INTRODUCTION TO LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY

(ANIMAL SCIENCE II)

Lecture Manual

Prepared by:

LIBBY JAY R. CASCON, RA

2018

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 BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION

WHAT ARE RUMINANTS?

Ruminants are animals that have a large compound stomach specially in

the fore stomach which contains a liquid mixture of bacteria, protozoa and fungi
that help break down the fibrous plants they eat. The most common ruminants on
farms in Southeast Asia are cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats.

You can think of a ruminant as being like a large drum for digesting plant
leaves. It has 2 holes in it; one for letting feed in at the front and one for getting
rid of the indigestible parts at the rear end.

If the feed eaten has a highly digestibility it can be broken down quickly,
making space in the rumen which allows the animal to eat more feed. However if
the feed eaten has a low digestibility (fibrous), it will take a long time to
breakdown, the rumen will fill up quickly and the animal will not be able to eat any
more until the feed in the rumen is broken down.

Therefore, the amount of feed a ruminant eats is limited by the time it

takes for the feed in the rumen to be digested.

Feeding ruminants with low quality forage (e.g. largely stems of low
digestibility) can reduce daily intake of dry matter to 2% of body weight (table 1).

Table 1. The relationship between forage quality and daily intake

Forage quality Plants Parts Digestibility Breakdown Daily intake

rate in the (% DM)
rumen
High Young leaves High Fast 3-4%
Medium Mixture of Intermediate Intermediate 2.5 – 3%
leaves and
young stems
Low Mainly stems Low Slow 2-2.5%

WHAT KIND OF FEEDS DO RUMINANTS NEED?

For the rumen to work well and digest feed quickly it needs a mixture of
energy and protein in the diet. If protein is lacking then the fore stomach cannot
efficiently breakdown the fibrous plants that are eaten.

Therefore, ruminants need an adequate quantity of feed (equivalent to

rice in human diets) but also an adequate supply of high quality feed (equivalent

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to chicken and fish in human diets) to grow well. If either is limiting the animal will
grow slowly.

Quantity is gained from eating large amounts of grass or crop residues,

which provide energy.

Quality is gained from digestible and nutritious forages, such as legume

leaves, which provide protein.

HOW MUCH FEED DO RUMINANTS NEED?

Ruminants need to eat about 3% of their bodyweight in dry feed each day.
This equals about 15% of their bodyweight in fresh forage each day.

Therefore, a cow weighing 300kg will need 9 kg of dry matter each day,
which is about 45kg of fresh forage. A goat weighing 40 kg would need 1.2 kg of
dry matter each day which is about 6 kg of fresh forage.

However, ruminants often cannot eat this much low – quality grass and
therefore do not grow as fast as they can eat a mixture of high quality grasses
and legumes.

OVERVIEW OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY

The beef cattle industry is one of the least develop among the livestock
and poultry industries in the country. For the past 11 years, cattle inventory has
only increased at a rate of 4.3 % per year. Per capita annual consumption of beef
in 1999 was 2.70 kg.

INVENTORY

Slow growth in inventory from 1.68 M in 1990 to 2.48 M in 2000 (4.31

% average growth rate). Backyard farms accounts for 92 % of the total
inventory, 8 % are in commercial farms. From 1990 to 2000, average annual
growth rate of backyard farm was 5% while the commercial farms grew by
less than 1% per year. The top 5 producing regions are Ilocos, Southern
Tagalog, Central Visayas, Northern Mindanao and Western Visayas.

Beef Production Systems in the Philippines

1. Ranching or Extensive System

a. Cow-calf operation
Aim: to produce stockers and feeders

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 - The initial and most fundamental step in the beef enterprise is the
production of the calves and raising it to weaning age.

b. Purebred Program or Breeder Farm Operation

Aim: to produce breeder stocks to be sold to other ranchers.
- Highly specialized form of beef production.

2. Feedlot Fattening Operation/Intensive System

Objective: to add weight to the animal and increase its value.
- Important to the livestock industry of the Philippines for 3 main
reasons:
1. It provides the farmer with extra income
2. It gives him year-round work and allow the use of cheap,
plentiful farm by-products such as corn stover, hay, silage, rice
straw, copra meal, rice bran, and sugar cane top which might
otherwise be wasted;
3. It helps meet the urgent demand for high-protein food in the
Filipino diet.

Backyard Cattle Raising

Backyard sector – 92% of the total cattle production.

Backyard cattle raising is characterized by the following:

a. 1 or 2 heads of either fattening or breeding cattle is raised on a farmer’s
spare time.
b. Farmers usually tethers animal to graze around the home lot and then
supplements this with farm wastes like rice straw or corn stover/stalks
when back in pen.
c. Others practice soiling and supplementing with ipil-ipil (Leucaena
leucocephala), as a source of protein, and rice bran, corn bran, or cops
meal at 1-2 kg/animal and,
d. In Batangas, force feeding (supak method) of feed mixture is a common
practice among backyard cattle raisers.

The role of Ruminants if Farming Systems

Including their Food and Non-Food Uses

Ruminant production had always been an important component in any

farming systems. In almost any crop-based farming, there are always
accompanying animals being raised for any purpose that will serve the farmer.
Animals are accepted as integral parts of the farmer’s life.

1. Some animals are being raised with plantation crops.

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 A lot of coconut-cattle enterprises otherwise known as coco-beef project are
existing in some parts of the country. In this scheme the business produces
beef and coconut at the same time. Schemes like coco-chevon are practiced
not only here in our country but also in some other Asian countries.

2. Production of fodder within upland rice, lowland rice, sugarcane and even
coconut lands.

Some farmers in the Philippines especially those who would like to maximize
production volume within a small space utilize fodder crops like ipil-ipil, napier
and other grasses with the purpose of using the soilage from these fodder
crops as feeds for their animals, especially for the ruminants. But zero grazing
or “cut and carry” method would prove to be laborious; it was pointed out that
this system would eventually increase or raise family labor utilization and
increase and maximize land usage and family income.

3. Animals are used for the utilization of farm by-products and waste
products.

Animals especially ruminants are very efficient users of farm by-products. The
Philippines is a country that produces plenty of farm waste products like rice
straws, corn stovers, peanut hays and the like.

In 1984 alone as reported by Roxas, the country produced waste and by-
products for animals listed in the table below.

Table 2. Inventory of some agro-industrial by-products for animals in the

Philippines in (millions of tons)

By-products Amount
Roughages

Rice straw 7.10

Stover (corn, sorghum) 6.6
Peanut hay, soybean hay vines 1.5
Palm oil sludge 1
Palm kernel oil meal 1
Sugar cane tops 3.75
Sugar cane bagasse 2.92
Cassava leaf meal 0.20
Cassava peels 1.8
Banana and pineapple waste 0.5

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Concentrates

Rice bran 2.5

Copra meal 1.24
Wheat bran 0.17
Meat meal 0.003
Fish meal 0.011

With the above-mentioned volume of farm wastes and by-products,

ruminant production has a good future if and when the farm-owners would come
up with a better feeding system.

4. Utilization of farm manure as fertilizer and feed.

A lot of researches had been conducted to determine the effectivity of farm

manures as fertilizer to crops. Some results showed increases yield in
vegetables like pechay, sweet potato and ampalaya.

Furthermore, farm manure is now important component of organic fertilizer. In

fact ruminants are sometimes called “walking fertilizers”. Primarily, these fecal
materials could be utilized in improving soil properties specially its fertility and
organic matter. Also, farm manure specially poultry or chicken dung could
also be used as feeds for ruminants.

Problems and Prospects

Problems

The animal industry particularly ruminant production has always been

beset by problems and these are the following:

1. Ruminant production requires bigger capital. At present, prices of

feeds and other farm implements are high in the market. Large ruminants
for breeding are also very expressive. For example, a breeding bull costs
about 17 to 20 thousand pesos and a cow about 15 thousand. To start a
livestock production venture needs a greater amount of money

2. Animal products are perishable. Meat and milk can not be stored for a
long time. In fact, animal production could not be accepted in the
baranggay because aside from being costly, its meats and milk could not
be stored longer than necessary.

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 3. Diseases cause big losses. Although vaccination have been made
available especially for those very morbid diseases, it does not guarantee
a one hundred percent immunity.

4. Transportation and marketing problems. In the barangays, farm to

market roads are always in bad state especially during the rainy season.
Transportation stress results to shrinkage or reduction in weight of
animals. In fact the maximum amount of weight shrinkage due to
transportation stress is 30%. The absence of cold storage facilities also
pose a problem. A farmer who sell his product of dressed carcass is at the
mercy of the buyers or consumes because if he does not give in to the
haggling of consumers, then at the end of the day he will have unsold
meat in his hands. The existence of livestock auction market at strategic
places is a help to livestock raiser inasmuch as it eliminates the activities
of the middlemen who oftentimes dictate the price of meat.

5. Financial support. There are a lot of people who wasn’t to be involved in

livestock production but could not do so because there are only few banks
and lending institutions. Furthermore, these lending institutions charge
high rates of interests. And even if there are funds available for such a
project, these funds however have already been loaned out to wrong
parties and not to small and medium scale animal producers.

6. Problems on technology dissemination and utilization. Although there

are new technologies in livestock production that are mature enough to be
handed to end-users, there is the problem of packaging and disseminating
these technologies. These should be strengthened so that the efforts in
generating these technologies will not go to waste.

Prospects

The prospects and potentials of the animal industry can be classified into
the following: 1) business, 2) service, and 3) food/nutrition.

Business Prospects

1. A form of progressive agriculture. Livestock production has a lot of

value to man and soil. It develops in man fine virtues like honesty,
patience, and foresight. The nutritional adequacy of man especially the
raiser is enhanced. The raiser does not only obtain an income from his
enterprise but he is also able to supply his family nutritious food the whole
year round.

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 2. Conversion of plant materials into valuable animal products. Animals
especially ruminants are very efficient converter of grasses and other farm
by-products into meat, milk and draft power.

3. Utilization of by-products by factories. Rice bran, corn bran and copra

meal and some by – products of local mills are eventually used as basic
ingredients of animal ration.

4. Soil fertility. Farm manure is very beneficial in conserving soil moisture,

in increasing the number of bacteria which render more plant foods
available, in minimizing soil losses due to wind action and in rendering the
soil medium suitable for plant growth.

5. Making good use of farm waste. Livestock is a good partner to crop

raising. Grains can be fed to livestock. To think that we have at present
3.5 M ha of rice lands, 3.5 ha of corn lands and 533 ha of sugarcane,
these alone can already give a great tonnage of farm by-products which
could be utilized by the animals.

6. Utilization of idle lands and non-arable lands. At present we have 3.5

M ha of open grass lands and 1.5 M ha of marshlands and brush land.
Instead of leaving these lands idle, these could be converted into
pasturelands for grazing by ruminants; thus, being able to get something
out of these supposedly unproductive lands.

Service Prospects

1. Good distribution of labor. The work of an animal husbandman is well-

distributed throughout the year, thus leaving him little, if not, no time at all
for vices. Furthermore, in any livestock venture there are always job
opportunities that come along with its establishment thus providing
employment opportunities for the populace in the immediate community.

2. Fascinating animal husbandman’s job. To deal with livestock is to be

imaginative. The selection of animals with good family lines and better
performance gives joy and satisfaction to any livestock man.

Food and Nutrition Potentials.

1. Source of food for the family. Diversified livestock raising always results
to good nutrition among members of the personnel operating a livestock
enterprise. Milk, cheese, butter and meat no doubt are palatable and
highly nutritious food.

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 2. Reduction of living expenses. Animal products usually cost more in the
market than crop products. Thus any animal product that may be
produced by the farm and utilized by the personnel and their immediate
family would certainly cost less.

Table 3. Inventory of cattle, carabao and goat in the Philippines

Region Carabao Cattle Goat

Ilocos 177 208 203
Cagayan Valley 314 83 33
Central Luzon 248 140 140
Southern Luzon 258 211 242
Bicol 275 208 91
Western Visayas 297 114 213
Central Visayas 155 206 366
Eastern Mindanao 172 27 51
Western Mindanao 138 71 170
Northern Mindanao 179 167 179
Southern Mindanao 253 120 207
Capital Region 81 65 26
Backyard 99.8% 88.3% 99.4%
Commercial 0.2% 11.7% 0.6%

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 Common Breeds of Beef Cattle and their Physical and Economic
Characteristics.

