POLYMERS CONTENTS 15.7. Preparation of some step growth polymers: nylon-6, nylon 6,6, terylene, bakelite, melamine 15.8 Natural rubber 15.9 Vulcanization of rubber 15.10 Preparation of synthetic rubbers: neoprene, 15.1. Introduction 15.2 Classification 15.3. Copolymerisation 15.4 Chain growth or addition polymerization 15.5. Preparation of some addition polymers: polythene, polacrylonitile, teflon Buna-S, Buna-N, butyl rubber 156 Step growth or condensation polymerisation 15:11. Biodegradable polymers PHBY, dextron and nylon-2-nylon-6 y 15.0 PROMINENT SCIENTISTS Wallace Carothers (1896-1937) |__ An American organic chemist produced nylon in 1935, however the discovery was announced in 1938. He | also discovered the fact that the liquid form of the polymer solidified quickly when it was blown through the " gouzles that were ultra thin. The amazing fact was that the solidified polymer was thinner than human hair. He | was the first industrial organic chemist to be elected to the National Academy of Science, in 1936, a very high ‘bonoar indeed. Gharies Goodyear (1800-1860) ‘An American scientist who baked the natural rubber with sulphur and discovered the Vulcanization process. He created rubber by this process which can withstand heat and stress. The name vulcanization was given to fe name of the process after Vulcan, the Roman God of fire. Goodyear was not connected to the Goodyear { Tyre and Rubber company, but was named in his honour. 15.1 INTRODUCTION Polymers are macromolecules having high molecular weights and composed of smaller repeating units called monomers. The term polymer is derived from Greek roots ‘poly’ means ‘many’ and ‘meros’ means ‘part’. Monomers are emall and simple molecules and have a capacity of forming two chemical bonds with two ‘aber monomers, Functionality of monomers depends upon the number of bonding sites in a monomer. DNA inhuman body, proteins, nerve fibers, muscles, nals, hairs et. are all polymers, Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) have important functions in biological systems. The toys of our children are plastic polymers. The cars we use have tyres, plastic fendon which are polymers. In our day-to-day life the polymers which we use are PVC Pipes, polythene, raincoats, carpets etc. Glass and concrete are inorganic polymers. The articles which are 1A originally polymers are coated with polymers like paints. Process of synthesizing polymers is called Prlysnerisation, 18.2 CLASSIFICATION There are various ways to classify polymers based on source, structure, mode of forming, molecular forces tte, 15.2.1 Classification based on soure Polymers are classified into three subelasses ax given below. 2) Natural polymers: ‘These polymers are obiained cither from plants or animals and are named as plant polymers and animal polymers c.g, cellulose, jute, linen, silk, wool etc, 535EE > ‘es of natural polymers are modified by some chemical treatment, b) Semisynthetic polymers: The properti e strength, luster etc. e.g. acetate rayon, viscose The properties which are modified are appearance, tensil rayon, cuprammonium silk etc. ; ; een ©) Synthetic polymers: These are manmade, prepared in laboratories or industries from chemical substances, e.g. nylon, terylene, polythene etc. 15.2.2 Classification based on the structure of polymers: These polymers are further classified into three types. \) Linear poly mers: They are made up of long continuous chains without any excess attachments (branches) The repeating units are joined together to form a long chain. e.g. polythene, PVC cH, —hstite_, CH, -CH,- + -[CH, -CH,4,, n | - CH, ethene repeating unit polythene (monomer) a a | | nCH, =CH-Cl="_, CH, —CH- + £CH, -CH}, vinylchloride repeating unit pvc (monomer) 8) Branched polymers: These polymers consist of chain structure having one main chain of molecules with smaller chains as branches of main chain. They have low density, e.g. polypropylene having methyl groups as branches CH, I CH, n CH,~CH=CH, ==, cH-cH,- 3] | CH-cH, propylene repeating unit polypropylene ©) Network or cross-linked polymers: Linking of chain polymers by strang covalent bonds leads to network like structure. They are also called cross-linked structure due to cross