chapter on formative and summative evaluation
cialty, it has developed a rich mainstream. In recent of instruction.
years, theory and practice involved in designing instruc- The fifth section, Conclusion, has one chapter which
tion have been enriched by ideas and approaches from supplies concluding comments and recommendations
many perspectives. However, too many people from such as “fast track” design approaches and the principle
both within the specialty and outside it have begun to of appropriate technology. The chapter also includes an
speak of the design of instruction as if it were uninflu- effort at pulling the material of the whole book together
enced by new ideas, or that it is an atheoretic, proce- into a summary. The chapter concludes with observa-
dure-bound practice with little or no research, or that it tions on future directions of interest to the field.
gets new ideas in the facilitation of learning only from
outside the specialty. Our experience with instructional
design is that it is a rapidly changing, theory-rich, chal-
Changes in the 3rd Edition
lenging and rewarding field of research and practice. Two chapters, Chapter 17, Implementation, and
Chapter 18, Management of Instruction, are new addi-
tions. We are pleased to be able to offer what we believe
Organization of the Text is a helpful treatment of these two areas of critical im-
The text is organized into five main sections. portance to most instructional designers. The new
The first section, Introduction, provides an introduc- chapter on implementation provides recommendations
tion to instructional design itself and a discussion of that can substantially increase the likelihood that in-
philosophical and theoretical foundations. structional design efforts will be successful. The chapter
The second section, Analysis and Assessment, includes contains practical implementation suggestions. These
chapters on analysis of context (including needs assess- suggestions draw heavily upon information about con-
vii
viii PREFACE
text, learners, and learning tasks, and we think readers • Online Chapter W-1: Production of Media
will find that this underscores and clarifies the rele- • Online Chapter W-2: Delivery Strategies
vance of instructional analysis. The new chapter on • Extended Example: Design of one course through
management emphasizes project management concepts each of the phases of the instructional design
and tools of relevance to instructional designers and process, using a course. in digital photography,
also discusses instructional management, the overarch- with illustration of:
ing strategies that guide the scheduling of instructional
events, and the mechanisms for delivering these events. ° Context analysis
Users of earlier editions may notice the absence of ° Learner Analysis
two chapters from the Table of Contents: Production ° Learning Task Analysis
and Delivery Strategies. These chapters were particu- ° Assessment
larly difficult to maintain currency, but rather than • Instructional Strategy Design for lessons
eliminate them completely, they have been updated leading to:
and moved to our Learning Resources Web Site.
° Declarative knowledge learning
The Learning Resources Web Site, http:www.wiley
.com/college/smith, a helpful supplement in the past, ° Concept learning
has increased in its role and importance. Beyond the ad- ° Procedure learning
dition of two chapters, the site also contains an updated ° Principle learning
and revised Extended Example. The Extended Example ° Problem-solving learning
in the 1st and 2nd editions gave an example of applica- ° Cognitive strategy learning
tion of each of the major design activities applied to one
° Attitude learning
course. Continuing in the 3rd edition, the Extended
Example is provided in addition to those provided in ° Psychomotor skill learning
each chapter which draw from many subject areas and ° Macro-Level Design (Course Structure)
task domains. The Extended Example gives the reader ° Example Instructor-led Instruction Lesson Plan
not only an illustration of application in addition to ° Formative and Summative Evaluation Plans
those which appear in chapters, but it also has the
unique function of providing the continuity of relating Features of the Third Edition
to a single subject area and course. Most chapters in the
text have an example in the Extended Example. We se- The text includes features found to be of most utility in
lected a course in Digital Photography as our vehicle, the first and second editions, expands the use of those
and we hope you find it to be interesting and helpful as of most importance, and eliminates those which were
an illustration of application of instructional design con- not of particular value.
cepts and techniques. Each chapter for which there is an 1. Performance objectives begin each chapter. In
Extended Example contribution contains a pointer to addition to providing a preview and expectation-
the example and recommendation to examine it. setting function, the objectives in an instructional
The Learning Resources Web Site contains materials design text serve an additional function. Chapter
that we hope are useful to learners and faculty alike. objectives provide examples of ways of expressing
The site contains: intention for learning in addition to other exam-
• Feedback for all chapter exercises ples in the text. Many chapter objectives reflect
higher order learnings such as principles, proce-
• Example course syllabi and schedules for courses
dures, and problem solving.
which use the text in a variety of contexts
2. Examples from a variety of settings, including
• Learning activities for classroom use
business and industry as well as K–12 education.
• Figures and illustrations, in the text, as a file that Examples of the application of tools and principles
instructor (or students) can use and modify place design in a context that helps learners better
• Presentations in PowerPoint[TM] form related to understand relevance and application than by
many of the chapters reading explanations alone. We have made an ef-
• Job aids which may be either printed out or used fort to make the text rich with examples of appli-
within your computer as forms to facilitate appli- cation in a variety of settings and content
cation domains.
• Example objectives for each type of learning, along 3. The Extended Example for the design of compo-
with a summary of events of instruction from each nents in an instructional photography course is pro-
of the strategies chapters (Chapters 8-16) vided in the book’s Learning Resources Web Site.
PREFACE ix
The Extended Example, described earlier, exempli- Bradshaw, Barry Brown, Beth Butts, John Cochenour,
fies the major principles presented in each chapter. L.K. & Steve Curda, Gayle Davidson-Shriver, Scott
It has been our experience that while learners ben- DeClue, Phil Doughty, Jim Ellsworth, Marsha
efit from the diversity of short examples within Ferguson, Paul Kleine, Sandy Quesada, Rita Richey,
each chapter, they also greatly benefit from seeing Willi Savenye, Rick Schwier, Annette Sherry, Jennifer
the instructional design for one content unfold Summerville, and Patty White for their help and friend-
across the entire instructional design process. ship. And special acknowledgement and thanks to
4. Exercises are embedded within the chapters to Patricia Hardre, who wrote the new chapter on man-
assist learners in active interaction with the mate- agement (Chapter 18), a significant contribution to this
rial as well as provide the opportunity for students edition.