Aberdeen Angus

The Aberdeen Angus breed (or Angus as

it is known internationally) was
developed in the early part of the
19th Century from the polled and
predominantly black cattle of North east
Scotland known locally as "doddies" and
"hummlies".

• Originated in Aberdeen shire, Scotland

• Naturally polled
• Can be black or red colored
• Resistant to harsh weather
• Undemanding, adaptable and good nature
• Early maturing
• High carcass yield with nice marbled meat

Africander

Africander cattle (also known as

Afrikaner), were developed from the native
Khoi-Khoi cattle of the Cape of Good Hope
which are thought to have arisen from the
longhorned Zebu and the Egyptian
longhorn and is a native South African
breed.

• Originated in South Africa

• Loose skin and large drooping ears
• Mature cow (525-600 kg) bull (750-1000 kg)
• Typically red which can vary from light tan to deep cherry red.
• They have long lateral horns of a flesh to creamy white in color with amber
tips.
• Good resistance to heat
• High level tick resistance

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 Aubrac

The Aubrac (also known as Laguiole)

originates from the Auvergne in
Southern France, specifically a small
town called Aubrac. The Auvergne is
mountainous and rough, not suited to
grain production and so traits that were
selected for were; hardiness, milking
ability and productive grass fed cattle.

• Originated in France
• Its color is fawn with varying shades, it can vary from wheat color to pale
grey.
• Horns are slightly twisted pointing backwards, although some are now
polled.
• Moderate frame, well-muscled and of a sturdy robust build with short
strong legs
• Adult bull is 900-1200kgs and cow 550-800kgs
• This breed can feed well on rough forage such as grass, hay and finish
well. The maternal qualities of fertility, calving ease and milk quantity are
good

Barzona

The development of the Barzona began

in 1942 by Francis Bard and his wife at
their ranch in the intermountain desert
area of Yavapai County, Arizona. They
hoped to develop a breed that would be
adapted to their area which was rugged
and rocky, with extreme temperatures,
sparse rainfall, and scattered feed. He combined the genetics of the Africander,
Hereford, Angus and Santa Gertrudis.

• Barzona is medium size

• Distinguish by its longish head either horned or polled
• Red in color but vary from dark to light red
• Possess high degree of herd instinct, curious and intelligent
• Quiet and easy to handle
• Bulls are hardy and vigorous, exemplifying high libido

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 Beef Shorthorn

The Shorthorn breed of cattle, which

we know today, has evolved over
the last two centuries, from
Teeswater and Durham cattle found
originally in the North East of
England. In the late 18th Century
two brothers, Charles and Robert
Colling started to improve these
Durham cattle using line breeding techniques established so successfully by
Robert Bakewell on Longhorn cattle.

• Originated in North-Eastern England

• Comes in three colors red, white and roan.
• Can be horned and polled
• Bigger than their dairy counterparts and are grown for their beef
• Bulls are active and aggressive breeders
• Excellent rate in gain
• Good feed conversion
• High quality marbled beef

Beefalo

Beefalo is a composite cattle breed

developed in the United States
during the early 1970's by
Californian DC "Bud“ Basolo by
interbreeding American Bison with
Domestic Cattle. The Bison level
was set at 3/8th's with the domestic
cattle amount 5/8th's.

• Large frame and well-muscled similar in stature to the Bison.

• Docile in nature
• They have unique coat that could adapt to cold temperature as well as in
extreme heat
• Calves are born small but grow very fast

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 Beef Master

Beef master cattle are the first

American composite breed
(combination of three or more
breeds). These cattle have been
developed by the Lasater Ranch
then headquartered in Texas.
50% Brahman, 25% Hereford,
and 25% Milking Shorthorn.

• Recognized as a “Dual Purpose” breed

• Heat drought and insect resistant
• Moderate in size, generally light red to dark red with some white mottle on
their faces
• Females are excellent mothers, bulls are aggressive breeders
• Beef masters are intelligent and gentle

Belgian Blue

As the name implies, Belgian

Blue cattle originated in central
and upper Belgium. During the
second half of the 19th Century
Shorthorn bulls were exported
from the UK to Belgium to
improve the native population
which was primarily of the dairy
type (red-pied and black-pied
cattle).

• Originated in Belgium
• Large sized animal with rounded outline and prominent muscles
• The back is straight, rump is sloping, tail set is prominent and skin is fine.
• It has fine but strong legs and walks easily
• Color ranges from white, blue roan, black or combination of them
• Known for its quiet temperament
• Adult bull is 1,200-1,250 kg, cow is 850-900 kg
• Famous for its impressive muscling known as “double muscling”

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 Belmont Red

In 1954 there was an obvious

need in the Australian Tropics
for a breed of cattle which would
have a more placid
temperament, be highly fertile,
and utilize the environment and
its pastures in the most efficient
manner to give high weight gains
The Belmont Red was therefore
conceived at Belmont Research Station as a composite breed using Africander
(African Sanga) and Hereford-Shorthorn (Bos taurus) to fulfil that need – and
further developed by commercial breeders.

• Originated in Australia
• Phenotypically and genetically a mix of Bos indicus and Bos taurus
• Smooth short haired coat which is predominantly red in color
• Moderate in size
• Good conformation in relation to beefing quality
• It has good fertility and known for their docility

Belted Galloway

The unique appearance of

Belted Galloway cattle inspires
many questions about their
origins. With black, red or dun
color sandwiched about a white
middle, they are familiarly
known as 'Belties' among
breeders of the animals.
Though references to 'sheeted' cattle occur in literature and art as early as the
11th Century, the Belted Galloway's first recorded history indicates that they
developed during the 16th Century in the former Galloway district of Scotland.

• Develop in Galloway, Scotland

• Distinctive through its white belt around its body, the rest is black, dun or
red in color
• Naturally polled hill cattle
• The cows are long living (17-20 years)
• Bull can weight from 815-955 kg, cows ranges from 400-600 kg

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 Braford

The Braford was created to

provide a consistent and
efficient product for beef
production. The breed was
made by a cross between a
Hereford bull and a Brahman
cow. They carry the
characteristics of both
breeds.

• Red like Hereford with white underbelly, head and feet

• Primarily used for beef, but sometimes used for Rodeo
• Superior mothering ability, early puberty
• Heat and insect resistant
• They do best in warm climates

American Brahman

The Brahman breed (also

known as Brahma) originated
from Bos indicus cattle from
India. Through centuries of
exposure to inadequate food
supplies, insect pests,
parasites, diseases and the
weather extremes of tropical
India, the native cattle
developed some remarkable adaptations for survival which cattle producers in
the USA found useful and advantageous.
Three principal strains of Indian cattle were brought to the United States and
used in the development of the Brahman breed; the Guzerat, the Nelore and Gir.

• Originated in India, but develop in USA

• Characterized by a large hump
• Vary in color from gray or red to almost black
• They have short, thick, glossy coat
• Horns curve upwards
• Pendulous ears
• Abundant in loose skin
• Extreme heat tolerant
• Parasite tolerant
• Intermediate in size
• Good mothering ability

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 Brangus

The Brangus breed was

developed to utilize the
superior traits of Angus and
Brahman cattle. Their
genetics are stabilized at 3/8
Brahman and 5/8 Angus.
The combination results in a
breed which unites the traits
of two highly successful
parent breeds. The Brahman,
through rigorous natural selection, developed disease resistance, overall
hardiness and outstanding maternal instincts. Angus are known for their superior
carcass qualities. They are also extremely functional females which excel in both
fertility and milking ability.

• Develop in USA
• Black or red in color, polled, with a sleek coat and pigmented skin
• Ears are medium to large
• Rump is slightly rounded and the bulls have moderate hump
• The breed is considered to be very versatile
• Good mothers

British White

The British White is one of

the oldest breeds in Britain
with direct links with the
ancient indigenous wild white
cattle of Great Britain. This
breed originated from
Whalley Abbey, Lancashire.

• Originated in Whalley Abbey, Lancashire Great Britain

• Large, naturally polled dual-purpose cattle
• White color with black points (nose, muzzle, ears, eyelids, teats, hooves
and tongue) with their skin pink or blue pigmented
• Mature cow (650 kg), bull (1000 kg above)
• Docile, hardy and remarkably free from diseases
• Good milk producers and equally well known for their beef qualities
(specially texture)

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 Canchim

The Canchim originated in

Brazil around 1922 to
improve Brazilian beef cattle
breeding. In the last century
Zebu cattle (Bos Indicus)
were introduced to Brazil
which were extensively
crossbred with herds of
native cattle.

• Originated in Brazil, South America

• White to light beige in color with short smooth hair
• Good muscular conformation
• It has a small hump
• Hardy in hot climates
• Calves are fast growing

Charolais

The Charolais originated in

west-central to southeastern
France, in the old French
provinces of Charolles and
neighboring Nievre. The
exact origins of the Charolais
are not known but it must
have been developed from
cattle found in the area.

• Originated in France
• White in color with a pink muzzle and pale hooves
• Naturally horned, long bodied, and good milkers
• Medium to large frame with a deep broad body
• Short broad head and heavily muscled loins and haunches
• Excellent meat conformation
• Efficient in feedlot gains

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 Chianina

The Chianina (pronounced

kee-a-nee-na) may well be
one of the oldest breeds of
cattle in existence. They
were praised by the Georgic
poets, Columella and Vergil,
and were the models for
Roman sculptures.

• Porcelain white in color

• Largest breed of cattle in the world
• Short hair that varies from white to steel grey with black pigmentation
• They have black tongue, palate, nose, eye area and switch
• Short horns curve forward. Black in younger animals but become lighter,
beginning at the base as the animal matures
• Extensive and well-defined muscling
• Legs are longer than most of breeds

Drought Master

Droughtmaster was the name

originally coined by a group
of astute cattlemen in North
Queensland for the breed of
cattle which they developed
through crossing Bos
taurus and Bos
indicus breeds to overcome
the perennial problems of
drought, cattle ticks, heat,
eye cancer and many other problems that reduced production and profitability.

• Originated in Queensland, Australia

• Medium sized breed, tan to red in color
• Short sleek coat with loose skin
• High milk production in females
• Bulls are docile
• Dominant gene
• Heat tolerant
• Parasite resistant
• Good quality carcass
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 English Longhorn

English Longhorns are not

related to the American
Longhorn whose ancestors
came from Spain. The
English Longhorn originated
from the northern counties of
England, it was used as a
draught animal and its milk
was used for butter and
cheese. The creamy white
horns were treasured by manufacturers of buttons, cups, cutlery and lamps.

• Originated in Northern England

• Large lean beef cattle
• Impressive sweep of horns that curve down to around the nose
• Brindle in color (red to grey) with white finching along the back and down
the tail
• Known for its ease in calving, prominent hook bones, deep pins and
roomy birth canal
• Excellent mothers

Hereford

The origin of the Hereford

has been lost over time but it
is generally agreed that it
was founded on the draught
ox descended from the small
red cattle of Roman Briton
and from a large Welsh
breed once numerous along
the border of England and
Wales. Herefords have taken
their name from the county Herefordshire, an historic agricultural region of
England where this breed has evolved.

• Originated in Herefordshire, England

• Dark red to red-yellow in color, with a white face, crest, dewlap and
underline
• Short thick horns that typically curve down at the sides of the head, but
there are polled strain in US and UK (polled Hereford)
• Large in size, muscular, moderate to long in length
• Known for their vigor and longevity
• Tolerant in extreme winter

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 Limousin

The history of Limousin cattle

may be as old as the
European continent itself.
Cattle found in cave drawings
estimated to be 20,000 years
old in the Lascaux Caves near
Montignac, France have a
striking resemblance to
today's Limousin.

• Originated in South-western France

• Large, fine and has a strong boned frame
• The head is small and short with a broad forehead, and the neck is short
with a broad muzzle
• Golden red in color with lighter color in the ventral part
• Horns are yellow at the base and darken towards the tip; they are at first
horizontal, then curve forwards and upwards

Murray Grey

According to the Australian

legend, the first Murray Grey
was born on the Thologolong
property of Peter Sutherland
in New South Wales in 1905,
to a light roan Shorthorn cow
and an Aberdeen Angus bull.
The legend goes on to
recount how this one cow
gave birth to 12 off color
calves, from which Mrs. Helen Sutherland, cousin to Peter, developed the breed.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the breed actually originated throughout
Australia as ranchers used “blue roan” bulls on their “blue roan” females.