linking, eg, melamine, bakelite, vulcanized rubber, etc. a Cise1, 4 polyisoprene chain 15.2.3 Classific vuleanised rubber ion based on polymerisation process These are of two types as given below \) Addition polymers: The monomers are alkene y and th 7 merisation, The addition polymers contain all the atoms of monone ELS ©8, orlon, teflon, PVC, polythene, etc. mers: CN CN ines ia n CH, = CH—bmeristion_, ~CH, ~CH- > £CH, ~CH3, 5 0 vinyl eyanid it ‘aya cyanide Tepeating unit ~ orton 8 CF, =CR, Mimi op op Tetrafluoroethylene e >£CR cH, (Monomer) repeating unit Teflon 536a B) Condensation polymers: These polymers are formed by combination of two monomers by elimination of a small molecule like water or methyl alcohol. There are ester or amide linkages in the polymer. €.8. polyamide (nylons), polyesters, polyurethanes, etc. The reaction between (wo or more monomers is stepwise. polymerisation to form dimers, tetramer. seseewatnd 0 07. (Examples: nylon, polyester, ete are explained ahead in detail) INTEXT QUESTION Classify the polymers given below as addition and condensation polymers. PVC, polythene, polyester, polyacrylonittile, polystyrene. 15.2.4 Classification based on molecular forces “The properties of polymers depend on molecular forces, Molecular forces bind polymer chains either by hydrogen bonds or by Vander Waal’s forces. These forces are called intermolecular forces. Polymers are further classified as follows: A) Elastomers: when polymer is stressed, the polymer chain stretches, but due to cross linking tearing is prevented. When the strain is relieved the chain returns to its original position. Thus polymers show elasticity and are called elastomers. They are soft and stretchy and are used in making rubber bands. e.g. neoprene, vulcanized rubber. CH, -C=CH-CH, 2 tests, —CH,-C=CH-CH,- > | b a : chloroprene repeating unit neoprene B) Fibers: Strong intermolecular forces in fibers of polymers are due to hydrogen bonding. These polymers possess high tensile strength and are used in textile industries, strong ropes, tyre cords, ete, Polymer chains form fibers by hydrogen bonding eg. nylon, terylene ry Jk ° i] ° J * ia __Tebmetiaion_ _NH-(CH,),-C- > ‘NH —€ CH,};—C; oe No -caprolactum (monomer) repeating unit nylon-6 In nylon fibers the hydrogen bonding is between -NH group of one chain and —t|- group of another chain (amide linkage) C) Thermoplastic polymers: Their properties are in between elastomers and fibers. These polymers are called thermoplastic as on heating they become soft and on cooling become hard. Hence these polymers can be remoulded and recycled. They are either linear or branched chain polymers e.g. polythene, polystyrene, PVC, etc. PVC is used as synthetic leather. D) Thermosetting polymers: These do not become soft on heating under pressure, hence cannot be remoulded and recycled. These are cross linked polymers and cannot be reused. E.g. Bakelite. on on . HOH HOH ion “Me Oo eo — (oo : = ‘Oo aD). formaldehyde phenol ‘Bakelite 537Fee enerre ee e eeeeeeeeeee oo "These are classified into two types ~ involves the addition at the reactive end of the ‘alkene undergo growth chain polymerisation 18.2.5 Classiftcation based on growth polymerisation : a poly: 7 8) These are addition polymers and the polymerisation process i ‘growing chain across the double bond. e.g. polythene. Many when treated with suitable initiators in small quantity. by Condensation polymers are called step growth polymers. sep in the condensation reaction like dimer, tetramer, etc. e.g. Dacron Any pair of monomer molecules react to give a 18.3 CO-POLYMERISATION Homopolymers are composed by j nylon-6, polystyrene, etc. Heteropolymers are composed by joining of more terylene. nylon-6.6, Buna-S, Buna-N, etc. These heteropolymers are also called co-polymers which contain multiple u : a ‘Three or more monomers when combine give polymers of required and desired properties ¢.g. Acrylonitrile (A), butadiene (B) and styrene(S) when combine together to form ABS plastic which is tough, strong and used to prepare anicles which withstand heavy impacts. Vinylidene chloride and vinylchloride form a polymer used as a film for wrapping food (polymer is called saran). joining together the monomers of the same structure ¢.g. polythene, than