to monitor their learning as they progress through We are also indebted to our esteemed former profes-
the chapter. Exercises often include practice of sors and colleagues for their ground-breaking scholar-
procedures and application of principles being dis- ship, especially L. J. Briggs, W. Dick, R. M. Gagné,
cussed. In our own teaching uses of this book as a J. Keller, and W. Wager. After writing this text, we more
text, we base the exams that we give our students fully realize that we “stand on the shoulders” of our
on the item specifications from which these exer- predecessors!
cises were derived. (Model answers to these We are grateful for the contributions which our stu-
Exercises are provided in the Learning Resources dents have made to our learning. We appreciate the
Web Site described earlier.) thoughtful questions of our students from all of the in-
stitutions at which we have taught. We are also in-
5. Graphic summaries are included at the end of
debted to the students from many classes for their
each chapter. Although some are more “graphic”
formative feedback on the various versions of the text
than others, each can assist in summarizing
over the years. We must specifically mention Tom
through a table or graphically enhanced represen-
Bergman and Mary Beth Smith, who provided us with
tation.
detailed written feedback over an entire semester. One
6. Reading and reference information is exten- student, not ours, but a student in Syracuse University’s
sive. In addition to thorough citation of sources Instructional Design, Development and Evaluation pro-
used throughout the text, a few useful references gram, contributed to revisions of the example problem-
not cited are included. The references sections are solving lesson to bring it into the 21st century with
wide-ranging in scope, including research reports, sample instruction on beginning Java programming.
literature reviews, technical reports, and books in Thank you, Patty (so many Patricias—this one is
both theoretical and application domains. Patricia T. Ragan).
7. Access structures such as author and subject in- We gratefully acknowledge the insightful and schol-
dexes, extensive illustrations, careful use of ex- arly comments of our reviewers: T. C. Bassoppo-Moyo,
plicit typographic structures such as heading use, Illinois State University; Don E. Descy, Minnesota State
bolding, and italics, and extensive cross-referenc- University; Patricia L. Hardre, University of Oklahoma;
ing are employed to help users navigate and use Badrul Khan, George Washington University; Tiffany A.
this book as not only a text but a reference for Koszalka, Syracuse University; Victor Nolet, Western
practitioners. Washington University; Pam Northup, University of
West Florida; Francine Shuchat Shaw, New York
University; and Michael E. Wiggins, Embry-Riddle
Acknowledgements
Aeronautical University
We wish to thank our colleagues. We are especially in- Finally, we acknowledge the guidance and careful at-
debted to colleagues in the Instructional Technology tention to our manuscript provided by our editors and
and Psychology program at the University of production team at Wiley: Brad Hanson, Alec
Oklahoma, the Professors of Instructional Design Borenstein, Mary Savel, and Patty Donovan of Pine
Technology group (PIDT), the Association for Tree Composition.
Educational Communications and Technology (AECT),
the American Educational Research Association Patricia L. Smith
(AERA), and the International Visual Literacy Tillman J. Ragan
Association (IVLA). In particular we would thank Professors Emeriti
Barbara Greene, Ray Miller, and Terri DeBacker, who The University of Oklahoma
have listened to our ideas, provided books for our edu- Norman, Oklahoma
cation, and critiqued portions of this text. Also to Amy April, 2004
B R I E F C O N T E N T S
xi
C O N T E N T S
I INTRODUCTION 1 C H A P T E R 5
C H A P T E R 1
INSTRUCTIONAL ANALYSIS: ANALYZING
INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL THE LEARNING TASK 75
DESIGN 3 Overview of Analysis of the Learning Task 76
Introduction 4 Writing Learning Goals 77
What Does Instructional Design Mean? 4 Determining Types of Learning 78
What is Design? 6 Conducting an Information-Processing Analysis 83
C H A P T E R 6
C H A P T E R 2
xiii
xiv CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 8 C H A P T E R 1 2
Critical Elements of Psychomotor Skills 275 Standards for Project Management 315
Exercise B 277 Project Integration Management 316
A General Procedure for Teaching Psychomotor Skills 279 Project Scope Management 316
Assessment of Psychomotor Skill Learning 281 Project Time Management 316
Project Cost Management 318
Project Human Resource Management 318
C H A P T E R 1 6 Risk, Change, and Crisis Management 319
Macro-Level and Micro-Level Management Issues 320
MACRO STRATEGIES: INTEGRATION Instructional Management 321
OF TYPES OF LEARNING 285 Integrated Learning Systems 321
Introduction 286 Course Management Systems 322
Curriculum Sequencing Structures 286 Exercises 323
Exercise A 290
Integrative Curriculum Tools and Concepts 290
Alternative Views of Curriculum Design 293 C H A P T E R 1 9
Technology’s Assistance to Integrated Curriculum
Designs 295 FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE
Prescriptions for Curriculum Design 296 EVALUATION 326
Exercise B 296 Evaluating Instructional Materials 327
Overview of Formative Evaluation 327
Phases of Formative Evaluation 328
IV I M P L E M E N TAT I O N , M A N A G E M E N T, Exercises 341
A N D E VA L U AT I O N 3 0 1 An Overview of Summative Evaluation 342
C H A P T E R 1 7 Alternative Approaches to Summative Evaluation 343
Procedures for Summative Evaluation 344
IMPLEMENTATION 303
I
INTRODUCTION
In this section, we introduce and provide foundation
for your study of instructional design. I n Chapter 2, “Foundations of Instructional
Design,” a review of philosophical and theoretical
I n Chapter 1, “Introduction to Instructional foundations is provided. The philosophical perspectives
of constructivism, empiricism, and pragmatism are ex-
Design,” the idea of instructional design is presented.
The concept of instruction is compared with related plored, as well as the major assumptions held by au-
concepts such as education, training, and teaching. We thors of this text. Theories that are also foundational to
also will look at the major activities of instructional de- instructional design are discussed, including the learn-
signers and who performs them in what settings. This ing theories of behaviorism, cognitive learning theory,
review of activities also provides a preview of the vari- and developmental theories. Finally, the use of instruc-
ety of settings to which this book is addressed: corpo- tional theories throughout the text will be overviewed,
rate, K–12, and other. Also discussed are advantages along with a relatively simple example of an instruc-
and limitations of the instructional design approach. tional theory, which is provided for orientation.