• Originated in Australia
• Vary in color from dark grey to light silver with dark skin pigmentation
• Moderate in size, with well balance proportion of muscling
• Naturally polled and noted for their docile temperament
• Adaptable to most climatic conditions
• High yields of saleable beef without excess subcutaneous fat

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 Santa Gertrudis

The Santa Gertrudis breed of

cattle, named for the Spanish
land grant where Captain
Richard King first established
the King Ranch, were
developed to thrive, prosper
and gain weight on the native
grasses of the South Texas
brush country. The first and
perhaps the most enduring efforts to produce the rugged breed began in 1910
when the King Ranch decided to systematically crossbreed its Shorthorn and
Hereford cattle with Brahman.

• Develop in Texas USA

• Red in color short, straight slick coat with loose and movable skin which is
red in pigmentation
• Above average producer of milk
• Outstanding foraging ability
• Adaptable to most climates
• Insect and disease resistant
• Good quality beef

Senepol

In the 1800s N'Dama Cattle

were imported to the
Caribbean Island of St. Croix
from Senegal, West Africa.
St. Croix is the largest and
Southernmost of the U.S.
Virgin Islands, located
roughly 1200 miles
Southeast of Miami, Florida.

• Develop in Florida, USA

• Red in color, medium sized and naturally polled
• Good body conformation which produces good carcass
• Heat tolerant
• Disease and insect resistant
• Delicious tender beef

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 Simbrah

In the late 1960's a few

cattlemen experimented by
combining Simmental with
Brahman, these crosses
evolved into the breed
Simbrah. Originally
developed in the hot, humid
areas of the Gulf Coast,
Simbrah have been selected
so they can thrive in the
Northwest and Northeast regions of the United States where temperatures range
from 115 degrees in the summer to 25 degrees below zero in the winter.

• Develop in USA
• Medium in size
• Can be black or red in color with bit white in the face
• They have slight hump and slightly larger ears than European beef breeds
• Excellent maternal traits
• Rapid growth
• Heat tolerance
• Lean high quality beef

Simmental

Simmental is a breed of
cattle whose history dates
back to the Middle Ages.
Early records indicate that
Simmental cattle were the
result of a cross between
large German cattle and a
smaller breed indigenous to
Switzerland. The name
Simmental is derived from the name of the area where the cattle were first bred -
the Simme Valley which is situated in the Berner Oberland in Switzerland.

• Originated in Switzerland
• Color varies from gold, black to red with white and may be evenly
distributed or clearly defined in patches on white background
• The head is white and often a white band appears over the shoulder
• Can be polled or horned
• They have a heavy dewlap
• Bulls can weigh around 1300 kg
• High quality meat
22
 Texas Longhorn

The Texas Longhorn was

fashioned entirely by nature
in North America. Stemming
from ancestors that were the
first cattle to set foot on
American soil almost 500
years ago, it became the
sound end product of
"survival of the fittest".
Shaped by a combination of natural selection and adaptation to the environment,
the Texas Longhorn is the only cattle breed in America which - without aid from
man - is truly adapted to America.

• Originated in Texas, USA

• Most spectacularly colored of all cattle
• Long horned up to 4-6 feet long
• Late maturing
• Heifers are known to conceive while still nursing their mother
• Resistant to insects and diseases
• Excellent mothering ability
• Eat a wider range of forages
• Produces a very lean meat less with cholesterol

Zebu Cattle

Zebu cattle originated in

Southwest Asia and that their
descendants were non-
humped, they have evolved
from three breeds of Indian
cattle. The Guzerat, Nelore
and the Gir had most
influence over Zebu
breeding. Zebu cattle are humped and belong to the Bos primigenius species of
cattle. They were taken to Africa at an early date and within the last 100 years,
have been exported to Brazil and the US.
• Originated in India
• Usually grey to red in color
• Horned and having a hump above their shoulder
• Large ears
• Zebu is used for its milk, meat and as draft animal
• In India they are sacred and only use for milk and draft, but in beef
producing countries they are produced largely for their beef as they cope
better than other European breeds in sub-tropical environments
23
Origins of Modern Cattle:
Aurochs (Bos primigenius primigenius)
- India thought to be the homeland of the primitive cattle which later
expanded to Eurasia and North Africa.
Some species related to the Aurochs also underwent domestication
Yak (Poephagus grunniens)
- From the mountains of Tibet
- Some regions of middle Asia
- South Siberia
Genus Bibos
- (B. banteng) or Ban cattle
- (B. frontalis) or gayal
- From India, Malay Archipelago and Indochina, particularly Burma.

Probably first domesticated during the Stone Age, within 10,000 B.C. from the
wild ox (Bos primigenius)

Modern cattle family bovine, genus Bos

a. Bos taurus
- Of Europe origin such as Shorthorn and Jersey
- Without humps and therefore of temperate origins.
b. Bos indicus
- Of tropical origin such as the Brahman or Zebu of India or Africander
of Africa.
- Humped cattle
- Adapted to tropical conditions) has survived through centuries
exposure to inadequate conditioned such as food supplies, insect
pests, parasites/diseases and extreme weather conditions).
c. Crosses of two, Sta. Gertrudis and Brangus

There are 278 identifiable breeds worldwide.

• 33 as beef breeds
• 18 as draft breeds
• 39 as meat-draft
• 54 meat-dairy
• 21 dairy-draft
• 61 meat-dairy-draft
• 51 dairy breeds

24
Beef Cattle Nutrition

Common Feeds for Ruminants

Forages
- Is the natural cheapest feeds for ruminants and includes grasses
and legumes.

By-products roughages
- Most of these are highly fibrous (rice straw, corn cobs, sugar cane
tops), low in CP and TDN and have poor digestibility.

Concentrates
- Unlike in developed countries, little amount of grain is fed to
ruminants locally. Copra meal, rice bran, wheat pollard are
commonly used by-product concentrates, contain from 20% as in
case of molasses to 21% in copra meal.

Use of urea in ruminant ration

- Urea has long used as partial protein source ruminants in other
countries.
3. The following guidelines are recommended for safe use of urea.
- Add fertilizer grade urea at not more than:
a. 1% of the ration (DM basis)
b. 2.3% of the concentrate mixture (air-dry basis) or
c. 25.30% of the total dietary protein

Herd Management

Goal: to produce a crop of high quality, heavyweight calves.

Heard division
- Herd division ensures the appropriate nutrition of various age or
groups of the herd.
- Prevent premature breeding which seriously affect the growth of
young bulls and heifers and prevent high rate of abortion resulting
from butting and fighting of animals.
Animals may be divided into the following herds:
a. Pregnant herd – composed of pregnant females, cows are
grouped with the breeding herd during the breeding
season.
b. Breeding herd – consists of dry cows and heifers ready
for breeding. After breeding season, pregnant animals are
transferred to the pregnant herd.

25
 c. Heifer herd – composed of heifers not yet ready for
breeding. Heifer calves are included in this herd after
weaning.
d. Steers, feeders or fattening herd – consists of growing
cattle and those to be fattened for the market.
e. Bull herd – consists of mature males kept mainly for
servicing the breeder cows.\

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES

a. Lactating and pregnant cows

- Pregnant cows are separated from the herd to prevent injury and
possible abortion due to riding, butting and fighting with other
animals.
Signs of Pregnancy
i. Cessation of estrus or heat
j. Enlargement of the abdomen and udder
k. Palpation 60-90 days after breeding (more reliable pregnancy test).
Palpation is the manual examination of the reproductive tract by
way of the rectum and colon to verify pregnancy in cattle.

b. Open cows and replacement heifers

- Should be given the right amount of feed daily to ensure that they
are in the right physiological status.

MANAGEMENT OF CALVES, GROWERS AND FATTENERS

a. Calves – should suckle colostrum milk from their mother within 3

hours after calving
b. Growers – are usually maintained at the pasture with very little
attention. They are given salt and mineral supplement.
c. Fatteners – require a shorter period to reach slaughter weight. They
are generally bigger, mature, or nearing maturity. However, one and
a half to two year old animals weighing 200-300 kg are preferred.
They may be fattened either in feedlot, on pasture, or both areas.

26
Breeding System and Practices
In Backyard and Commercial Scales

Generally, there are two systems of breeding or mating and these are:

1. Inbreeding
2. Outbreeding

Inbreeding is that system of mating wherein the two animals are related to each
other (relationship is up the 4rth degree). An example of this is the mating
between father to the daughter or even the mating between cousins.

Inbreeding is not a bad system of mating but there are some effects associated
to this system which oftentimes do not lead to improvement of animals but rather
produce the exact opposite. We are all aware that animals and all other living
organisms carry within their bodies that which we call gees. Genes are the basic
biological unit of inheritance and these are passed on from the parents to the
offspring from the generation to the next.

If two individuals are related to each other, then there is a greater possibility that
they share common genes which they have inherited from common ancestors.
Some of these common genes are recessive and when they will combine in
homozygous state, then they will be expressed in phenotype (physical
expression of genes) of an individual. There are a lot of receives genes which
could either be detrimental, semi-lethal in their effects. In general, inbreeding
depresses vigor/libigo, fertility, size and lifetime productivity of animals.

Outbreeding is the system of breeding or mating wherein the two individuals are
not related to each other. It has four subsystems:

a) Purebreeding/straightcrossing uses two animals having the same breed.

Example: Brahman bull x Brahman cow

b) Crossbreeding uses two animals with different breeds.

Example: Holstein Friesian x American Brahman bull

c) Upgrading is mating a purebred and a native breed.

Example: Carabao cow x Murrah buffalo (Native)

d) Hybridization is the mating animals with different species.

27
Outbreeding brings about hybrid vigor or heterosis in the offspring. Hybrid vigor
or heterosis is a phenomenon wherein the progenies of the mating perform better
than the parents.

Effects of Different Systems of Breeding

a. Purebreed breeding is breeding of purebred animals which are of a

particular breed. The animals have the characteristics of the breed to
which they belong. Both parents of purebred animals must have been
purebred.

Purebred animals are not necessarily better than non-purebred

animals. In fact, undesirable recessive characteristics may appear
because of the homozygosity of the genes of the parent animals.
However, the average purebred animals are generally better than the
average non-purebred animal of the same breed.

b. Crossbreeding is the mating of two animals from different breeds.

Both animals may be purebred or the sire may be purebred and the
female grade. Crossbreeding usually results in improved traits in the
offspring. Undesirable traits or recessive genes are hidden by more
desirable dominant genes. Hybrid vigor (heterosis) in some traits often
results from crossbreeding. Hybrid vigor is the average superiority of
the crossbred offspring over the average parents. Reproduction traits
show the most advantage from crossbreeding. There is some increase
in growth. Feed efficiency and carcass traits show little response to
crossbreeding.

In crossbreeding, it is necessary to cull out those animals which do not

have the desired traits. If there is no culling, the gene frequency is the
herd is not changed, and no improvement in the offspring will result. All
mating systems must be coupled with performance selection program.
Animals kept for breeding purposes must show the traits which
producers want in the herd.

c. Grading up is the mating of purebred sires to grade animals. It is a

good way to improve the quality of animals on the farm. A grade
animal is any animal not eligible for registry. It does not require as
much money since only the purebred sires must be purchased. How
quickly the animals are improved depends on the species of animals.
Those with longer generations such as cattle take longer to produce
improvement.

28
Methods and Basis of Selection,
Culling and Judging of Stocks

Methods of Selection

1. Tandem method is the method which considers one trait at a time.

2. Independent culling method considers two or more traits at a time.

3. Selection index is the method of selection which utilizes a score card and
evaluates the whole animal.

4. Pedigree is the knowledge of the productivity of the ancestors which are

related to him.

Basis of Selection

There are four basis of selection concurrently practiced by livestock raiser.

Based on individual phenotypes. The animal is evaluated based on its own

performances.

Pedigree. Pedigree is the record of the animals’ ancestors and this record is
used in selecting such animals. The animals are then evaluated on the basis of
their ancestor’s performance for such trait in question.

Progeny Test. The animals will be selected based on the performance of their
offspring.

Collateral Test. There are relatives of an animal aside from its mother and
father, aunts, and cousins which could be used as basis in selecting an animal
with respect to a particular trait.

Specific Basis of Selection in Livestock

Beef Cattle

Progressive livestock raisers almost always select beef animals on the basis of
physical appearance substantiated by records of production. However, in the
Philippines performance records are seldom available and thus selection based
solely on the animal’s physical appearance which in most cases does not reveal
the real value as breeder or fattener. However, it is suggested that the following
points to be given particular attention in selecting breeder or feeder stock based
on physical appearance.