one kind of monomers e.g. of each monomer in a chain, 15.4 CHAIN GROWTH POLYMERISATION OR ADDITION POLYMERISATION On treatment with small quantity of initiators, alkenes undergo chain growth polymerisation. The chain grows by adding. the reactive end of growing chain to double bond of monomer. The intermediates formed are reactive ‘and which may be free radicals, carbocation or carboanions. These intermediates depend on monomer and also ‘on the initiator used. = \) Free radical polymerisation: Different initiators used are benzoyl peroxide, tert-butyl peroxide or acetyl peroxide which generate free radicals. Following are the steps involved in chain growth polymerisation. i) First step is formation of free radicals. In polymerisation of styrene when styrene is heated to 100° C in presence of benzoyl peroxide or when ethene is heated with benzoyl peroxide in polymerisation of ethene, the first step involves cleavage of benzoyl peroxide to give two carboxy radicals, These carboxy radicals immediately undergo decarboxylation to give phenyl radicals. ° CHs -c-6%0-C-CH, 520, YENS: I I ° Benzoyl peroxide (catSyst) carboxy radicals phenyl radicals —2C,H; +200, This step is formation of phenyl free radicals. ii) Second step is chain initiating step. The phenyl radicals formed add to ethylene ‘to form larger free radical. ,H,+CH, =CH, + C,H, -CH, -CH, iii) the next step the larger free radicals add to another molecule of ethene. This sequence of addition repeats tu form layer and larger free radicals and the chain grows. This is called chain propagation step. C)My-CH,-CH", + CH, = CH; —+ C,H,-CH,-CH, -CH,"CH, ‘The chain reaction continues till several thousands and thousands of ethylene molecules are added. Jv) The above continuous chain reaction can be stopped by stopping the supply of ethylene or by addition of isnpurity like oxygen or by coupling of two chains of polymer, This step in polymerisatic called chain terminating step. ee et neonate 20, M4 CH ~ CH, ,CHy ~ CHy > Coll CH; ~CHy}, CH, ~ CH, ~CH,—CH, CH, —CH,},CoHs 5381) What are the different possibilities in the chain terminating step? 2) In polystyrene there are phenyl groups on every other carbon atom instead at random, explain. 3) Write formula of monomers used in preparing following polymers. i) nD Ho iit) al | | oe eae (CH, -CH, -CH, -N-C-O- 1H, ~ CH =C-CH, § PREPARATION OF SOME ADDITION POLYMERS “The monomer used is ethene. It is an addition polymer. It is of two types. ai Low d : It is formed by heating ethene at 200° to 300° C and at 1000 atm pressure. using small amount of oxygen as a catalyst. Oxygen forms peroxide and the reaction is initiated. This is a_by wi stracts hydrogen atom from. the middle of the chain and the branch gro AY Preparation of poly then - CH,-CH, > Growing end of chain fon ~ CH, -CH-CH, - cai} +cH,- CH, ~cHi,-} 2° free radical chain ‘Teminated chain 7 CH, - CH, [ou.- CH, -CH-CH, - ca] +CH, =CH, > | I, CH, - CH, -CH-CH, — CH, 1° free radical forms 2° free radical by abstracting hydrogen at the middle of another chain, which further adds to ethene and there is growing of the branch. Low densit ers have low melting points, It is used as insulation for cables, as packaging. bags,-making.t0} tc. This low-density polymer is chemically inert and tough but mechanically weak. by High density polymers (HDPE): It is linear addition polymer. The catalyst used is called Zieglar- ‘Natta catalyst, its titanium chloride and triethyl aluminium, (TiCl, + (C,H,), Al]. The polymerisation takes place at 373 K, 6 to 7 atm pressure and using Zieglar-Natta catalyst. Ethylene first forms titanium complex with titanium chloride, hence it is also called co-ordination polymer. HDPE has high density and high melting point, used to make bottles, jar, buckets, drums, pipes, etc. |__Saran is erysalline but pve is amorphous, even though both are formed by free radical mechanism, explai B) Prepar of polyucrylonitrile (PAN) or Orlon: Using peroxide as a catalyst the monomer acrylonitrile forms addition polymer. The commercial name is Orlon or acrilan. It is used in making blankets as artificial wool. CN CN ; I I n CH, = CH-CN —Peumstiaten_y CH, —CH- + { CHy-CH 3, Acrylonitrile repeating unit Orlon 539C)_ Preparation of Teflon or