1. Why CT Secondary is kept closed?

Ans: The secondary side of the current transformer is always kept short-circuited
in order to avoid core saturation and high voltage induction so that the current
transformer can be used to measure high values of currents. When a CT
secondary encounters an open or high resistance circuit, it quickly becomes a
step-up voltage transformer. It then presents dangerously high voltages that are
at a minimum, unsafe, and frequently destructive to the device insulation and
surrounding components
2. What is Tan Delta test?
Ans: Tan Delta which is also termed as Dielectric Dissipation or Loss Angle
or Power Factor testing method which is performed for testing of insulating oil
to know the quality level of the oil. This kind of testing methodology is carried
out at two temperature levels. The results that are obtained from the two tests
are compared and then consideration is taken in the quality level of the coil.
When a pure insulator has a connection between the earth and the line, then it
performs like a capacitor. In an ideal kind of insulator, as the insulating substance
functions as a dielectric, which is totally pure, then the passage of current
through the material holds only capacitive material. There will be no resistive
element for the electric current that is flowing from the line to the earth via
insulator as in the insulating component, there will be no presence of impurities.
The tan delta test circuit diagram is shown as follows:

Tan Delta Test Circuit

In a pure capacitive material, the capacitive current precedes the voltage level by
900. As a general, the insulating material is totally pure, and even because of the
aging properties of the components, the contaminations such as moisture and
dirt might get added. These contaminations create a conductive path for the
current. As a result, leakage current that flows from line to earth via the insulator
holds resistive elements.
Therefore, it is pointless to claim that, for a good quality of insulator, this resistive
element of leakage current is correspondingly minimal. In the other aspect, the
behavior of an insulator might be known by the proportion of the resistive
element to that of the capacitive element. For good quality of insulator, this
proportion is correspondingly less and this is termed as tanδ or tan delta. In a
few cases, this is also expressed as a dissipation factor. With the below-depicted
vector diagram, it can be known.

Tan Delta Test Vector Diagram

Where the x-axis represents the level of system voltage which is the resistive
element of leakage current IR. As this capacitive element of leakage current
IC precedes by 900, it is taken across the y-axis.
And now, the whole leakage current is given by IL(IC + IR)
And from the diagram, tanδ is (IR /IC)
tanδ = (IR /IC)

3. Why directional relays are used in line?

Ans: Ring main distribution lines are the lines that exists in a interconnected
system with two or more sources. In such a system, the directional overcurrent
relays are usually connected with a trip of an incoming line breaker for fault
current flow that can flow back to the source.
4. Why 3 phase power is used? Why 4 or more phase is not encouraged?
Ans: Comparing single-phase vs. three-phase power, three-phase power supplies
are more efficient. A three-phase power supply can transmit three times as much
power as a single-phase power supply, while only needing one additional wire
(that is, three wires instead of two). a three-phase system has more efficiency
than a two-phase and three-phase system. The copper loss reduces by about 75
% in a three-phase system compared to a copper loss in a single phase. The more
phases further reduce the copper loss however reduction is marginal. The
drawback of more phases is that the transmission towers have to sustain more
loads of conductors. Thus, the cost of the electrical system increase. The three-
phase system delivers three times the power of a single phase. The 6 phase adds
twice the power of the 3 phase. But, 12 phases do not add power double that of
6 phases. The power transfer curve has a drop characteristic with an increase in
the number of phases. Also, higher phases would cause more constraints on the
grid. The design of the equipment for the 4,5 or more phase is complicated and
expensive.

5. Define Proximity Effect, Skin Effect, Corona and Sag.

Ans: Proximity Effect In electromagnetics, proximity effect is a redistribution of
electric current occurring in nearby parallel electrical conductors carrying
alternating current flowing in the same direction which causes the current
distribution in the conductor to concentrate on the side away from the nearby
conductor. The proximity effect results in the increment of the apparent
resistance of the conductor due to the presence of the other conductors carrying
current.
Skin Effect Skin effect is a tendency for alternating current (AC) to flow mostly
near the outer surface of an electrical conductor, such as metal wire.The effect
becomes more and more apparent as the frequency increases. The skin effect
is caused by opposing eddy currents induced by the changing magnetic fields
that result from the alternating current o the conductor.
Corona The ionization of air surrounding the high voltage transmission lines
causing the conductors to glow, producing a hissing noise, is called Corona
Discharge or Corona Effect.
Sag The distance between the highest point of electric poles or towers and the
lowest point of a conductor connected between two poles or towers.
6. Why conductors are stranded? How to reduce skin effect and corona effect?
Ans: Stranded wire conductors are preferred for: Conductor flexibility is much
greater in stranded conductors, making them easier to install. Flex life is longer
compared to solid conductors. Stranded conductors can endure more vibration
and bending before reaching the breaking point.
Stranded conductors have less diameter and increased surface area. Whereas a
solid core conductor has less surface area. Thus using a stranded conductor
reduces the skin effect.
The corona effect in the overhead transmission lines can be reduced by
increasing the conductor size. By increasing the conductor size, the line voltage
at which corona takes place is increased and hence the corona loss is greatly
reduced. Therefore, this is one of the reasons that the aluminium-conductor-
steel-reinforced (ACSR) conductors which have large area cross-section are used
in overhead transmission lines. Large spacing between the conductors reduces
the electrostatic stresses developed at the conductors, thus avoiding the corona
formation also.