INTRODUCTION TO
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
C H A P T E R
C H A P T E R O B J E C T I V E S
At the conclusion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Explain what is meant by instructional design.
• Define instruction, distinguish it from related terms (such as education, training, and teaching), and when
given descriptions of educational activities, determine which of these are instruction.
• Identify and describe the three major activities of the instructional design process, and when given descrip-
tions and instructional design activities, identify which activity is being employed.
• Describe advantages of using instructional design: for school curriculum developers, for teachers, for train-
ing designers, and trainers.
• Discuss the types of contexts in which instructional designers work and how their activities may differ in
these different contexts.
3
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
arrangement of learning conditions to promote the at- livery of these focused educational experiences in-
tainment of some intended goal” (p. 345). In both defi- struction.
nitions, instruction is the intentional arrangement of So, all instruction is part of education because all in-
experiences, leading to learners acquiring particular ca- struction consists of experiences leading to learning.
pabilities. These capabilities can vary qualitatively in But not all education is instruction because many ex-
form, from simple recall of knowledge to cognitive periences that lead to learning are not specifically de-
strategies that allow a learner to find new problems veloped and implemented to ensure effective, efficient,
within a field of study. For example, a teacher or and appealing experiences leading toward particular
trainer may wish to help learners use a particular kind learning goals. A common misapprehension of instruc-
of computer software to solve a certain set of problems. tion relates instruction to particular strategies—such as
The instructional designer will develop materials and expository or didactic ones—and avoids the term when
activities that are intended to prepare the learners to referring to learning environments that employ a more
use the software effectively. Every experience that is student-centered approach. The tools and principles of
developed is focused toward one or more goals for instructional design that you will see described in this
learning. In addition to effective instruction, designers book are applicable to all forms of experience, as long
also wish to create instruction that is efficient (requir- as the experience in question has facilitation of particu-
ing the least time and cost necessary) and appealing. lar goals for learning as its purpose. However, learning
Terms such as education, training, and teaching are environments that are truly “goal free”—if such exist—
often used interchangeably with instruction. However, would not be examples of instruction.
in this text we will make some distinctions among We generally use the term training to refer to those
these terms. Certainly, these distinctions may not be instructional experiences that are focused upon indi-
made in the same way among all individuals in the viduals acquiring very specific skills that they will nor-
field of education, or even in the field of instructional mally apply almost immediately. For example, many
design. However, we have found these definitions instructional experiences in vocational education
helpful in laying the framework for this text. Figure 1.1 classes can be considered training. The students learn
illustrates the relationships among these terms. skills, specifically focused toward job competencies,
We will use the term education very broadly to de- that they will use almost immediately. Much instruc-
scribe all experiences in which people learn. Many of tion in business, military, and government settings can
these experiences are unplanned, incidental, and infor- be termed training because the experiences are directed
mal. For example, many people learn to drive a car in toward preparing learners with specific on-the-job
city traffic through a trial-and-error process involving skills. In addition, the instruction in certain special ed-
many harried morning trips. The driver learns, so these ucation classes is “training” because the learning expe-
experiences can be considered part of her general edu- riences have been developed to provide students with
cation; however, no one has specifically arranged this life skills, such as counting change, which we antici-
learning experience so that she can learn well, quickly, pate they will use almost immediately.
and with a minimum of danger and frustration. It Not all instruction can be considered training, how-
would be possible to create a series of particular experi- ever. For instance, in military education programs,
ences (perhaps using a simulator or videotapes and city learners may be provided with some general instruc-
maps) that would be specifically focused on preparing tion in math and reading. These learning experiences
one to navigate city traffic easily. We would call the de- can be termed instruction because the lessons were de-
veloped with some specific goals in mind, such as a cer-
tain level of proficiency in reading and mathematics.
However, these goals are often not directed toward a
specific job task, nor is there anticipation of immediate
Education
impact upon a specific job task. The influence on job
Instruction
performance is anticipated to be more diffuse through-
out job responsibilities and outside job tasks. Therefore,
Training in our terminology, these learning experiences would
not be termed training. Similar to the misapprehension
of the meaning of instruction, training is sometimes
Teaching
mistakenly identified with a particular style or strategy
of teaching. Training is conducted using all of the vari-
eties of method and approach seen in any other form
Figure 1.1 Relationships Among Terms Associated with of education: Training is distinguished from other
Instruction forms by immediacy of application.
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
Of all the terms just discussed, teaching and instruc- is being brought to bear, regardless of the size of the
tion may be most often used interchangeably. In this project. Schön (1987, 1991), a student of effective pro-
text, we will use the term teaching to refer to those fessional practice, described design as a process of “re-
learning experiences that are facilitated by a human flective conversation with the materials of a given situ-
being—not a DVD, textbook, or educational Web site, ation.”
but a live teacher. Instruction, on the other hand, in- Many fields use the term design as part of their title;
cludes all learning experiences in which facilitation and examples include interior design, architectural design,
support for learning are conveyed by teaching and and industrial design. The term design implies a system-
other forms of mediation. As you will discover later, atic or intensive planning and ideation process prior to
one of the primary tenets of instructional design is that the development of something or the execution of
a live teacher is not essential to all instruction. some plan in order to solve a problem. Fundamentally,
As Figure 1.1 shows, not all teaching is considered design is a type of problem solving and has much in
to be instruction. There are occasions in an educational common with problem solving in other professions. In
environment in which a teacher does not focus learn- this text, we classify the capability that designers apply
ing experiences toward any particular learning goal. as “domain-specific problem solving,” which involves
On these occasions, teachers may provide many learn- the solution of “ill-structured” or “ill-defined” prob-
ing activities, and during these activities learning goals lems. Such problems cannot be solved by following an
may emerge, often from the learners themselves as algorithm, nor will all designers reach the same solu-
they encounter the activities. For example, some tion to a particular learning problem. (Readers might
preschool education falls within this category, such as wish to refer to Chapter 12, Strategies for Problem-
instances in which learners are provided with a variety solving Lessons, to clarify what is meant by “domain-
of manipulative materials that they can use to pursue specific problem solving.”)