PTFE; (polytetrafluoroethylene) The monomer used is tetra fluoroethylene, Which when heated with oxygen as a catalyst under igh pressure forms Teflon. It is chemically inert ‘and used in coating for cooking pans, gaskets, valves, seats, etc. 0 CF, = Cr, —tehmsaton CR -CR- + £CF,-CEt, ‘TetraNuoroethylene repeating unit Teflon GROWTH POLYMERISATION OR CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION ‘These polymers are formed by combination of two or more monomers by elimination of simple molecules Tike Water or methyl alcohol. The monomers used have bifunctional groups. In these reactions the product formed in first step has again two functional groups to continue and to grow the chain. The process is called step growth polymerisation. Nylons are polyamide fibers, whereas terylene is polyester fiber. 15.7 PREPARATION OF SOME STEP GROWTH POLYMERS A) Preparation of nylon-6,6: The monomers used are adipic acid HOOC-(-CH,),)-COOH and hexamethylene diamine H,N-(-CH,),NH,. When equimolar aqueous solutions of both monomers are mixed together, there is neutralization to form a nylon salt which undergoes step growth conden by elimination of water molecule to form nylon-6,6 polymer, It is a linear polyamide polymer. H, N4CH,},NH, + HOOC(CH,}, COOH—* 4H, NCH, }, NH, OOC{CH,}, COO Hexamethylenediamine adipic acid nylon salt . oS - ° ° nH; N€CH, +, NH, OOC{CH,}, COOH > HN€CH,), NH-C-4CH,},-C- repeating ‘unit, i i ——> -[HN¢CH,}, NH-C-4CH,},-C+, Nylon 6, 6 B) Preparation of nylon-6: © Caprolactum (a monomer) is heated at $33 K in an inert atmosphere, it polymerises to give nylon-6 gk 7. oO Ce et cy l Ny? ~CECHIsN- —> £C¥CH,),9NF, Sc €-Caprolactum, repeating unit Nylon-6 Nylons are crystalline, insoluble in hydrocarbon solvents, , resistant to dilute acids and bases having good tensile strength, take up bright colours and are beautiful. They are used in making brushes, scrubbers, sarees, ropes, fishing nets, shirts, bed covers, toys, paints : and coatings in industry. INTEXT QUESTIONS J. Draw the structure of repeating unit in nylon-6,10. 2. What are the monomers used to prepare nylons given below ? oO oO i | b¢cu,),30-NN-<>=NH 4 ii) if ° Le NH —C) Preparation of terylene or polyester a dacron: Monomers used are ethylene glycolCH,OH-CH,OH 9 g I and dimethylterephthalate. CH, -O-C-<@>-C-OCH, These monomers are heated at 503 K in presence of zinc acetate and antimony trioxide as a catalyst. Transesterification takes place and then it polymerises to give terylene. Terylene fibers are resistant to heat, crease, chemicals, light, moths, bacteria, etc. they absorb very little water hence dry quickly. They are blended with cotton to form terrycot and with wool to form terrywool. Used in preparation of fishing nets, ropes, trousers, magnetic tape recorders, tyres, etc I Il n HO-CH; ~CH, -OH +n HyC-O-C--C-0-CH, SP > Ethylene glycol DMT (dimethylterephthalate) q IL n HO-CH, ~CH, -O-C-O>-C-0-CH, ~CH; -OH Pein ’ e 1 CH,OH-CH,0H ? g H, ~CH, -O-C-C-0 CH, ~CH, -O-CC-0-4, repeating unit Polyster INTEXT QUESTIONS y 2 D) Write the structure of repeating unit formed by polymerisation of glycerol and DMT. i Draw the structures of polymers formed using the following monomers. i) HOoc COOH + HO-CH, ‘CH, -OH ry I I ii) HO-CH, -C-OH+HO-CH, ‘C-OH Preparation of bakelite (or formaldehyde phenol) polymer ‘The monomers used are phenol and formaldehyde. They undergo polymerisation in presence of alkali or acid as catalyst. Phenol reacts with formaldehyde to form ortho or p-hydroxy methyl phenols, which on further reaction with phenol forms a linear polymer called Novolac. The mechanism, using acidic or basic catalyst is written as follows. Using basic catalyst : Or Aa 5 Cyn - =f" Using acidic catalyst: on +0H OH y OH 7 ‘CH,OH ons Oo : ys CS a (oy cy Hu sal eeOverall reaction for the formation of Novalac can be written 35> ou on mw oe - cHOH CHOH HOH, CHO \ + exo _— : CHOH cH,0H formaldehyde Phenol on oH OH on cH CHO oa cH, Do . =H" Novolac The linear polymer Novolac is used in paints. O-hydroxy methyl phenol reacts with another molecule of phenol to form a compound having two rings, joined by ~CH,- linkage. The process continues further to form a polymer of high molecular weight. Phenol is o.p-orienting at two ortho and one para