7. Mention advantages of Corona Effect?

Ans: Due to corona across the conductor, the sheath of air surrounding the
conductor becomes conductive which rises the conductor diameter virtually. This
virtual increase in the conductor diameter reduces the maximum potential
gradient or maximum electrostatic stress. Thus, the probability of flash-over is
reduced.
Effects of transients produced by lightning or electrical surges are also reduced
due to the corona effect. As, the charges induced on the line by surge or other
causes, will be partially dissipated as a corona loss. In this way, corona protects
the transmission lines by reducing the effect of transients that are produced by
voltage surges.
The disadvantages are-

A non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in the transmission line due to non-

sinusoidal corona current, which causes interference with neighboring
communication circuits due to electromagnetic transients and electrostatic
induction effects.

Ozone gas is produced due to the formation of corona, which chemically reacts
with the conductor and causes corrosion.
The energy dissipated in the system due to corona effect is called as Corona loss.
The power loss due to corona is undesirable and uneconomical. The efficiency of
transmission line is highly reduced due to the loss of power or energy.

8. What is Arc Resistance?

Ans: Arc resistance is defined as insulating material to withstand a high voltage electric arc
and resist the formation of a conducting path along its surface.

9. What values should be acceptable in case of Insulation resistance and contact

resistance?

Ans: The rule states that insulation resistance should be approximately one
megohm for each 1000 volts of operating voltage, with a one megohm minimum.
(By following this rule, a motor rated at 2400 volts should have a minimum
insulation resistance of 2.4 megohms).

Contact resistance is the electrical resistance that arises at the contact point
when components are connected. It depends on the material used and the
quality of the connection. IEC-60352-5 stipulates that contact resistance testing
should be carried out using the millivolt level method as specified in IEC 60512-
2-1. he smaller current ratings will have higher contact resistance. As a general
rule-of-thumb, low-voltage circuit breakers should have contact resistances
of 100 µΩ or less, while readings above 300 µΩ are an indication of trouble.

10. What is Earthing Resistance? Why earthing is needed? Define acceptable

value of earthing resistance?

Ans: The resistance supplied by the earth's electrode toward the flow of
electricity further into the surface or ground is characterized as earth resistance.
The advantages of earthing are-

Ensures the safety of electrical appliances and devices from the excessive
amount of electric current.

Helps in the flow of electric current directly inside the ground.

Keeps the electric appliance safe from the damage

It protects building breakdown from the lightning

It shields from fire occurred because of an electric short circuit and saves goods
from fire.

Earthing helps in protecting overvoltage, stabilization of voltage.

Earthing prevents injury damage and death caused by electric current.

It helps to avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation systems.

The acceptable Earth Resistance at earth MEEB busbar shall not be more than 1
ohm. For achieving this value more than one earth pits can be installed if
necessary depending upon the soil resistivity. In places where space is not
available to provide parallel earth pits then longer earth rods may be provided.

The NFPA and IEEE recommend a ground resistance value of 5 ohms or less while
the NEC has stated to “Make sure that system impedance to ground is less than
5 ohms specified in NEC 50.56. In facilities with sensitive equipment it should be
5ohms or less.”

11. Mention the name of Mechanical Protections of Transformer.

Ans: Transformer protection is generally classified as mechanical protection that

is carried out by detecting operational parameters such as the transformer oil
level of pressure, gas evolution and temperature of the oil and winding.
Mechanical protection is essential to protect the transformer from swear
damage in case of any fault related to the transformer’s mechanical mechanism.

• Buchholz (Gas) Relay

• Pressure Relay
• Oil Level Monitor Device
• Winding Thermometer

12. Discuss briefly about PRD and REF?

Ans: The transformer pressure relief device valve PRD is designed for use in liquid
immersed transformers in order to release excess internal pressure that is
caused by a system's failure.
In power system protection REF means Restricted Earth Fault (64R). In a
grounded 4 wire system star point of the transformer is grounded. a current
 transformer is connected to this, and the output of this CT goes to a relay called
restricted earth fault relay.