many problems. These pursuits might lead to various Design is distinguished from other forms of instruc-
learning outcomes, many of which have not been tional planning by the level of precision, care, and ex-
specifically anticipated by the teacher. pertise that is employed in the planning, development,
In summary, this text focuses on the facilitation of and evaluation process. Designers employ a high level
learning: instruction. Here, we will consider instruction of precision, care, and expertise in the systematic de-
to be a subset of education. The term training will be velopment of instruction because they perceive that
considered a subset of instruction. In some cases, teach- poor planning can result in serious consequences, such
ing will be considered instruction, and in others it will as misuse of time and other resources and even in loss
fit the more general category of education but will not of life. Specifically, instructional designers fear that
have the focus that characterizes instruction. We will poor instructional design can result in ineffective en-
concentrate on the design and development of activi- counters, inefficient* activities, and unmotivated learn-
ties that are directed toward identified learning goals. ers—a consequence that can have serious long-term ef-
fects. Indeed, experienced instructional designers
intensify the degree of precision, care, and expertise
WHAT IS DESIGN? expended on a design project relative to the impact of
the potential consequences of ineffective, inefficient, or
Design is an activity or process that people engage in unmotivated learning that can result from less care-
that improves the quality of their subsequent creations. fully designed instruction. (For more detail on the sub-
Design is related to planning, the difference being that ject of adjusting design intensity to the learning situa-
once the expertise and care with which planning is tion, refer to Chapter 20, Conclusions and Future
conducted reaches a certain point, we begin to refer to Directions.)
the activity as “design.” When projects become com- Design involves the consideration of many factors
plex, at some point the term “planning” no longer fits that may affect or be affected by the implementation of
and “design” becomes a better descriptor. Thus, before an instructional plan. For example, interior designers
an earth orbit laboratory is built, it must be designed.
To say that the space station will be planned would not
make sense if we were referring to the development of *Efficiency is a controversial concept. Many educators and
actual specifications for its construction and operation. learning scientists are appropriately suspicious of concerns
Likewise, a teacher may engage in planning for a class with instructional efficiency. Although efficiency can be wor-
or semester, but if the term “design” is well-applied to shiped at the expense of meaningful learning, we use the term
to reflect the avoidance of unnecessary and unproductive
the activity, a high level of care and sophistication is waste, and when meaningful learning is implicit in learning
implied. The term design comes with an implication goals, as it often is, the criterion of effectiveness takes it quite
that a good amount of specialized knowledge and skill seriously.
WHAT IS DESIGN? 7
must consider the purpose and level of use of a facility, best designers clearly maintain a sense of the major
the anticipated traffic patterns, and the needs of the peo- goal and generalized perception of the content of the
ple who will be using the facility. Interior designers must materials: They can still see the forest, despite the trees.
consider the engineer’s plans, such as the location and Third, excellent designers use message design conven-
strength of walls. They must follow laws and regulations tions and techniques, such as metaphors, narratives, or
with regard to accessibility and safety. If they do not visual images to lend a sense of continuity, interest,
consider all these factors and how they interrelate, the and wholeness to the instruction.
designers risk creating a work or living space that is un- Another key aspect of instructional design is its ex-
usable or even dangerous. Just as interior designers tensive and demanding nature. Experienced designers
have critical factors that they must consider to make (not to mention novices) frequently express concern
their solutions usable and effective, instructional design- about the time and effort that they expend applying
ers have a vast number of factors, which often interact, what is currently known about designing effective, effi-
that they must consider as they create instruction. The cient, and appealing instruction. Clearly, there is
rest of this text details factors that instructional designers enough of a “technology” undergirding the design
must consider in designing instruction. process that a casual approach to either learning or ap-
Creativity also has a role in design. Novice designers plication of skills in instructional design will not do it
sometimes have the impression that doing design work justice. However, those who are beginning their study
is a “cut-and-dried” activity. This is not the case. For ex- of instructional design should know that once the con-
ample, if one were to give several architects the same cepts and principles of instructional design are learned,
conditions—site, materials, and purpose—the plans for they can be appropriately applied with a wide range of
the structures that they would create would vary radi- effort, precision, and formality.
cally. Some would be highly imaginative and innova- Even classroom teachers in public schools (who by
tive, while some might be more mundane and stan- virtue of their teaching loads do not generally have
dard. All of the designs may “work” in the sense that, time to engage in instructional design in a full-blown
when executed, the buildings would remain standing fashion) can significantly improve the effectiveness of
and serve their purposes. However, some imaginative their teaching by informally applying instructional de-
and ingenious structures may inspire awe, while more sign principles (Wiggins, McTighe, & McTighe, 1998).
mundane structures may be totally forgettable. They may choose to apply these principles mentally
Just as the design of the architect benefits from cre- and document little, if any, of their thinking on paper.
ativity and imagination, so do the designs of the in- Of course, in instructional design classes, learners are
structional designer. A critical need exists for imagina- asked to document their thought processes so that the
tion and ingenuity in all instructional design activities. instructor can evaluate them and provide remediation
For example, during context analysis designers may where necessary. And, in many contexts—particularly
have to exert considerable ingenuity in creating ways those situations in which teams work together on a de-
to ascertain the true nature of the “problem.” sign project in which legal liability for the quality of the
Sometimes this involves restructuring the problem to instruction is an issue—a hard-copy documentation of
redefine it into one that can be solved (Akin, 1994). In the design process may be essential.
addition, designers must make instruction inspiring Recent developments in the field are specifically di-
and memorable. Certainly, evaluation of instruction re- rected at reducing the time and effort required by the
quires inventiveness. Frequently, assessing the actual instructional design process. We review a number of
goals of an instructional activity seems a practical im- these “fast-track” approaches to instructional design in
possibility. Some designers are ingenious in devising the final chapter of this text.
ways of simulating targeted situations, so that learners Rowland (1992, 1993, 1994) has studied the process
get to demonstrate activities and cognitive processing of design across a number of professions and has exam-
that are very near the actual goal behavior. ined instructional design specifically. Several of his ob-
How can instructional designers become more cre- servations of design in general are particularly salient
ative in their work? We have noticed some common to the design of instruction (1993):
characteristics of particularly ingenious design students
and practitioners in the field. First, highly creative de- • Design is a goal-directed process in which the goal
signers are voracious consumers of examples of learn- is to conceive and realize some new thing.
ing environments and instructional materials, both • The new thing that results from designing has
those from the instructional design tradition and those practical utility.
from other traditions. Second, although they have con- • A basic task of designing is to convert information
ducted a thorough analysis of the component learning in the form of requirements into information in
requirements (objectives) of the design project, the the form of specifications.