29
 1. a maternal face with bright and alert eyes; good and quiet temperament or
disposition.

2. an udder of good size and shape and which is carried well forward and up
behind.

3. an udder that is soft, flexible and spongy to the touch, not flesh-like and
hard, and is expected to secrete more milk.

Age. In general, beef cows remain productive for 13 years if they are allowed to
start caving at 3 years old. They are most productive from 4 to 8 years of age.

Breeding ability and ancestry. Cows that calve regularly are desirable. When
one decides on buying heifers instead of a cow for foundation stock it is highly
recommended that those which belong to families which have regularly produced
outstanding calves’ should be selected.

Types of conformation. While the ideal dairy cow is triangular in form, a beef
cow could be rectangular. She should be of medium width between the shoulders
and pins in order to have the necessary frame on which to hand profitable beef.
The rump must be long and smooth.

What is more important is to have a herd of cows possessing uniformity.

However, it should be noted that weakness of a cow can be corrected by mating
it with a bull which is strong in those weak points.

Selecting a Bull

Physical appearance. Efficient utilization of feed by animals make for economic

production of meat. This efficiency can be predicted with a fair degree of
accuracy in the quality of the middle or barrel of an animal. A fairly good middle
or barred indicated a well – developed digestive system and healthy vital organs
such as the heart, live and lungs. Likewise, a full heart girth, broad muzzle, large
nostrils and muscular cheeks and jaw, well rounded thighs and a full loin reflect a
good constitution. A bull that possesses those qualities is desirable.

The legs of the bull should be strong enough to carry its own weight and to
carry him around to look for cows that are in heat and to search for food when
necessary. Successful mating of cows is insured when a bull has strong legs.

Sex characteristics. Proper development of the sex organs and the prominence
of secondary sex characters are important consideration in selecting a bull.
These are shown by well – developed and fully-descended testicles, fullness of

30
the front quarters as indicated by thick muscles, a deep wide chest and a broad
head. These qualities indicated virility and, therefore, good for reproduction. In
addition, a bull should also be aggressive enough to detect and serve a cow in
heat when given an opportunity.

Purchase price. A good bull commands the best price, and a poor bull when
used in breeding is a poor buy even if bought at “give away” price. Therefore, in
buying a bull a very serious consideration should be given to its genetic and
physical characteristics.

Selection of Fattening Cattle

Age. Young animals have striking advantage over older cattle. They need less
feed for every unit gain in weight because they are capable of a more thorough
mastication and rumination and larger feed consumption in proportion to their
body weight. Furthermore, their increase in weight is partly due to the growth of
muscles and vital organs, while that in older cattle is largely due to fat deposits.
Moreover, young animals cost less and their feedlot requires a smaller
investment than that of older ones.

On the other hand, there are certain advantages in using older animals as feeder
stock. Generally, a two year old steer will require a shorter feeding period than
either a calf or a yearling. This is explained by the fact that calves are choosy
about their feed when offered coarse or stemmy roughage to produce fat
primarily because they have a better capacity to digest it than younger animals
do. In most cases, they readily relish the feeds ordinarily rejected by calves.

Disposition. An active yet mild, quiet and easily handled steer usually grows fast
and fattens easily. Restless, nervous and erratic cattle waste too much energy
when they panic even at the slightest provocation.

Constitution and vigor. These are determined by the size and quality of the
vital organs. A large feeding capacity, a strong appetite, a large heartgirth, well-
sprung ribs and a wide, deep and full chest show good constitution and vigor.

Sex. Generally more steers than heifers are available for fattening because some
heifers must be retained as herd replacement.

Heath consideration. A healthy animal is active and has soft and smooth hair
coat. The eyes are bright and the muzzle is usually moist. Defects in
conformation when selecting feeders are: animals that are blind, lame or with
crooked legs should be avoided; those with rough skin is evidence of
ectoparasite invasion, hence, should likewise be avoided.

31
Dairy Cattle

Selection of milking animals. The selection of animals may be based on the

record of the animal itself – its ancestors, its family and, an evaluation of the
animal’s physical appearances.

Based on available records, emphasis in selection should be on traits such as

milk yield, mothering ability and growth rates, in the absence of records, selection
should be based on “educated judgment” or physical evaluation of the animals.

A good milk animal should have the dairy type conformation, in good health, free
from abnormalities and good dairy temperament. Major qualities are large and
developed udder and uniform size and functional teats.

Selection of bulls. Small dairy farmer need not raise their own dairy bulls’ since
they keep few animals and have limited resources for feeding and maintaining
animals. Instead, they should use artificial insemination for breeding.

Should a bull be chosen, use these guidelines:

- consult records on ancestry, relatives and actual performance

- Evaluate the bull’s physical characteristics taking into consideration
the over-all body conformation and constitution, disposition,
abnormalities and or health.

Culling. Culling should be done to maintain a herd of high production efficiency. It

should be based on records of production, health, physical fitness and over-all
performance of the animals.

Reasons for culling are –

1. Low milk yields, in a commercial dairy farm a daily production of 8 kg or

below may be enough reason for culling depending on the economic
assessment of the farms performance. For backyard farms, lower
production may be tolerated since inputs like labor and feeds are relatively
lower. The major criterion is whether or not the animal is “paying for itself”.

2. Problem breeders. Cows that do not settle require many services before
conception and shy breeders should also be culled.

3. Poor dairy temperament. Animals that are vicious or hard to manage

should not be kept.

4. Animals with vices like sucking itself or mating fence breaking and etc.
should be culled.

32
 5. Health abnormalities. Cows infected with contagious abortion,
tuberculosis, and other incurable diseases and those with anatomical
defects, eg. Blind and inverted teats, should be culled.

In general, here are some important guidelines in culling or removing

unproductive or undesirable animals in the herd.

1. Cull heifers that do not settle in spite of repeated mating to a proven bull,
considering that mating was properly timed and done.

2. Cull cows which failed to produce healthy calf or calves after second
calving. But before doing so, check the kind of nutrition and management
that the animal received.

3. Cull cows that do not reproduce regularly.

4. Cull cows with poor maternal instinct and mothering ability.

5. Cull bulls or cows transmitting undesirable hereditary traits to their

offspring.

6. Cull bulls and cows that are found positive of diseases such as contagious
abortion, T.B., leptospirosis and others.

7. Cull bulls that have difficulty in mounting due to advance age; likewise,
those that are found to be sterile upon semen examination.

8. Remove calves with a very slim chance to survive; and dispose slow
growing claves.

33
Artificial Breeding in Cattle and
Carabao Using Frozen

Artificial insemination is generally considered as an important tool for fast

improvement of livestock. It permits the maximum utilization of outstanding
proven sires for the intensification of the productive performance of farm animals.
The probabilities of injury to cows and the spread of various genital deceases by
the bull are avoided because actual contact between the cows with the bull does
not happen in artificial breeding.

The introduction of valuable genes of exotic breeds for milk and meat production
to indigenous stocks can be practically carried out by the importation of frozen
semen, rather than the individual ownership of expensive, yet not performance-
tested, bulls. Frozen semen of performance-tested bulls can now be used to
improve cattle in the ranch as well as in the backyard.

Performance-tested bulls are selected by reputable breeder under competent

supervision in countries advanced in cattle production. This is what we ought to
do also. The owners do not sell these bulls. Frozen semen of performance-tested
bulls can now be used to improve cattle in the ranch as well as in the backyard.

Performance-tested bulls are selected by reputable breeder under competent

supervision in countries advance in cattle production. This is what we ought to do
also. The owners do not sell these bulls. They keep them for the production of
semen for exportation. We do not have this kind of bulls in the Philippines.

Carabaos can also be improved by artificial means, using frozen or refrigerated

semen of selected Buffalo bulls.

Artificial Insemination

I. Advantages of A.I.

a. It extends the usefulness of genetically superior sires.

b. It eliminates the expenses and risks of keeping bulls.
c. It reduces the spread of reproductive diseases.
d. It overcomes the problem in mating due to difference in size between
male and female.
e. It stimulates the keeping of accurate and reliable breeding records.
f. it allows long range mating plan.
g. It avoids inbreeding.

2. Limitations

a. Poor technique in the manner of insemination may result in the spread

of reproductive diseases.

34
 b. Application is limited in areas with poor means of transportation and
communication.
c. It has limited value where cattle cannot be kept under close observation
d. Careless use of artificial insemination will result in lower breeding
efficiency.

3. Factors affecting the efficiency of artificial insemination

a. Herd management
b. Quality of semen
c. Competence of A.I. Technician
d. Record keeping

4. Suggestions and Steps to be taken by Cattle Raisers before Adopting

Artificial Insemination.

a) Select the animal best suited for upgrading the herd. However, it is
possible that you have all your cows breed artificially.
b) Bring selected animals near main area where they can be watched.
c) Remove bulls from the group, feed the cows well, and keep them quiet as
possible.
d) Have inseminators teach cowboys on how to indentify cows that are in
heat if necessary.
e) Have a holding area with corral and chute. Provide a roof part of the chute
to protect the inseminator against sun and inclement weather.
f) Have inseminators identify the animals with paint or vet stick, ear tags and
brand.
g) Water should be available at all time during the operation.
h) Inseminators should be provided with help to move the animals in and out
of the breeding chute. However, it is best not to have many people
around. It is most important to keep the animals quiet and calm.

5. Detection of Heat Period

Normally cows become in heat every 18 to 24 days or an average of 21

days after a previous heat period. In the case of buffaloes, the heat cycle ranges
from 28 to 30 days, an average of 29 days. Check the herd for estrus at least
twice a day. Observation is done early in the morning, late in the afternoon, and
even at noontime to ensure efficient heat detection.

The external signs of heat are the following:

a) Mounting other cows and allowing others to mount her.

b) Restlessness and wandering away from the herd.
c) Frequent urination.
d) Clear mucus discharge.

35
 e) Decrease in appetite and milk production.
f) Swollen lips of vulva.
g) Bellowing.
h) Twitching of tail frequently and often raising it.

6. Time of Insemination

In female cattle the heat period lasts from 18 to 28 hours with an average
of 23 hours. The spermatozoa survive in the female reproductive tract from 20 to
30 hours while the ova live in the oviduct for only about 6 to 10 hours after
ovulation. Ovulation occurs approximately 12 hours after the onset of heat.

Castration
- The removal of the primary sex organ (testes) of a male animal. Can
be done after birth.

Methods of Castration
1. Slit method – most widely used method of castration,
results in an open wound (single slit, double slit and
cap method).
2. Bloodless Castration – using burdizzo pincers that
crushes the cords of the testicles, no open wound.
3. Elastor band Castration – using special instrument
that places a tight rubber band around the scrotum
above the testicles that cuts of the blood supply to the
testicles. This causes the testicle to waste away due
to lack of blood.

Dehorning
- The removal of the horns of the animal. Horned cattle bring less and
dehorned cattle require less space at the feed bunk and on trucks
and lessens the risk of injury to the animals and caretakers.
- It can be chemical, tube dehorner and saw.

Branding
- Is done to denote ownership of the cattle usually done in large
herds. There are two types of branding 1. The Hot Iron Branding
and 2. The Freeze Branding.

Ear notching
- Is done for identification purposes using ear notcher.

Ear tattooing
- Also for identification purposes and is more permanent than ear
notching.

36
Ear tagging
- Widely used identification technique using ear tagger and ear tag
with identification number.

37
 DAIRY PRODUCTION

DAIRYING - branch of agriculture that encompasses the breeding, raising, and

utilization of dairy animals, primarily cows, for the production of milk and the
various dairy products processed from it.

Milk for human consumption is produced primarily by the cow and the
water buffalo. The goat also is an important milk producer in China, India, and
other Asian countries and in Egypt. Goat's milk is also produced in Europe and
North America but, compared to cow's milk, goat's milk is relatively unimportant.
Buffalo's milk is produced in commercial quantities in some countries, particularly
India. Where it is produced, buffalo's milk is used in the same way as is cow's
milk, and in some areas the community milk supply consists of a mixture of both.
This article treats the principles and practices of dairy farming. For a discussion
of dairy products, see the article dairy product.

Milk – is considered as the nature’s most perfect food. With its assortment of
protein, fat, lactose (milk sugar), minerals, vitamins, enzymes and water.