positions. The process continues further to form cross linked three dimensional space network solid by linking at two-ortho and one-para positions. This network solid is called bakelite. Bakelite is used in making switches, handles of cooker, frying pans, combs, etc. Structure of Bakelite: Other polymers of formaldehyde i) Urea formaldehyde polymer: It is formed by polymerisation of monomers urea and formaldehyde. It is a moulded plastic. a H I H-C O+HN-C-Ni, 9 HOCH, -N-C-NH, ey II iy ° Formaldehyde Urea CH, O eee “WW N- CH, -N — CN Won H HO~CH, ~NH=C-NH—CH, ~OH 249 _ ee eu, ww N= CH,-N- C- Intermediate CH, RN CH, O 3 Urea formaldehyde polymerif) Melamine (or Formaldehyde melami Monomers used arc lamnine. r aldehy ine polymer): ised i pee elaliaie ao p y re formaldehyde and melami mea Nu, HNN _NICHOH \ + HCHO — T ‘s7 Nw NH, NH, Melamine Formaldehyde Intermed nw) N 4 Z A NHCH,OK waar HC-HIN, ay" CH, Ww UY ee -H0 ~ NH, na 1 cH, Melamine polymer 18.8 NATURAL RUBBER It is obtained from rubber tree as a latex, in the form of colloidal suspension. It is a linear polymer of isoprene, 2-methyl-1.3-butadiene. Natural rubber is cis-1,4-polyisoprene. It has long flexible chains, weak intermolecular forces and exhibits elastic properties. cH cH cH CH, wo cH Nea Sc A HC H Natural rubber 2-Methyl-1,3-butadiene(Isoprene) The trans-1.4-polyisoprene occurs naturally as Gutta-Percha, which has zigzag chains fitting in one another. It is non elastic and crystalline. 15.9 VULCANIZATION OF RUBBER ‘Natural rubber is soft, sticky and has less tensile strength. To make the natural rubber more strong, tough and elastic it is vulcanized. Charles Goodyear discovered the process of converting natural rubber to more strong and tlastic form and called the process vulcanization. Natural rubber is mixed with 3 to 5% sulphur and heated at 100-150” C. it forms cross linking of cis-1, 4 polyisopropene chains through disulphide bonds, (-S-S-). Wide range of phy ‘properties of rubber can be obained by controlling the amount of sulphur in the process of vulcanization. Rubber made with 20-30% sulphur is hard, 3 to 10% sulphur is a litte harder and is used in making tyres. Low sulphur rubber is made with 1 to 3% of sulphur and is used in making rubber bands. Structure of vulcanized rubber is given under cross linked polymers. 15.10 PREPARATION OF SYNTHETIC RUBBERS “There ure many different formulations of synthetic rubbers, Preparation of some synthetic rubbers is given below. s ‘A) Buna-S or styrene butudiene rubber (SBR): It is a copolymer of styrene and 1, 3-butadiene. It is used in making inner tubes for tyres, motors, bubble gums, etc, 543CH=CH, ~CH-CH,-CH,-CH=CH-CH,— * oO + CH, =CH-CH=CH, *8% > Styrene 1.3-Butadiene SBR (Gume<) 8) Buna.N: Itis a copolymer of acrylonitrile and 1,3 butadiene. It is used in making soles of the shoes, adhesives, tank lining. oil seals. ete. CN gS | H-CH=CH, +n CHy= CH—ssison_, fou -CH=CH-CH, ~CH, -CH f, 1.3 Butadiene Buna-N (Neoprene rubber: The monomer used is chloroprene (2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene). It is superior to natural rubber and resistant to chemical action. It is used in the manufacture of chemical containers, conveyor belts. gaskets ete. a q n CH, =C-CH =CH, ssa, fou, ~c=cH-cH |, 2-Chlorobuta-I,3-diene Neoprene 1D. Buts1 rubber: It is a copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene. The mixture of the two monomers when heated at about 100° C in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride as a catalyst and methyl chloride as. a solvent. polymerises to form butyl rubber. cH, cH, CH, CH, I I I CH.=C + nCH,=C-CH=CH,—M 5 fe,-¢-cn,-dacn-cn,, CH; : CH, Isobutylene Isoprene Buty! rubber. It is used for making inner-tubes of tyres and motors. ‘Some other examples of polymers along with their monomers, class and uses are given in Table 15.1 Table 15.1 Examples of some other polymers “Namels of monomer/s =] Uses. Vinyl chloride and acrylonitrile | Human hair wigs Copolymer ethylene glycol and phthalic acid | In paints Condensation chtylene chloride and sodium Rubber (Polysulphide rubber) | tetra sulphide Homupe methyl a cyanoacrylate Glue Polyamide terephthalic acid chloride and Bull © let if condensation P-phenylene diamine Vests & helmets Polyamide ‘m-phthalie acid and i c Jothes for ‘condensation ‘m-dinitrobenzene ee and fire fighters. 