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
• Design requires social interaction. An Overview of the Design Process: Designing Training
• Designing involves problem solving, but not all for Digital-Magic Repair Persons
problem solving is designing.
• In designing, problem understanding and problem The following section provides an overview of the en-
solving may be simultaneous or sequential tire process of designing instruction. We will describe
processes. how designers might prepare a system of instructional
materials to train individuals to repair the fictitious
• Design may be a science, or a combination of sci-
Digital-Magic 3-D/HD Hyperspheroid Plasma video
ence and art, or neither science nor art.
system that will soon be marketed throughout the
• Designing involves technical skills and creativity world.
and rational and intuitive thought processes.
• A design process is a learning process. (pp. 80–85) ANALYSIS. During the activity the designers will learn
as much as they can about the environment in which
the learners (repair persons) will be trained, about the
THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS learners themselves, and about the repair tasks for
which the learners must be prepared. The designer will
Another way to define instructional design is to describe ask many questions of the managers and supervisors in
the process involved in the systematic planning of in- the Digital-Magic company, the developers of the new
struction. At the most basic level, the instructional de- television system, those who have provided training
signer’s job is to answer three major questions (Mager, for repair persons in the past, and of the learners them-
1984): selves. They will analyze the learning task itself, asking
1. Where are we going? (What are the goals of the what learners must know or be able to do to learn to
instruction?) make repairs. The designers will want the answers to
2. How will we get there? (What is the instructional questions such as:
strategy and the instructional medium?) 1. Will the learners be brought together in a central
3. How will we know when we have arrived? location, or will they be trained in their own
(What should our tests look like? How will we work environments?
evaluate and revise the instructional materials?) 2. How much time is available for training?
These three questions can be stated as major activities 3. Will it be possible for the learners to have access
that an instructional designer completes during the de- to the new television systems to work with as
sign and development process: they learn about them?
1. Perform an instructional analysis to determine 4. How do learners feel about the training? What
“where we’re going.” sorts of incentives to learn will they be given?
2. Develop an instructional strategy to determine 5. What kinds of people are the prospective learn-
“how we’ll get there.” ers? What interests them? What kinds of educa-
3. Develop and conduct an evaluation to determine tional backgrounds do they have?
“how we’ll know when we’re there.” 6. Do all of the learners have to reach the same
goals?
These three activities form the foundation of the ap-
7. What do the learners already know that will help
proach to instructional design* that this book describes.
them learn the new information or skills?
We will expand on these three problem-solving activi-
ties throughout the text. 8. What are the skills and knowledge that the learn-
ers must acquire in order to make the repairs on
the new system? Do they need to know only the
technical procedures of repair, or do they also
*We use the term instructional design to refer to the entire need to know the conceptual or theoretical whys
process of design, development, implementation, and revision
of the procedures?
of instruction. The term instructional development is a related
term, and if it were not so awkward, we might refer to the 9. How should the learners’ achievement of the
process as instructional design and development. Some as- goals be assessed? Is a pencil-and-paper test ade-
pects, particularly production, would seem to fit more easily quate? Should learners be assessed on actually re-
under a term such as development rather than design. Since
the term instructional design is currently the most widely used pairing a Digital-Magic 3-D/HD video system?
of the choices available, we will use it in this text. Can this performance be simulated?
THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS 9
SELECTING THE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY. During this EVALUATION. When designing evaluation, the design-
activity, the designers determine the way that instruc- ers plan an approach for evaluating the instructional
tional material relating to repair of the television sets materials to determine what kinds of changes need to
should be presented. They also decide which learning be made in them. At Digital-Magic some of the ques-
activities the learners can experience. In addition, the tions that may be asked include the following:
designers determine what sequence of instruction
1. Is the content accurate? Have there been design
should follow. They choose the medium (a single
changes in the Digital-Magic 3-D/HD video sys-
medium) or media (a combination of multiple media)
tems since the instruction was originally devel-
that will support the instruction. This is the stage at
oped?
which the designers will determine exactly how in-
struction will take place. 2. What learners should use the materials in order
Some of the questions that Digital-Magic’s instruc- to get information to guide revisions? How
tional designers would answer in this activity are the should we conduct these tryouts? Should the
following: sample be large or small? Should students be ob-
served one at a time or in groups?
1. What kinds of content must be learned by the 3. What questions should be answered in order to
students? In what size segments should the con- determine problems in the instruction?
tent be presented? Should information be pre-
4. What revisions should be made in the instruc-
sented, or should the content be embedded
tion?
within an activity?
2. In what activities should the learners engage? When we use the term evaluation, it will often be in
What role will learners’ activities have? Will ac- reference to the broad topic including both assessment
tivities or projects supplement informational pre- of learners and evaluation of the instruction. When we
sentations, or will they be the primary means of are talking about evaluation of students’ learning, we
learning? Should activities include learners an- will generally use the term assessment instead of the
swering written questions? Should learners prac- more familiar but often misleading term tests (see
tice troubleshooting problems on the actual Chapter 6), and we will generally use the term evalua-
equipment? For what topics (if any) will reading tion in the context of evaluating the instruction itself;
be an appropriate learning activity? What topics the terms formative evaluation and summative evaluation
will require viewing demonstrations and visual will be used in this fashion (see Chapter 18).
examples? Are discussions needed?
3. In what sequence should instruction proceed? THE DIGITAL-MAGIC STORY: A POSTMORTEM. The in-
Should a “discovery” sequence be followed, or structional designers at Digital-Magic did a good job of
should an “expository” approach be used? If ex- instructional design. The training system for repair per-
pository, what sequence of presentation should sons was highly effective and efficient. Not only did the
be employed? student technicians learn what they needed to learn,
but they also enjoyed the process and developed a
4. What media are most appropriate for the support
good attitude about their work. It was a good thing,
of instruction? Should learners see a live demon-
too, because the new television set was very popular in
stration of repair procedures, a videotaped pre-
the market, and the first 10,000 Digital-Magic televi-
sentation, or an interactive video presentation?
sions that were manufactured had a mysterious ten-
Should they read about it in a text or workbook,
dency to fade after six months of use. The well-trained
or should they use both? Should the students
service technicians fixed the problems, and, as time
have a job performance aid (such as a manual)
passed, they acquired the reputation of being excellent
available to them for reference?
repair persons, and the video system eventually be-
5. What groupings should learners be placed in for came a success in the marketplace.
learning? Should they study independently, in a
small group, or in a large group?