Nutritional importance of milk – milk contains all the essential amino acids
needed by humans. The protein of milk is composed of casein, lactalbumin,
globulin and serum albumin

Casein – is the most abundant protein consistent of milk. It has many uses in
addition to providing protein in the diet.

Lactalbumin – is part of the enzyme system that synthesizes lactose in the

mammary gland. It is part of the enzymes into milk as a by-product and becomes
part of milk protein.

Protein globulin – are structural parts of antibodies (immunoglobulin).

Colostrum – the first milk of a female produces after the young is born. It contains
many antibodies that give the newborn protection from harmful microorganisms
that invade the body and causes illness.

• Other constituents of milk include lactose, minerals such as Ca and P

(both of which are important in bone growth and other body functions),
and vitamins.
• Milk is, however, low in Fe, therefore young animals consuming nothing
but milk may develop anemia.
• Milk contains several important vitamins such as vitamin A, which help
keep the intestinal tract and skin in proper repair, the vitamin B complex,
and vitamin D and E.
• Milk is low in vitamin C, which prevents scurvy (a disease characterized by
bleeding, spongy gums and loose teeth);

38
THE PHILIPPINE DAIRY SITUATION, YEAR 2000

RDA (Required Dietary Allowance) of milk for Filipinos = 30 kg LME (Liquid Milk
Equivalent) per capita per year.

Milk consumption per Filipino = 16 kg per year

Total milk required by 75 million Filipinos = 30 kg x 75M = 2250M kg

Local production = 10.21 million kg

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TO DEVELOP THE PHILIPPINE DAIRY

AUTHORITY

Dairy Development Act of 1995 (R.A. 7884)

- Signed into law by President Fidel V. Ramos on February 20 1995
and became effective on March 12, 1995. The Act integrates all
government dairy development programs into the National Dairy
Authority or NDA.

DTRI (Dairy Training and Research Institute)

- Organized in 1962 from the Dairy Husbandry Division of the
Department of Animal Science UPLBCA, is mandated to conduct
research and training in dairy production and technology.

39
BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE

Ayrshire – Originated in the County of

Ayr in Scotland, red and white in color,
efficient grazer and Noted for her vigor
and efficiency of milk production.

Brown Swiss – Originated in

Switzerland, also known as Braunvieh,
light brown in color with a creamy white
muzzle, dark blue eyes, robust, prolific,
long-lived, adaptable, good milk and beef
output.

Milking Shorthorn – Originated in

England, red and white in color, very
docile in nature, moderately framed,
hardy and recover quickly and in
condition to rebreed earlier.

Dutch Belted – originated in Netherlands,

black in color with white belt from
shoulder to the hips, they are small
boned, having unusual longevity and
fertility and friendly and high milk
producer.

40
Guernsey – Originated in Guernsey
Island, France, yellow to reddish brown
with white patches, good dairy
conformation, hardy, udder quarters are
evenly balanced, producer of rich yellow
colored milk.

Holstein Friesian – Originated in

Holland, Europe, large cattle, white color
with black or red patches, known for its
outstanding milk production, early
maturing and excellent mothers.

Illawarra – Originated in Australia, rich

red in color with white marking on the
flanks, medium size, strong dark hooves,
dark skin pigmentation, high milk
producers, calving ease and prolific.

Jersey – Originated in Jersey Island in

France, typically light brown in color with
black nose and white muzzle, hardy with
strong legs and hooves, smallest dairy
cattle and also the least in milk
production.

41
Sahiwal – Originated in India, red or
brown in color with white underline,
parasite resistant, heat tolerant, good
milking performance, docile and
lethargic, heaviest milk producer of all
Zebu cattle and displays well
developed udder.

Lamancha – Originated in Oregon

USA, brown to grey in color,
recognized by their very short ear
pinnae, also known for their high milk
production and comparatively high
butter content in their milk.

Alpine – Originated in France, brown

in color with black or white face,
medium size, lowest fat content of all
milk, docile temperament.

Saanen – Originated in Canton

Berne, Saanen Valley Switzerland,
cream white in color, largest dairy
goat, queen of all dairy animals and
sensitive to harsh sunlight and hot
climates

42
 Murrah Buffalo – Originated in
Punjab and Haryana states of India,
large jet-black water type buffalo
having nicely spiral curving back and
frontal cornual process and highest
milk producers of all buffalo.

DAIRY CATTLE REPRODUCTION

Milk production – dependent on reproduction since the production of milk is a

secondary sex characteristic. (Review on the previous topics about sexual
reproduction AS 1)

Mammary glands - are modified sudoriferous (sweat) glands that produce milk
for the nourishment of offspring. They develop from bilateral thickenings of
ventrolateral ectoderm of the embryo. Each gland is composed of a system of
ducts connecting masses of secretory epithelium surrounded by connective
tissue and fat and supported in a fibroelastic capsule. The individual glands is
readily appreciated by the presence of a single teat (papilla). Comprises four
individual glands, referred to as quarters. Consist of a cranial and caudal
quarters. Each side of the udder is almost completely independent of the other.
Ventrally, the two halves of the udder are demarcated by a longitudinal furrow,
the intermammary groove. The secretory units, the alveoli, are lined by simple
epithelium that varies from columnar to cuboidal in height. They are the chief
structures for actual milk production (milk factories). The various small ducts
converge to form larger ducts, which eventually terminate in a large single basin
(lactiferous sinus). Lactiferous sinus is described as being divided into large
cavity, the pars glandularis (gland cistern) and pars papillaris (teat cistern). The
teat cistern is continuous with the exterior of the teat through a narrow opening
(papillary duct) commonly called as streak canal, which opens at the ostium
papillae. Composed of sphincter muscles.

43
BOVINE UDDER

44
 Poultry Production

INTRODUCTION

The popularity of poultry could be attributed to the fact that they are fast
multipliers, quick growers and are considered to relatively more efficient
converters of feed to meat and eggs. Among the various poultry species, chicken
is the most popular which is very good source of animal protein. In the
Philippines, ducks is the second most popular which is very good source of eggs
processed into balut, salted eggs and century eggs. Quail is the third most
popular which is noted for its eggs.

POULTRY DEFINITION

1. Collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic service to man.
2. Refers to the dressed carcass of fowls.
3. May also be defined as the structures that houses the birds.

IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY PRODUCTION

1. Chickens and other avian species are important source of table eggs and
edible meat for the family to meet their nutritional needs.
2. Raising poultry gives income to the family from the sale of poultry products
which includes eggs, broiler, culled layers, chicken dung and empty feed
bags.
3. Chicken dung excreted can be utilized as organic fertilizer and as a source
of bio-gas for cooking and lighting.
4. Feathers of poultry may be utilized for home industries like making of
dusters, fans, pillows, headdress etc.
5. Raising healthy and productive birds can be a source of joy and recreation
for the members of the family.

ESTABLISHMENT OF POULTRY FARM

Location of Poultry Farm

In determining the ideal site for poultry farm, the following factors are to be
considered:

• Topography – a hilly or elevated land as preferred to have a good

drainage. See to it, however, that there should be a good source of water
even during the height of summer months.
• Availability and cost of the land – choose an area which is relatively
cheap and there are possibilities of future expansion. An agricultural land
is useful for this purpose.

45
 • Nearness to road and good transportation facilities – locate the farm
near the road where there are good transportation facilities to make it
easier in bringing the products to market and to minimize egg breakage
and shrinkage of live birds due to transport stress.
• Presence of good water supply, abundant feeds and also electricity –
the presence of these items makes the operation of the project more
efficient.
• Away from residential areas – the presence of poultry farm near
residential houses often causes trouble with the neighborhood because of
pollution.
• Peace and Order condition of the area – locate the farm in an area
where peace and order is not a problem, as this will affect the farm
operation.

CLASSES OF POULTRY FARMS

• Backyard poultry – this refers to the raising of birds in a small scale

primarily intended for home consumption only. The common practice is to
raise the birds behind the house, hence the term backyard.
• Poultry farming – this is the raising of poultry in a large or commercial
scale (e.g. 1000 hds), from which the owner derives his means of
livelihood. There are four specialized branches of poultry farm.
o Egg poultry farm – devoted exclusively for the production of table
eggs.
o Broiler farm – concerned with the production and sale of broilers.
o Breeder farm – specialized in the production of poultry breeders
and also hatching.
o Hatchery – concerned with the production and sale of day old
chicks and perhaps, starter chicks.

There are two types:

• Commercial hatchery – does not maintain a breeding flock

as source of hatching eggs; it buys eggs from the breeder
farms.
• Breeder hatchery – raises breeding flock from which
hatching eggs come.

STATUS OF POULTRY INDUSTRY

Future of the poultry industry

1. There will be an increase in domestic consumption of poultry

products. With an over increasing human population, there appears
to be a great potential for increase in the consumption of poultry
meat and eggs.

46
 2. There will be an expansion of poultry operations. Because of the
rapid growth of fully or near-fully integrated broiler and egg
production operations, the potential for substantial expansion of
these enterprises highly feasible for export ventures of poultry meat
and eggs to the neighboring countries.
3. There will be more acceptance of cut-up or ready to cook chicken by
the consuming public. The recent innovations of convenient ready-
cooked table home chicken shops and restaurants specialized in
quick chicken meals at low cost has been well accepted in the
larger cities. This consumption type may likely develop into
significant levels in the future thereby providing added stimulus to
increase production.

Problems of the Poultry Industry

1. High cost of the poultry feeds with the attendant poor quality at time
non-availability of feeds. Many raisers complains about the quality
of feeds being sold in the local market and at time of their non-
availability when needed. The cost of feeds has gone up so high
beyond the reach of the small poultry raisers.
2. Poor management practices despite the technology. The
technologies generated have not reached the majority of the poultry
raisers, particularly the small ones. Thus a number of them still
follow antiquated and inefficient practices.
3. High mortality rates due to ineffective disease prevention and
control. Some poultry raisers immunize their birds only after a
disease outbreak has started. The improper use and storage of
vaccines also contributed to the ineffective disease prevention and
control.
4. Poor marketing system and distribution of products. It was realized
that there are uneven distribution of poultry products.
5. Lack of cold storage facilities has forced some poultry raisers to sell
their products even at lower price to avoid losses due to spoilage.
6. Lack of government support.

SPECIES OF POULTRY

Common Name Scientific Name Egg Weight Incubation

(g) (days)
Chicken Gallus gallus domesticus 58 21
Ducks
Pekin Anas platyrhynchos 70 28
Mallard Anas boschas 60 28
Muscovy Cairina moschata 80-83 35-37
Turkey Meleagris gallopavo 85 28

47
Quail Coturnix coturnix 12 16-18
Pigeon Columba livia 17 18
Geese Anser anser 200 30-31
Swan Cygnus olor 285 35
Ostrich Struthio camelus 1400 42
Peafowl Pavo cristatus 95 28
Pheasant Phasianus colchicus 32 23-24
Guinea fowl Numida meleagris 40 28

ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTIC FOWL

History records that the fowl has been domesticated a long time ago. The
earliest record of domestication dates back about 3200 BC in India. In Egypt,
chickens have been bred in captivity, their eggs are artificially incubated and the
chicks are grown for sale of meat and eggs since about 1400 BC. Domestication
of poultry in China also dates back to about `1400 BC. The Red Jungle Fowl
(Gallus gallus) was brought by explorers from the jungles of Ceylon and India to
Persia, Europe and British Isles. When the Romans invaded Gaul and England,
domestic fowls were there. By the year 1 AD domesticated chickens were found
in many parts of Western Asia and Eastern Europe. From there they were taken
by the explorers to South Africa, Australia, Japan, Russia, Siberia and Saudi
Arabia. In 1607 chickens were brought to the Americans by the English and
became an important part of the first permanent English settlement in North
America.
Wild chickens of the Gallus genus still inhabit the jungles of South East
Asia and many colorful survivors of natural mating and selection can be seen
today roaming freely through the small villages as well as large cities in the
Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and Thailand.

PHILIPPINE NATIVE CHICKEN

The native chickens are non-descript and mongrel or mixed origin. They
are multi-colored and have slow rate of growth and relatively small-framed. In
spite of these deficiencies, the native chickens are preferred by the villagers to
be raised in their backyards for the following reasons:

1. They are adapted to the rigorous conditions in the farm, e.g. poor and
scant feeds, inadequate shelter, and sudden change in weather and
rampant diseases. As a result of these however, they have acquired
unusual hardiness and resistance to diseases.
2. They don’t require special care and feeds. They are generally left to shift
for themselves and be self-supporting. Nevertheless, they still supply the
farmer and his family some eggs and occasional meat for home
consumption or even for sale.