544[Name of polymer | "Class of polymer Name/s of monomer/s Uses 7 | Lexan Polycarbonate, poly- | diethylearbonate and bisphenol A | Bullet proof ester condensation windows and helmets. 8 | Polyurethane or | Copolymer Toluene diisocyanate and ethylene | For padding and Themovole alycol building insulation | as light in weight. 9} Saran Copolymer vinyl chloride and vinylidene Bumpers. chloride 1 NONBIODEGRADABLE AND BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS ‘After a certain period of time the natural polymers degrade on their own but synthetic polymers do not. These are nonbiedegradable polymers and are resistant to environmental degradation processes and are accumulated as solid waste materials. Hence efforts were made to synthesise biodegradable polymers to avoid environmental problems. Some biodegradable polymers are given below: A) PHBY Polymer (polyhydroxy butyrate-CO- B-hydroxy valerate) It is a copolymer, The monomers used are 3-hydroxy butanoic acid and 3-hydroxy pentanoic acid. It has an ester linkage. OH OH I nCH,-CH-CH,-COOH +n CH,-CH, -CH-CH, -COoH—"°> Hydroxy butanoic acid 3-Hydroxy pentanoic acid. \atasie ~ CH-CH, | CH, ¢ 7 By Dextron > Potyeater In is polyelycollic acid-polylactic acid polymer. The monomers used are glycollic acid and lactic acid. It is a copolymer and has ester linkage. owe ak Pood nCH,-CH-COOH + 1 CH,-COOH—“sF5H0 5 es cH, F lactic acid glycollic acid Dextron Cy Nylon -2-nylon-6 It is a copolymer and contains polyamide linkages. It is obtained by condensation polymerisation of the monomers. glycine and w-amino caproic acid. n HyN-CH, ~COOH + nNH,¢CHy 45 COOH": g-ety-m-gccin glycine @ amino caproic acid Nylon-2-nylon-6 Biodegradable polymers ure used as orthopaedic devices, implants, sutures and drug release matrices. They ‘are degraded by bacteria in the environment. S45- "SUMMARY | of veneaanea small and simple molecules. Polymers are high molecular weight macromolecules and consist a o monomers. There are different ways of classification of polymer like based on source, Mure. PROCESS of polymerisation, molecular forces and on growth polymerisation. Based on source they are classified as natural. semisynthetic and synthetic polymers. Based on structure there are three type of polymers linear. branched and cross-linked. The polymerisation processes are of two types addition and condensation. Addition of monomer units form addition polymers where as elimination of small molecules like water or methanol between two monomers form condensation polymers. The different forces which bind the polymer chains together are intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonds and Vander Waal’s forces, due to which the polymers are elastomers, fibres. thermoplastic or thermosetting polymers. Formation of polymer may take place by chain growth and step growth processes. A polymer made from two or more different monomers is called a copolymer, whereas a polymer made from identical repeating unit of one monomer is called homopolymer. Examples of homopolymer are polythene, PVC, nylon-6, polypropylene, orlon, teflon. polvacrylonitrile, natural rubber etc. Examples of copolymer are nylon-6,6, polyester, novolac, Bakelite, rielamine. Buna-N. Buna-S. butyl rubber etc. Naturally occurring polymers are linen, jute, starch, cellulose, silk, wocl. etc. 7 Natural rubber is a latex obtained from rubber tree in the form of colloidal suspension, it is a polymer of 2-methyI-] butadiene. Natural rubber is cis-1, 4- polyisoprene having long chains and elastic properties. But Gutta- Percha rubber is trans-1.4-polyisoprene having zigzag chains and non-elastic properties. The tensile strength. toughness and elasticity of natural rubber can be increased by adding sulphur to the natural rubber and heating. Tisis vrocess is called vulcanization of rubber. Synthetic rubbers are Buna-S, Buna-N, neoprene and butyl rubber. Aster keeping for a certain period natural polymers degrade while synthetic polymer like polythene do not indergo degradation. Hence to avoid environmental pollution biodegradable polymers are made, e.g. PHBY, dextron, EXERCISES | ny lon-6. etc.