Congruence Among the Activities
Notice that instructional design in no way implies
that the instructional strategy must be “direct instruc-
of Instructional Design
tion” or something “done to” the learner. Instructional Instructional designers insist on creating instruction in
strategy decisions are based on many factors that may which the goals, the instructional strategy, and the
influence what will best facilitate learning. (We will evaluation all match. By “match,” we mean that the
discuss this particular issue further in Chapter 7, A strategy (instructional method) that is used is appro-
Framework for Instructional Strategy Design.) priate for the learning task (goals) and that the tests
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
struction. It allows for common language and general particular goals are ever identified (i.e., non-instruc-
procedure. The written plans (goals, description of tar- tional education). In such cases, because there is no
get audience, and analysis of task) and the written “lead time” to the education, and since reflection and
products that are results of instructional design efforts planning are central to instructional design, there is
assist the process of review and revision of work in limited opportunity to apply many of its principles and
progress in a coordinated team effort. procedures. An example of such a situation might be an
4. Facilitates diffusion/dissemination/adoption. Because advanced graduate class or other educational environ-
the products of systematic instructional design are in ment in which the learners have exceptional prior
fact physical “products,” they may be duplicated, dis- knowledge of the content; these students would have
tributed, and used in the field. In addition, because de- well-developed cognitive strategies and be required to
sign and development have employed information identify the goals of the course, devise the educational
about the learners and setting, products will have a strategies, and assess their learning themselves. If a
high likelihood of being practical, workable, and ac- teacher is available in this situation, a skilled instructor
ceptable solutions to the instructional problems that might be able to process information rapidly enough so
they are designed to solve. that as learners identify goals and devise strategies, the
instructor could make suggestions for better or alterna-
5. Supports development for alternate embodiments or de-
tive strategies. In such a case, the teacher’s knowledge
livery systems. Much of the work that goes into an in-
of instructional design may be very helpful in his con-
structional design project is independent of the specific
sultant role; however, he may not have time to employ
form that the finished product takes (such as print,
much of the instructional design process and principles.
Web. computer, or video). The front-end analysis and
In a situation without prespecified learning goals, if a
consideration of instructional strategies will be valid
teacher is not available, then the responsibility for
beginning points for projects that result in embodi-
structuring the learning experience rests totally on the
ments other than those used by the original project.
learners, and their success depends on their own cogni-
6. Facilitates congruence among objectives, activities, and tive strategies, prior knowledge, and motivation. The
assessment. The systematic approach to instructional de- educational process in such an environment rests on an
sign helps ensure that what is taught is what is needed almost completely generative strategy (see Chapter 7
for learners to achieve stated goals for learning and for a discussion of instructional strategies).
that evaluation will be accurate and appropriate. In addition to goal-free learning environments,
7. Provides a systematic framework for dealing with learn- many other problems and situations are not amenable
ing problems. Frequently, creative individuals not to instructional design. (In Chapter 3, we will discuss
trained in systematic instructional design will develop solutions, such as management, policy, and incentives,
ingenious approaches to instruction that are rather like that are not instructional solutions). Finally, instruc-
“solutions looking for a problem.” Although these ap- tional design is not intended to take the place of exper-
proaches may add to the repertoire of possible ap- tise in particular teaching methods for individual sub-
proaches, they seldom appeal to high-level manage- ject areas (although instructional design can be a
ment in government or business, to school system helpful undergirding for such methods).
administrators, or to other funding agencies. The inno-
vations that are generally appealing are those that have
clarified the problem into a learning goal, have devel-
People Who Do Instructional Design
oped an instructional approach that gives reason to be- As you may (or may not) recall from the Preface, the
lieve that the problem can be solved and the learning treatment of instructional design in this text is intended
goals will be met, and has a well-constructed plan for for everyone who may benefit from it. Consequently,
gathering evidence to determine whether the approach you will see more or less equal attention given to exam-
has solved the initial problem and what undesirable ef- ples from corporate contexts as from K–12 or higher-
fects it might have. education settings. With the variety of application set-
tings in mind, who are the people in those settings who
do instructional design?
Limitations of Systematic Instructional Design
Instructional design does have limits of applicability; it TRAINING DESIGNERS. Probably the most identifiable
is not the solution to all the ills and problems of educa- group of individuals who practice instructional design
tion and training, nor is it the only method for creating are trainers of adults in business, industry, govern-
education. In particular, instructional design has limited ment, and private agencies. Trainers may be part of a
applicability to educational experiences in which (a) human resources department or they may have their
learning goals cannot be identified in advance, or (b) no own separate department. They may work in a central-
THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS 13
ized location, consulting with any of the divisions of tion from their testing to revise their instruction, espe-
the organization that may request their assistance, or cially for remediation. These design activities are com-
they may be permanently attached to a particular divi- pleted both planfully in advance of implementation and
sion, providing all of the training that division requires. spontaneously as circumstances suggest their use.
Not all trainers are instructional designers. Some Both teachers who have taken courses in instructional
trainers are experts in their skill or subject area, who design and teachers who have not engage in these
are either permanently or temporarily assigned to con- types of instructional design activities (Martin, 1990).
duct training in that area. Other trainers are technical However, those trained in systematic instructional design
writers, videographers, or other production specialists tend to engage in these activities more consistently, thor-
who have high-skill levels in communication within oughly, and reflectively than their untrained colleagues
their medium. Many trainers come from an adult edu- (Reiser & Mory, 1991). Most often, these instructional
cation background that emphasizes adult development. design activities are conducted mentally with little docu-
Human resource development (HRD) programs also mentation of the decisions made.
prepare trainers for employment in this area.