48
 3. Eggs and meat of native chickens are believed to be tastier and more
savory and compared to exotic breeds.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CHICKENS BASED ON UTILITY

1. Egg class – the breed belonging to this class is characterized by their

comparatively small sizes. They lay large white-shelled eggs. Usually they
are non-sitters, very active and nervous temperament.

2. Meat class – the breeds belonging to this class are large, slow in
movement, quiet and gentle in disposition. Generally, they lay brown-
shelled eggs and are poor egg layers.

3. General purpose class – breeds under this class are medium sized,
good layers and the young are fast growers. They are not nervous as the
egg class but much more active than the meat class. Examples are
Lancaster, Nagoya and Cantonese.

49
 4. Fancy class – the breeds in this class may be possessing decided beauty
of plumage or form of having rare unusual appearance.

5. Fighting class – the breeds in this class possesses great power, agility
and fighting skills. Examples are Hulsay, Ruble and Claret.

STANDARD CLASSIFICATION

1. American class – breeds and varieties that were developed in American

continent which includes, Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red,
New Hampshire and Lancaster.
2. Asiatic class – these breeds were developed in Asia – Brahma, Cochin,
Langshan, Cantonese and Nagoya.
3. Mediterranean class – all breeds that were developed in the
Mediterranean regions. Examples are leghorn, Minorca, Anconas
4. English class – the breeds developed in Northern Europe (England) like
Dorkings, Australops, Cornish and Orpington.
5. Other class by origin of development – Polish, Hamburg, French and
oriental classes

PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY HOUSING

Poultry housing in a narrow sense, refers to the construction of the roof,

floors, walls and partitions to house the birds. In a broader sense, it includes the
equipment and facilities that go into the efficient operation of the farm. The
construction of the poultry house can be viewed in three aspects: 1. important
aspect of biology 2. Problem of engineering and 3. Problem of economics.

ESSENTIAL S OF POULTRY HOUSING

1. Protection against rain and flood water

2. Temperature moderation during summer months
3. Good ventilation

50
 4. Protection against wind during inclement weather
5. Good drainage
6. Good lighting

TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES (According to group of birds)

1. Brooder house – this houses the chicks for approximately 2 weeks until
they no longer need heat to keep them warm and comfortable.
2. Grower house – after brooding stage, the chicks are transferred to the
grower house to provide them with wide floor space. They are kept here
until market or until they are about to lay at about 20 weeks old.
3. Layer house – this is intended for the layers
4. Broiler house – is constructed to be able to put the entire flock under one
house from brooding until the birds are ready for market.

TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES (According to roof style)

1. Shed type

2. Gabel or double span

3. Monitor type

4. Semi-monitor type

FEEDING PRACTICES IN POUTRY

1. Ad libitum feeding – refers to feeding the birds with unlimited amount of

feed more than the birds can normally consume in a day. The practice is
done to provide the birds sufficient feeds to maintain a high level of egg or
meat production.

51
 2. Limited/Restricted feeding – limited feeding is a program of providing
feeds less than the full amount of energy birds would voluntarily consume
on a daily basis. The limitation is on energy, not amino acid, vitamins and
minerals.

BROILER MANAGEMENT GUIDE

Broilers are meat-type chicken that grow fast and reach marketable size
(1.6-2.0 kg live weight) at 30-42 days. The amount of feed consumed for every
kilogram of body weight gain (FCR) is 1.5-2.5.

HOUSING

• Length of the house should be facing in a North-East to South-West

direction to prevent direct sunlight from falling on the side walls during the
hottest part of the day.
• Houses should be spaced 30-50 feet apart.
• Common materials for the housing are nipa and G.I. sheet for roofing and
bamboo slats, welded wire or chicken wire.
• Should also include an adjustable roll-down plastic curtain (flappers) for
use during brooding, cold weather and at night.
• Flooring can be bamboo slats or chicken wire.
• Nylon fish net is recommended to be placed on top of the flooring material
to prevent lameness due to physical injury.

DIMENSIONS

• 1.0 square foot/bird specially during summer

• Distance from flooring to ground – 5 to 6 feet
• Distance from flooring to ceiling – 8 feet
• House width – 30 to 32 feet
• House length – 170 to 172 feet
• Roof overhang – 4 to 5 feet
• Roof angle – 40 degrees
• Distance between slats – 1 to 1.25 inches
• Width of floor slats – 2 to 2.5 cm

FEED STORAGE AREA (Bodega)

Constructed to prevent degradation of feed quality through excessive

moisture pickup and attack of insects, rodents and other pests.

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FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN BROILER RAISING

1. Market outlet – all products should be marketable with reasonable profit at

the proper time, there should be an assured market before venturing into
the business.
2. Regular supply of good broiler chicks – profits in broiler raising cannot be
obtained from one broiler or a group of broiler at one time, rather on a
good number at one time, followed at close intervals regularly from batch
to batch and through the years.
3. Constant supply of good broiler feeds, supplements and medications.
4. Capitalization – broiler raising needs intensive capital, returns are quick
but investment are high.

SYSTEMS OF BROILER RAISING

1. All in – All out system – only broilers of one age are being raised and all
of them are sold at the same time. This is desirable for an effective and
simple disease control system.
2. Two stage operation – if the principle is that no different ages of chicks
are to mixed in one house will be followed, then the two stage system
certainly calls for separate brooder and grower house.
3. Multi stage system
4. Contract growing

FARM PREPARATION FOR BROILER PRODUCTION

• At least two (2) weeks of rest period is recommended.

• Houses, surrounding areas and all equipment must be cleaned and
disinfected before chick arrival.
• Brooders and other equipment must also be checked if working at least 24
hours prior to chick arrival.
• Water must be provided in gallon jars prior to chick arrival supplemented
with electrolytes.

BROODER PREPARATION FOR BROILERS

Brooding – is the process of rearing newly hatched chicks either artificial heated
brooders or with the use of the other mother hen.

For litter materials, first layer can be empty sacks or canvass. Then, rice
hulls as second layer at least 3 inches thick and lastly old newspapers 3-4 layers.
The litter floor is should be enclosed using a plain G.I. sheet measuring 10 feet in
diameter and 12 inches in height to be placed 120 cm from the edge of the
brooder. The brooder guard is expanded by 20-25% every other day until no
longer needed on the 7th day.

53
 Place 500-1000 chicks/brooder, make sure to start and adjust the
brooders 24 hours before chick arrival. Check for correct brooding temperature
using a thermometer and preferably by the chicks’ behavior.

54
 SWINE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 1 – BREEDS AND BREEDING SYSTEMS

The performance of a pig is influenced by its environment and its genetic

potential.

On the average, 70% of the performance of the animal could be attributed to its
environment such as nutrition and feeding, housing, health, management
practices and climate and 30% to its genetic potential. Hence, it is also important
for us to look into the blood line of the animals. Each breed has its own set of
characteristics which differentiates it from other breeds.

“What is the best breed?”. This is the most commonly asked question by pig
raisers and as such, there is no best breed. Each breed has its own good and
bad characteristics. A farmer can choose the proper breed to use depending on
the type of production that he wants to attain and his view on what is an ideal pig.
It is up to the pig raiser to decide on which breed to use.

Chapter 1 deals with the different exotic and local breeds’ common in the
Philippines. The characteristics of each breed are also described to differentiate
one from the other, along with their photos. This chapter also presents the
breeding systems and the advantages and disadvantages of each system.

Proper choice of breeding system can lead to genetic improvement in terms of

GROWTH RATE OF QUALITY FINISHERS and LARGE LITTER SIZE AND
VIGOR OF PIGLETS.

BREEDS OF PIGS

Breed – is a group of animals that has specific traits or characteristics in

common. Mating within the breed produces progeny that maintains the same set
of characteristics. They are genetically pure enough to have similar external
characteristics of color and conformation.

Pig breeds can be differentiate through the following characteristics:

1. Color: black, white, brown etc.

2. Color combinations: spotted, belted etc.
3. Size of ears
4. Position of ears: erect, hanging, ¼ hanging etc.
5. Length and shape of the snout.
6. Body length
7. Weight at maturity
8. Backline: straight, swaying, curved etc.

55
COMMON PUREBREEDS

1. Landrace – is a white-colored meat type pig (freckles may appear). It has

a large hanging ears and a small head. The neck are long and narrow in
the withers to the brisket. It has a long deep side but is low in the back.
The ham of the Landrace is square-shape. The Landrace is highly prolific,
superior in feed efficiency and daily gain. However, it lacks hardiness and
has weak feet, pastern and legs.

Landrace Sow

Landrace Boar

2. Largewhite – is a white-colored meat type pig with medium, erect ears,

curved back and body inclining forward. The face is slightly dished, it is
fast growing, good feed converter, highly prolific, excellent milk producer
with superior mothering ability. Its carcass is also suited for bacon
production. it adapt will in confinement but not in rugged condition.

Largewhite Sow

Largewhite Boar

56
3. Hampshire – is a black-colored meat type pig with belted body from the
shoulder to the front legs. It is smaller in size with strong, short legs and
erect ears. The Hampshire is prolific, shows good mothering ability,
average daily gain is acceptable and it has a high lean meat percentage
but lacks body thickness. They are adapted to rugged conditions.

Hampshire Sow

Hampshire Boar

4. Berkshire – is a black dual type of pig with six white points (face, feet and
switch). It has a wide, dish-shaped face, short snout and medium size
erect ears. The breed is of medium size with long body which is inclined
forward. The carcass quality is excellent. It is not highly prolific, poor in
feed efficiency and average daily gain.

Berkshire Sow

Berkshire Boar

5. Duroc – is a meat type, red pig (gold to yellow) with a set of small, forward
ears 2/3 erect and 1/3 hanging. Black flecks may appear on the body. It
has a good body constitution, strong legs, good mothering ability, fast
grower, good milk producer and prolific. This breed adapts well on rugged
condition. Duroc is always used for boar line because of its body

57
 constitution and good resistance against rugged condition. Its good
physical, sturdy appearance makes it a good boar specially for natural
mating.

Duroc Sow

Duroc Boar

6. Pietrain – is a very meaty type of pig with spotted black and white color. It
has well-shape hams, loin and shoulders. Ears are erect, the carcass has
a high lean meat percentage but it has a poor body constitution. Feed
efficiency is not really good and they are a little bit slow grower. The breed
is also highly susceptible to stress. Thus, pietrain is only worthwhile in
crosses but not as purebreds.

Pietrain Sow

Pietrain Boar

58
Table 1. Summary of the characteristics of the different breeds of pigs.
BREED COLOR EARS TYPE COUNTRY OBSERVATIONS
OFORIGIN
Landrace White Hanging Meat Denmark Long face, good
mothers, weak
legs, prolific
Largewhite White Standing Meat England Fertile, high quality
meat, fast grower
Berkshire Black with Standing Lard England Short, black skin,
6 white more resistant to
points diseases compared
to white breeds
Hampshire Black with Standing Meat USA Short, good quality
white band meat, strong legs
Duroc Red 2/3 erect, Meat USA Good constitution,
Jersey (golden) 1/3 strong legs, fast
hanging grower, resistant to
stress
Pietrain Black and Standing Very Belgium Very meaty ham
white meaty and loin, very
susceptible to
stress

The above descriptions of each breed have given us a brief idea about the
characteristics of each breed not only in terms of appearance but also in terms of
its performance. It can be noted that not all characteristics of a breed are
desirable. It is possible that no single breed of pig can be considered as a perfect
or ideal breed.

In reality, there is no best breed. Each breed has its own positive and negative
traits. The weakness of a breed may become the strong point of the other and
vice-versa.

NATIVE PIGS IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippines native pigs is generally small. Based on limited observations,

mature females weigh about 30 – 40 kg, while boars weigh about 40 – 50 kg.
The average height of a mature native pig is about 55 cm. while the body length
is about 80 cm. Body width measured at the shoulder area is about 16 cm.

The color of both the skin and hair of native pigs is generally black, with
occasional white markings on the pasterns, tail, face and snout. Young piglets
may have horizontal brown stripes on the body that disappears with age. Some
individuals may have spotted hair coat which is commonly a combination of
white, black and brown.

59
Native pigs are commonly described as short both in height and length, narrow-
bodied, pot-bellied and with sagging backs. The legs are short with all four toes
touching the ground when standing.

Some prominent features of the native pig are its long, straight and pointed
snout, and small and erect ears. Loose skin with coarse hair coat is commonly
observed specially in mature individuals. The head is generally big in proportion
to its body size. Mature boars and sows normally have bristle-like hair along the
crest of the neck to the shoulder area. Mature boars have prominent tusks
projecting out of the mouth. Native pigs are generally docile, except for some
individuals that become aggressive during parturition and early lactation.

The five strains of pigs developed and documented in the Philippines that
contained genes of native pigs were the following:

1. Kaman – the red Kaman was common in the province of Batangas and
was result of crossing the native pig with duroc jersey.
2. Diani – the black diani was the result of crossing the native pig found in
the province of Batangas with Berkshire.
3. Black Ilocos – a strain might resulted from crossing the native pigs with
either Berkshire or Poland China breeds.
4. Berkjala strain – was developed in 1916 at the UP College of Agriculture
following a systematic upgrading activity. The berkjala was the result of
crossing the Berkshire and the native pig found in Jalajala, Rizal.
5. Koronadal pig – swine breeders found another improved pig in Koronadal,
Cotabato. It is intermediate between the lard and the bacon types.

Philippine Native Pigs

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MEISHAN BREED

In China, the most common and popular breed is the Meishan pig which comes
from the regions of lakes and valleys in China. It is black in color with white
extremities. It has large drooping ears and it is of the lard type. This breed is
known for its prolificacy and early sexual maturity (reaches puberty at 2.5 – 3
months of age), and also, for its large litter size (15-16 piglets/litter).

Its meat has a very good taste. They are also slow growing, resistant to some
diseases, fat (backfat thickness – 2.5 cm) and able to consume large amounts of
roughages. The dressing percentage is 66.8%.

Meishan pigs are considered to be one of the most prolific breeds in the world.

WHAT ARE HYBRIDS???

Hybrids are the result of a combination of the goof characteristics traits or

superior genetic breeds.

TOPIGS (Dalland)

This hybrid was developed in the Netherlands by a group of breeding companies

called TOPIGS. The foundation breed is the Pietrain along with Largewhite and
Landrace (the later breed no longer use in the new lines of Dalland).

The Dalland is known for its fast growth and excellent feed conversion of
finishing pigs. Other qualities are solid legs, high fertility, well-developed udder,
and stress-negative animals.

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BREEDING SYSTEMS

Breeding systems – are systems of mating animals to produce a purebred or a

crossbreed. These are the methods employed by breeders for breeding animals.
The system of mating is particularly important in pig improvement since use of
the correct system can greatly increase production.

Inbreeding – breeding of closely related animals. This is done to purify the blood
line of the animals since the similarity of the animals within the group is
increased. Strong and weak points of the animals will be exposed under this
system. Continuous inbreeding is not recommended due to its negative effect on
the production performance of the animal. It usually decreases vigor because it
brings together the recessive genes with undesirable effects in the resulting
crossbred. These homozygous recessive individuals are usually inferior.

However, inbreeding is not always disadvantageous. If strict selection is

practiced, it may be useful for the purpose of eliminating defects. It brings out the
desired character in a pure form and character may then be retained.

EFFECTS OF INBREEDING

• Reduction in the strength and vigor of piglets

• Decrease in the number of pigs born and weaned
• Decrease in the weight of piglets at birth and weaning
• Sexual maturity retardation
• Negative effects on ovulation and spermatogenesis

Purebreeding – a system of breeding wherein animals of the same breed are

mated to each other, resulting to the production of purebreds. This is done to
maintain the production supply of the breed. This system will continue to exist
because in mating the females of the same breed to unrelated males, the effects
of inbreeding are avoided. Through this system, the breeders are able to acquire
the best available genetic materials at reasonable prices.

Crossbreeding – breeding of two animals from different breeds. This is

practiced to combine traits of different breeds. This is the system recommended
for the production of slaughter pigs. it is highly recommended for the production
of market hogs for two reasons namely: a) to obtain hybrid vigor or heterosis
which is define as the change in performance of the crossbred progeny over the
average of the parent breeds; and b) to bring together the desirable
characteristics of the parental breeds.

Most of the studies in other countries have shown that crossbreds are superior to
purebred animals as far as litter size and weight at birth and at weaning are
concerned. It has been observed that crossbred sows are better mothers than
the purebreds. Depending on the kind of purebred animals that enter in the

62
crossbreeding program, crossbred animals grow faster than the purebred
parents.

Crossbreeding is beneficial, it produces good stock but less expensive. Those

who use this system of breeding obtain the following advantages in their animals:
a) increased vigor and growth rate of litters; b) larger litters c) increased
production efficiency to about 5% to 10%; and d) increase disease resistance.
Among the different breeds, landrace and largewhite are commonly used as a
sow line while duroc, pietrain and large white are for boar line.

Upgrading – is a system of breeding wherein an inferior breed is improved by

continued crossing. It is commonly used among native breeds. The native breeds
are usually crossed with pure breeds of swine. In this procedure, selected female
pigs are bred to purebred boars of any preferred breed. The female progenies
are bred to boars of the same breed. This procedure is repeated until the
resulting offsprings approach the characteristics of the purebred.

SELECTION AND CULLING

The success of pig production depends on the selection of highly productive and
efficient breeding stock. For the pig enterprise to be profitable, the foundation
sows and boars and their replacements should be able to produce healthy pigs
with the ability to used feed efficiently and produce pork of such quality that will
bring the highest market price at a minimum production cost. For this reason, a
pig raiser should give due emphasis on rigid selection of replacement gilts
(breeders that are unbred) and boars (no service yet) and practice regular
removal of undesirable animals from the breeding herd.

The ultimate goal of every pig producer is profit. To attain this objective, one has
to propagate pigs with high genetic potentials for maximum efficiency of
production. However, it is important to apply correctly the proper method of
selection and be able to select outstanding individuals from outstanding litter of
elite parents. It is not the animals that you see before you, which are very
important; it is their progeny.

SELECTION

The systematic way of choosing the desired characteristics of pigs for

breeding purposes is called selection. Pigs have their own characteristics and
each farmer has his own idea of a good pig. What is important is that, the
production and performance of the animals partly depend on the selection of the
breeders.

OBJECTIVES OF SELECTION

1. To have pigs that produce large litter size at weaning.

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 2. To have pigs that are fast growers and highly efficient feed
converters
3. To have pigs that produces best quality carcass

WAYS OF SELECTION

1. Natural Selection
2. Artificial Selection

METHODS OF SELECTION

1. Pedigree method – selection is done on the basis of the individual’s

record of inheritance.
2. Independent Culling level method – this method establishes minimum
standards of each character, and selecting simultaneously but
independently for each character. The performance of one trait is
considered entirely independent of the performance in other traits, or the
performance in one trait does not affect the performance in another. The
culling level to be established for each trait is determined on the basis
3. Tandem method – refers to that system in which there is selection for
only one trait at a time until the desired improvement in that particular trait
is reached, following which selection is made for another trait, etc. This
system makes it possible to make rapid improvement in the trait for which
selection is being practiced, but it has two major disadvantages: a) usually
it is not possible to select for one trait only, and b) generally income is
dependent on several traits.
4. Selection index method – this method combines all important traits into
one overall value or index. Theoretically, a selection index provides a
more desirable way in which to select for several traits than either tandem
method or independent culling method.

CULLING

Culling is the removal of unwanted animals in the herd. It requires intelligent and
careful evaluation of every individual’s merit of performance. The more rigid the
culling, the more rapid will be the improvement in the performance of the herd.
The intensity of culling varies from farm to farm depending on the goals of the
individual producer and availability of superior replacement animals. In a herd, it
is common to cull at a rate of 30 to 40 percent.\

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REPRODUCTION

One important factor that contributes to the success of any pig farm is the
number of piglets produced by each sow in a year. This is largely dependent on
the services or mating made which is, in turn, affected by heat detection and
timing of insemination. Reproduction is the total process by which pigs
produce offsprings.

THE DRY PERIOD

The time interval from weaning to service is known as the dry period. This is the
time when the sow is unproductive. The length of the dry period varies depending
on the sow’s body condition. Usually lasts 7 – 10 days right after weaning the
piglets.

PUBERTY IN BOARS

In boars, puberty is the age at which sperm cells or spermatozoa appear in the
ejaculate.

When is a boar ready for breeding?

• at least 9 months old

• large enough to cover a normal-sized gilt
• sufficient libido to complete ejaculation
• semen is of sufficient quality and quantity to ensure high conception rates

PUBERTY IN GILTS

In gilts, puberty is signaled by the occurrence of the first ovulation or estrus

period which is characterized by receptivity to the male pig or acceptance of the
male pig.

When is a gilt ready for breeding?

• at least 8 months old

• about 100-120 kg in weight
• has cycled at least twice

ESTRUS

Estrus period also known as heat period, the time that the female animal accepts
the male in the act of mating. Lasts from 1 – 5 days with an average of 3 days.
The period intervening between two (2) successive heat periods in the
absence of pregnancy is called Estrus period. The whole cycle is 21 days in
most farm animals. The estrus cycle is affected by many environmental factors. It

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can also be altered using exogenous hormones (PGF2Alpha) which are available
in the market.

HEAT DETECTION

Heat detection is the method by which a pig raiser determines whether a sow will
accept service the boar. It should be done on a routine basis. For the best
results, this activity should be done twice each day preferably early in the
morning and late in the afternoon.

It is important to keep checking for estrus because of the following reasons:

• The standing still to back pressure is caused by a hormone released in

response to a stimulus (the boar), it is not continuous. This response lasts
for 7-10 minutes and is repeated after about 5 minutes.
• Females that are showing any sign of estrus but will not stand if you try to
sit on her back should be checked again 5 minutes later.

Techniques of Heat Detection

To determine the optimum time of mating, it is important to know whether or not a

sow is receptive. The surest indication of a sow in heat is her acceptance of the
boar. In a herd of sows, it is proper to bring the female to the boar pen.

• Back pressure test – this method is done by applying pressure on her

sides with both hands. If she is receptive, she will stand firm and rigid,
ready to be served.
• Riding the back test – this is done by riding on or pressing the back or
loin of the sow. Just like in the first method, the sow will stand firmly and
remain rigid, ready to be served.
• Semen on snout test – with this technique old semen sample is
squeezed from a squirt bottle on the snout of the sow, with the boar’s
smell in the semen, the sow will just stand firm and remain rigid if it is
sexually receptive.
• The teaser boar method – a vasectomized boar is the best animal to use
in this method. The boar is allowed to mount the sow. If the sow stands
firm, remains rigid with cocked ears and willing to submits itself to the
advances of the boar, it is sexually receptive.

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 FEEDING SWINE

FEEDING REPLACEMENT STOCKS

Most producers replace 30-40% of their sow herd each year. As a consequence,
the selection and management of replacement gilts are important considerations
in maximizing reproductive efficiency of the entire herd. The main objective in
feeding the future breeding stocks is for them to reach puberty and start their
productive lives well-developed, with the right weight at the right time. Gilts
reach puberty at an average age of 200 days. Many factors affects the age at
which a gilt reaches puberty like breed, growth rate, housing conditions at which
the gilt is raised, degree of exposure to a mature boar and nutrition.

Replacement stocks can be reared using two systems of feeding 1) Ad libitum

feeding until the time of service or insemination 2) restricted feeding, then
flushing 1-2 weeks before service or insemination. The aim in feeding gilts is to
have her reach 120 kg at 210 days of age, be ready for service at second or third
estrus and have a P2 body fat of 18-20 mm. This gilts will put on 2-4 mm more
backfat during gestation and 25-30 kgs more weight. This is ideal, and with
proper management and nutrition, should provide a long reproductive life.

FEEDING SOWS

The nutrient requirement of sows depend on the stage of the production cycle.
This can be divided into three main stages:

1. Pregnancy period
2. Lactation period
3. Dry period

FEEDING PREGNANT SOWS

During pregnancy, the need for nutrients changes as the condition of the sow
progresses to supplement the increase nutritional need of the rapidly growing
piglets. It is important that after service the quantity of feed is lower compared
with the flushing period. Too much feed intake causes more embryonic mortality.
During the last month of pregnancy, a large proportion of the feed is used for
fetal growth and development, which is then very rapid. The feed allowance
should be increased to support the fast-growing fetuses and to prepare the sow
for the coming lactation period. About 7 days before the expected date of
farrowing, the regular sow feed can be replaced by lactating feed; or this can be
done as soon as the pregnant sow is transferred to the farrowing pen. During the
last 3 days before farrowing, it is recommended to decrease the daily feed
allowance. This allows the digestive tract to empty and stimulates appetite. It also
helps reduce the incidence of farrowing-related problems.