Many instructional designers who are involved in OTHER DESIGNERS. Instructional designers are also en-
training design have developed additional competen- gaged in developing instruction that is embodied in text-
cies in a more inclusive specialty that is termed “perfor- books, multimedia, instructional software, and videos
mance technology.” These individuals are prepared to used in K–12 and postsecondary settings. Such individu-
develop interventions that address contributors to poor als are often employed in settings such as publishing
employee performance (other than not knowing how houses and regional educational laboratories. We also
to do the job). These other causes are discussed in see instructional designers as members of development
Chapter 3 in the section on “needs assessment.” The teams of educational videos such as “Sesame Street” and
trend toward preparing instructional designers as per- “Reading Rainbow,” and of many Web-based education
formance technologists is discussed in Chapter 20. projects both publicly and privately funded.
Instructional designers are sometimes called upon to
TEACHERS AS DESIGNERS. Some individuals employed make contributions in the visual realm. Not only are
as teachers are directly involved in the design of new the form and content of illustrations a critical part of
instruction (or new “curricula,” as is more commonly much instruction, but also visualizations and visual
described in public and private K–12 and postsec- meta-phors which may underlie a simulation, micro-
ondary education). These teachers may be involved in
world, virtual reality, or exploratory learning environ-
ongoing and long-term projects. Certainly, instruc-
ment may benefit from the contributions of an instruc-
tional design procedures and principles can be em-
tional designer who possesses a high proficiency in
ployed effectively in their curriculum design and devel-
visual literacy skills in addition to core instructional de-
opment activities. These instructional design practices
sign competencies.
may be as formal, precise, and well documented as any
other instructional design project because of the need
for group communication and the development of a Competencies, Standards, and Ethics
record that codifies the decisions that they have made of Instructional Designers
and why they have made them.
Do teachers not involved in curriculum design pro- COMPETENCIES. Various agencies have compiled sets
jects use instructional design principles and procedures? of competencies for instructional designers. Although
Indeed, they do. Although they may receive goal state- your work with this text in a single course will not pre-
ments based on statewide initiatives, they do consider pare you for all of the competencies in any set, a sub-
these goals and may add goals or identify subgoals (ob- stantial proportion of these desired skills is reflected in
jectives) that will lead to these goals with aid from cur- the learning goals and content of this text. Your review
riculum guides, textbooks, or their own task analysis of these competencies can assist you in orienting to the
reflection. Teachers select or develop activities and in- specialty as well as a self-check in the future.
formation sources that will assist learners in reaching One of the more widely used set of competencies for
these goals. The development of engaging activities instructional designers is that developed by IBSTPI
seems to be a particular strength of practicing teachers. (International Board of Standards for Training,
Teachers also select or develop ways to assess learners’ Performance, and Instruction). The IBSTPI instructional
progress toward reaching goals. These assessment ap- designer competencies can be found in the organiza-
proaches may include written tests, performance tests, tion’s website: http://www.ibstpi.org.
observation, oral questioning, and a variety of other Another useful set of competencies is that developed
techniques for assessing learning. Teachers use informa- by the American Society for Training and Development
14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
(ASTD). The ASTD competencies are directed toward writing on the line beside the description which
human resource development and performance im- phase—analysis (A), strategy development (SD), or eval-
provement in corporate contexts. The ASTD competen- uation (E)—the designer is completing.
cies may be found at http://www.astd.org. In addition, _____ a. The designer determines that the prospective
Analysis & Technology, Inc. has developed a set of learners are able to read (on the average) at
competencies, which is available at http://www.coedu the ninth-grade reading level.
.usf.edu/IT/resources/competen.html
_____ b. The designer decides to use a simulation
STANDARDS. Fields and his associates (Fields, Foxton, & method as part of training a department
Richey, 2001) elaborated the IBSTPI competencies with store’s customer service representatives.
training standards as well as provided a description of _____ c. The designer determines what the learners
common specializations and uses of standards by various need to know in order to learn to balance
subgroups. In addition, the Association for Educational chemical equations.
Communications and Technology (AECT) has developed _____ d. After a tryout of the prototype of a computer-
the standards used by the National Council for based instruction (CBI) lesson on writing in-
Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) to support structional objectives, the designer adds ad-
accrediting of both the technology component of under- ditional practice items on identifying the
graduate teacher education programs, and graduate pro- “conditions” of an objective.
grams in instructional design and technology; more in-
formation on the AECT/NCATE standards may be found _____ e. The designer writes test items to assess
at http://www.aect.org/standards/index.html. whether learners have achieved the objectives
of a CBI lesson.
ETHICS. Like competencies and standards, professional 3. Which of the following activities would be educa-
codes of ethics provide guidance for good practice. tion, instruction, training, and/ or teaching? Circle the
Ethics provide a different insight from that provided by term or terms that apply.
performance standards: a moral compass. Although a. The teacher presents a lesson in which she hopes
ethicists are quick to point out that morals and ethics that the learners will learn the difference between
are not the same thing, it is a sense of right that ethics polygons and non-polygons. She has carefully planned
provide that other codes are missing. Elsewhere in this activities in which she will present examples and
text, your authors describe themselves, philosophically, nonexamples of polygons and will help students deter-
as striving to be “pragmatists with a moral compass.” To mine the differences. She will test the students at the
identify what merely works well or what is effective is end of instruction to confirm that they have learned to
not always sufficient to recommend what should (or identify those geometric figures that are polygons.
should not) be done. For the broader profession of edu-
education instruction teaching training
cation, focusing more on K–12 school professionals, the
National Education Association (NEA) has developed a b. The instructional designer for a large corpora-
short but useful statement of ethics for educators which tion has developed a print-based instructional pack-
focuses on commitments to students and to the profes- age for managers who are involved in hiring to pre-
sion of education (http://www.nea.org/code.html). pare them to follow legal practices during the hiring
Closer to our specialty, Welliver (2001) has edited a vol- process. The learning materials inform them of the
ume for AECT on ethics for educational communica- rules and show them examples and nonexamples of
tions and technology professionals. Welliver’s statement the rules’ application. The tests provide a copy of an
includes relationships to individuals, to society, and to interview dialog between a manager and a potential
the profession. The Welliver ethics volume is available employee. The learners must indicate whether all
online at http://www.aect.org and is available in full laws were followed. If they were not followed, learn-
text online without charge to AECT members. ers must identify which laws were broken and what
should have been said to avoid breaking the law.
education instruction teaching training
E X E R C I S E S c. A television documentary presents information
on types of whales, where whales live, what whales
1. What activities other than those of an engineer are do, what whales eat, and the history of whales.
similar to the role of an instructional designer? Describe Viewers tend to remember and learn different things
these similarities in your own words. from the program depending on what they already
2. Following is a description of the design procedures knew and their interests.
that an instructional designer is conducting. Identify by education instruction teaching training
SUMMARY 15
Instruction is...