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FEEDING LACTATING SOWS

Important factors to consider in determining the daily feed allowance of lactating

sows:
1. Stage of lactation
2. Condition of the sow
3. Litter size

Lactating sows should be given the right amount of feeds to sustain her body
condition and produce enough milk for her litter. Proper feeding of lactating sows
can lead to maximum number of piglets weaned per sow, produce healthy and
heavier piglets, longer productive life of sows and more economical feed cost.

FEEDING OF PIGLETS AND WEANERS

It is highly important that newborn piglets receive colostrum. Colostrum contains

high levels of nutrients and antibodies which are essential in protecting the
piglets against common infections. Nevertheless, it is as important that piglets
receive solid feed early in their life. Suckling piglets can be given creep feed as
early as 5 days of age, with a minimum CP of 22% (out of reach by the sow). A
good quality creep feed contains 35-40% milk products, 92-94% digestible,
contains soft oils only and uses heat-treated starches. The digestive system of
piglets is still immature to deal effectively with plant foods.

HOW TO START PIGLETS ON CREEP FEED???

1. Start piglets on creep feeds by offering a small amount of feed on a clean,

dry, solid floor.
2. Continue floor feeding for the first 2 – 4 days or until the piglets are eating
the feeds.
3. Clear away any uneaten feeds and replace it daily. Twice to four times
feeding per day is much better.
4. When the piglets are obviously eating the feed, introduce a small feeder
large enough to accommodate all the piglets.
5. Increase the amount of feed gradually until ad libitum feeding is achieved.
6. Clean water must be available at all times.

FEEDING WEANERS – the aim is to feed the weaners ad libitum in order to

obtain fast growth (+ 300 g/day). However, during the first week after weaning
great care in feeding should be observed. Piglets are usually weaned early in the
day. This is done by removing the sow from the pen, while the piglets remain.

Feeding weaners should be restricted to about 80% of the actual feed

consumption divided into three or four feedings per day. The next day inspect the

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weaners for any problems. Add a little more feed if there are no visible signs of ill
health.

FEEDING GROWER – FINISHERS

Pig Growth

Pig growth comes from both nutrient supply and time (age) and pigs have their
own potential as to weight they ought to be by a certain age. Live growth is the
accumulation of lean tissue, fat tissue and bones. Lean is mostly muscles and
includes both carcass lean and lean in the offal and other body parts. Fat are
mostly in the form of fat storage depots under the skin with some other fat
accumulation in between muscle bundles and around kidneys and intestines.
Growth normally proceeds in a sigmoid or S-shape manner. During early life the
rate of weight gain accelerates, while between 30 -120 kg growth is nearly linear.
In the later life, as maturity is approached, there is a slowdown in weight gain.

FEEDING SYSTEM FOR GROWER FINISHER

The growth performance of the pigs is affected not only by the quantity and
quality of feed given but also by the method of feeding. There are three basic
systems for grower-finisher: 1) ad libitum 2) restricted and 3) combination of ad
libitum and restricted feeding.

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 ANIMAL SCIENCE II

LABORATORY MANUAL

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 Laboratory Exercise No. 1

OVERVIEW OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Introduction:

The knowledge in the status of the beef cattle industry will give us the
perspective about the problems and prospects of the industry; its distribution to
the agricultural economy and significance to the lives of the cattle raisers.
Information about the cattle industry in a certain state will also give the student
ideas about the problems faced formulate solution to improve the beef cattle
sector in the Philippines.

Objectives:
1. To understand the current situation of the cattle industry in the Philippines.
2. To know and explain the statistics of the beef cattle sector.
3. To formulate possible solutions to the problems met in the cattle
production process.

Tasks:
1. Search in the internet about the recent status as of 2017 (e.g. population,
statistics) of the beef cattle sector in the Philippines.
2. Search for the possible problems met in the cattle sector and formulate
possible solutions.
3. Create a Pie Graph of the Top 10 beef cattle producing provinces in the
Philippines.

Questions:
1. Base on the information you have gather in the internet, is there a gap
between the supply and demand of beef cattle in the Philippines? If YES,
where does the gap lies? If NO, justify your answer.

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 Exercises No. 2

BREEDS AND BREEDING SYSTEMS

Breed is a group of animals having the same conformation and traits or

characteristics that makes them distinct for other species. Breeding systems are
systems of mating animals to produce purebreds, hybrids, upgrades etc.
knowledge in the characteristics of the different breeds of beef cattle gives us the
hint in selecting farm animals suitable in a particular area. It will also give us the
information needed in breeding to obtain a desirable trait that will make the
performance of the progeny better than the parent counterparts.

Objectives:
1. To master the identification of the different traits of the different breeds of
beef cattle available.
2. To discuss the different breeding systems and their advantages and
disadvantages.
3. To understand the relationship between breeds and breeding systems.

Tasks:
1. Read the lecture notes in the different breeds of beef cattle.
2. Identify the different traits of the different breeds.
3. In a tabular form, segregate the temperate breeds and tropical breeds.
4. Enumerate and discuss the different breeding systems in beef cattle.

Questions:
1. What is the difference between a temperate breed and tropical breed?
2. Create a diagram of a 4 way crossbreeding using your own preferred
breeds.

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 Laboratory Exercise No. 3

SELECTION AND CULLING

The performance of a beef cattle farm is contributed by the general

management practices and the genetic potential of the animal, which is why
selection of elite and genetically superior animals and culling unproductive
animals are very important practices to maximize the production. Selection is the
systematic choosing of parent animals for the next generation, while culling is the
removal of the unwanted/unproductive animals within the herd.

Objectives:
1. To explain the significance of selection and culling in the production
performance.
2. To discuss the factors to consider in selecting and culling beef cattle.

Task:
1. Tabulate the traits and characteristics to be consider in selecting a bull
and a cow.
2. Actual demonstration of the selection process.

Questions:
1. What is the difference in selecting a bull and a fattener?

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 Laboratory Exercise No. 4

FEEDING BEEF CATTLE

Introduction:
Beef cattle belong to the group of animals called ruminants like buffaloes
and sheep. These animals have a specialized compound stomach capable of
digesting fibrous materials like grasses and legumes, farm waste and by-
products and factory by-products. Knowledge in the anatomy and physiology of
the ruminant digestive system gives us the idea in what to feed, how much to
feed and how to feed. It is also important to identify and master the common
forages available in the locality.

Objectives:
1. To discuss the anatomy and physiology of a ruminant stomach.
2. To identify the common grasses and legumes available in the locality.
3. To discuss and perform the different feeding systems applied in beef cattle
production.

Tasks:
1. Conduct feeding management in the CPSC beef cattle fattening project
2. Conduct silage UMMB/Salt block making.
3. Draw and label the compound stomach including their functions.

Questions:
1. Explain the process of rumen microbial fermentation.
2. What is bloat and when does it occurs?
3. What is the difference between cut and carry method and grazing?

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 Laboratory Exercise No. 5

BEEF CATTLE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Introduction:
General management practices aside from feeding and breeding are also
important aspect in beef cattle production. The common management practices
are branding, castration, ear tagging, ear notching, ear tattooing, hoof trimming
and dehorning. The conduct of these practices will make the production process
more efficient, safe and accurate.

Objectives:
1. To understand the importance of the common management practices in
animal production.
2. To discuss and perform the common management practices in beef cattle
raising.

Task:
1. Search in the internet about the procedures in conducting the general
management practices in beef cattle.
2. Perform some of the management practices in the field.

Questions:
1. Enumerate and discuss the general management practices applied in beef
cattle production.
2. What is the significance of conducting castration in raising beef cattle
fattener?
3. What is the significance of dehorning a beef cattle?
4. What are the importance of herd division?

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 Laboratory Exercise No. 6

DAIRY PRODUCTION

Dairy production is the raising of dairy animals like cattle, goat and buffaloes
for the production of milk for human consumption. Dairy products like milk and
cheese have economic importance in the human diet, there is no technology that
can create milk except the udder of the animal. The udder is a modified sweat
glands that produce milk for the nourishment of the new born. Milking can be
done by hand or using a sophisticated milking apparatus. The collected milk will
undergo several processes to ensure its safety for human consumption.

Objectives:
1. To discuss the importance of dairying and dairy products.
2. To discuss and explain the anatomy and physiology of the bovine udder.
3. To discuss the management practices in dairy cattle raising.
4. To discuss the process of milking and milk processing.

Tasks:
1. Search and read handouts about dairy and dairy products.
2. Draw and label the anatomy of the bovine udder.

Questions”
1. Explain the process of milk production by the bovine udder.
2. Differentiate prolactin and oxytocin.

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 Laboratory Exercise No. 7

POULTRY BUILDINGS

Introduction:

Poultry buildings in a narrow sense are the roofing, partition and flooring
that houses the birds. In broader sense it includes the equipment and facilities
that makes the production more efficient. It is important to understand the
significance of the standard dimensions in relation to maximum production
performance. Moreover, the skills in building construction will also give the
student more competence in animal production.

Objectives:
1. To understand the significance of housing dimensions in the efficiency of
production.
2. To be able to perform the basics in farm building construction.

Tasks:
1. Go to the poultry area of the school and evaluate the dimensions of the
existing poultry buildings.
2. Create a poultry farm plan in accordance to the standard farm building
code.
3. Construct a poultry building within the school premises.

Questions:
1. What is the most preferred roofing style in animal production and why?
2. The location of the poultry farm should be in an elevated area. Why?

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 Laboratory Exercise No. 8

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CHICKEN

Poultry chickens are usually classified according to its utility and the area
of origin. It is important for the poultry man to know the different classifications of
chicken to be able to decide what breed/strain of chicken he will raise that is
suitable in the area of operation. Furthermore, knowledge in poultry classification
is critical to understand the different characteristics of different breeds or classes
of chickens.

Objectives:
1. To know and understand the different traits and characteristics of different
classes of chickens.
2. To identify the different breeds of chickens and differentiate the
distinguishing traits unique in that particular breed.
3. To know the area suitability of the different classes of birds.
Tasks:
1. Search in the internet the pictures including the traits and characteristics
of the different classes and breeds of chickens available in the market.
2. Group work!!! Reporting about the different classes of chickens.
3. Create a scrap book of the different classes of chickens.

Questions:
1. What is the importance of acquiring the knowledge in poultry chicken
classifications?

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 Laboratory Exercise No. 9

SWINE BREEDS AND BREEDING SYSTEMS

Introduction
Breed is a group of animals having the same trait and characteristics that
distinguish them from other animals. The knowledge in breeds is very crucial in
swine production compare to other animal production. Swine consume a large
amount of expensive feed per day, so it is very important to choose the breed
that will give higher profitability potential in terms of litter size and finish growth.
Today most of the breeds of pigs are formerly products of hybridization between
2 or more breeds. Because of the breakthrough in swine breeding, swine
breeders produce more efficient stocks of pigs that surpasses its ancestral
counterparts.

Objectives:
1. To understand the importance of systematic breeding in improving the
performance of the swine industry.
2. To know and identify the different purebreds available.
3. To understand the significance of rigid selection of breeding stocks.

Tasks:
1. Create your own diagram of breeding different breeds of swine and justify
your choice of breeds and name your new hybrid.
2. Enumerate and discuss the 6 common purebreds of swine.

Questions:
1. What is heterosis?
2. What is the difference between crossbreeding and upgrading?

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 Laboratory Exercise No. 10

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE

It is said that 70 % of the performance of the swine is attributed to its

environment and 30 % from its genetic potential. Environment in animal
production is not limited to the housing of the animal but it actually includes the
feeding management and the general management practices being applied in the
farm. This means that the genetic potential of the pig depends on the factors in
its environment. Proper care and management of the herd is indeed a very big
factor in the herd’s overall performance.

Objectives:
1. To understand the importance of standard care and management
practices applied in the swine farm.
2. To be able to perform and discuss the common management practices.

Tasks:
1. Perform the basic management practices applied in swine production.
2. Search in the internet/library about the general management practices
schedule for swine and create your own schedule and present it in the
class.
Questions:
1. Enumerate and discuss the common management practices applied in
swine production.
2. What are the significance of these practices in the performance of the
herd?

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