Related Terms...
Assists coordination.
Analysis
Strategy Revision
Evaluation
Advantages Limitations
tal principles and procedures of instructional design. Gagné, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning (4th ed.). New
Figure 1.4 summarizes the major points in this chapter York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
thus far. Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles
of instructional design (4th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
Gagné, R. M., & Dick, W. (1983). Instructional psychology.
Annual Review of Psychology, 34, 261–295.
EXTENDED EXAMPLE: A PREVIEW Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (1997). Survey of instruc-
tional development models (3rd ed.) Syracuse: ERIC
You can see the design process described in this text
Clearinghouse on Information & Technology. IR-103.
applied to a single course in the Extended Example, on
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J. D., & Smaldino, S. E.
a chapter-by-chapter basis. If you wish you can over- (1996). Instructional media and the new technologies of instruc-
view the Extended Example now at: http://www.wiley tion. New York: Macmillan.
.com/college/smith. Mager, R. F. (1984). Preparing instructional objectives (2nd ed.).
Later on, as you read each chapter, you can study ap- Belmont, CA: Fearon-Pittman.
plication of it in the Extended Example. The Extended Martin, B. L. (1990). Teachers’ planning processes: Does ISD
Example uses one course, a course in beginning pho- make a difference? Performance Improvement Quarterly, 3(4),
tography, to provide continuity of application. In addi- 53–73.
tion to the Extended Example, examples using a variety Nelson, H. (1994). The necessity of being “un-disciplined and
of topics and contexts are provided in each chapter. out-of-control”: Design actions and systems thinking.
Performance Improvement Quarterly, 7(3), 22–29.
Petroski, H (2003) Small things considered: Why there is no perfect
design. New York: Knopf.
READINGS AND REFERENCES Reiser, R. A. (1994, March). Examining the planning prac-
tices of teachers: Reflections on three years of research.
Akin, O. (1994). Creativity in design. Performance Improvement Educational Technology 34(3), 11–16.
Quarterly, 7(3), 9–21. Reiser, R. A. & Mory, E. H. (1991). An examination of the
Andrews, D. H., & Goodson, L. A. (1980). A comparative planning practices of two experienced teachers. Educational
analysis of models of instructional design. Journal of Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 71–82.
Instructional Development, 3, 2–16. Rossett, A. (1996). Training and organizational development:
Braden, R. (1996). The case for linear instructional design Siblings separated at birth? Training 33(4), 53–59.
and development: A commentary on models, challenges, Rossett, A., & Czech, C. (1995). The really wanna, but . . . the
and myths. Educational Technology, 36(2), 5–23. aftermath of professional preparation in performance tech-
Bratton, B. (1995). Professional competencies and certifica- nology. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(4), 115–132.
tion in the instructional technology field. Instructional Rowland, G. (1992). What do instructional designers actually
Technology Past, Present and Future. Englewood, CO: do? An initial investigation of expert practice. Performance
Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Improvement Quarterly, 5(2), 65–86.
Briggs, L. J. (Ed.). (1977). Instructional design: Principles and ap- Rowland, G. (1993). Designing and instructional design.
plications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(1),
Publications. 79–91.
Davis, R. H., Alexander, L. T., & Yelon, S. L. (1974). Learning Rowland, G., & Wilson, G. (1994). Liminal states in design-
system design. New York: McGraw-Hill. ing. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 7(3), 30–45.
Dean, P. J. (1995). Examining the practice of human perfor- Schön, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San
mance technology. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(2), Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
68–94. Schön, D. (Ed.) (1991). The reflective turn: Case studies in and on
Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1985). The systematic design of instruction. educational practice. New York: Teachers College.
Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. Tessmer, M. (1990). Environment analysis: A neglected stage
Dick, W., & Carey, L. (2001). The systematic design of instruction, of instructional design. Educational Technology Research &
(5th ed.). New York: Addison-Wesley. Development, 38(1), 55–64.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction, 2nd Tessmer, M., & Wedman, J. (1995). Context-sensitive instruc-
ed. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. tional design models: A response to design research, studies,
Edmonds, G. S., Branch, R. C., & Mukherjee, P. (1994). A and criticism. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(3), 37–53
conceptual framework for comparing instructional design Welliver, P. (2001). A code of professional ethics: A guide to profes-
models. Educational Technology Research and Development, sional conduct in the field of educational communications and
42(2), 55–72. technology. Bloomington, IN: Association for Educational
Fields, D. C., Foxton, M., & Richey, R. (2001). Instructional Communications and Technology.
Design Competencies: The Standards, third edition. ERIC Wiggins, G. L., McTighe, J., & McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding
Document Reproduction Service #ED453803. by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Gagné, R. M. (1974). Essentials of learning for instruction. New Curriculum Development.
York: Dryden Press.
FOUNDATIONS OF
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
C H A P T E R
C H A P T E R O B J E C T I V E S
At the conclusion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Discuss how some philosophical perspectives, particularly constructivism, empiricism, and pragmatism,
have influenced the assumptions, beliefs, and values of instructional designers.
• Describe at least four major assumptions of the authors of this text regarding instructional design and
discuss how these assumptions relate to your own philosophy of education.
• Discuss why it is important that instructional designers know the philosophical perspectives and theory
bases associated with their field.
• Recognize whether a description of learning or instruction constitutes a theory and discuss the purpose
of theory.
• Describe each of the major theory bases and the ways in which they have contributed to instructional design
practices.
• Given a description of a learning situation, describe how learning occurs according to information process-
ing theory.
17
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.