13. What are the Electrical Protections of Transformer?

Ans:

• Over Current/Earth Fault-50/51Protection

• Under Impedance/ Distance relay Protection-21
• Differential Current Protection-87
• Restricted Earth fault Protection-64H
• Three Phase Overload Protection-49
• Over Fluxing Protection-24
• Over Voltage-59/Under Voltage-27 Protection

14. Why is the CT connection kept as Y-Delta for the differential relay of a Delta-
Y-Transformer?
Ans: Due to the fact that there is a 30 degrees phase shift between the delta and
Y connections. That arrangement compensates the phase shifting.

15. What is Magnetic Balance Test?

Ans: Magnetic balance test of transformer is conducted only on three-phase
transformers to check the imbalance in the magnetic circuit. The magnetic balance
test is a most commonly used proactive test is performed only on three-phase
transformers to detect the faults in the core and to verify the imbalance in the
magnetic circuit also to identify inter-turn faults in the transformer at the early stage
of manufacturing work. Procedure of Magnetic Balance Test of Transformer-

1. First keep the tap changer of transformer in normal position.

2. Now disconnect the transformer neutral from ground.
3. Then apply single phase 230 V AC supply across one of the HV winding
terminals and neutral terminal.
4. Measure the voltage in two other HV terminals in respect of neutral
terminal.
5. Repeat the test for each of the three phases.
16. What is the SFRA test? Why is it done? What does this test mean?
Ans: Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) testing provides insight into the
mechanical and electrical integrity of transformers, reactors, and other equipment
with windings. An SFRA instrument sends a signal into the transformer winding at a
number of discrete frequencies and measures the returning signals. Damage, physical
changes, and electrical changes can be detected by inspection of the graphical results
or by comparing them with results from previous test sessions or from testing of
similar apparatus. Frequency response analysis (often referred to as FRA or SFRA) is
a powerful and sensitive method for testing the mechanical integrity of transformer
cores, windings, and press frames, in power transformers.

Every electrical network has a unique frequency response – its so-called

"fingerprint". Network faults or vibrations can cause changes in this frequency
response.

Comparing the measurements taken at various phases or on multiple identical

transformers, as well as comparing measurements with the former fingerprint of the
same transformer, provide indications of any mechanical or electrical changes.

17. What tests are normally done during the installation of a transformer in the
field?
Ans:
▪ Transformer turns ratio
▪ Bushing CT ratio
▪ Tan delta/ Power factor/ dissipation factor (50/60 Hz)
▪ NB DFR (narrow band dielectric frequency response), 1 – 500 HZ
▪ Dielectric frequency response (DFR)
▪ Surge arrester loss (Watts) and current
▪ Exciting current
▪ Leakage reactance (short circuit impedance)
▪ Winding resistance
▪ Sweep frequency response analysis (SFRA)
▪ Frequency response of stray losses
 ▪ Dynamic winding resistance (on-load tap changing transformers)
▪ Core ground
▪ Dielectric breakdown on oil sample

18. A transformer differential relay is tripping or the PRD is coming now what is the
first normal test?
Ans:

19. Explain the basic functions of radiator, breather, conservator, OTI, WTI, fan,
transformer oil, silica gel.
Ans: Radiators are equipped in a transformer with the function of cooling the
transformer oil through natural air or forced air flowing in these radiator fins.
Transformer Breather Helps to Prevent Atmospheric Moisture and Reduce
Maintenance Costs.
The function of a conservator is to take up contraction and expansion of oil without
allowing it to come in contact with outside air.
This OTI device is used to measure the top oil temperature and protect the
transformer.
The WTI, Winding Temperature Indication, Current Transformer are used in Oil
Cooled Transformers to monitor the Transformer Winding Temperature to activate
High Temperature Alarms, Circuit Breakers and coolers.
Transformer cooling fans are sturdy, weatherproof fans for accelerating the cooling
process in oil-cooled electrical transformers. They circulate air around the exterior
of the transformer's radiator as oil works it way through the inside to dissipate heat
and reduce the operating temperature of the transformer.
Transformer oils are designed to operate effectively at very high temperatures,
cooling, insulating, and stopping corona discharges and arcing.
The main function of silica gel is to control the amount of moisture available within
a breather transformer.
20. What is the breakdown voltage of transformer oil? What is the acceptable
value? Explain about transformer DGA test.
Ans: The BDV of transformer oil is breakdown voltage of transformer oil. The BDV or
dielectric strength of oil is the maximum voltage withstand capacity of the oil
without breakdown. BDV test of transformer oil is very important for trouble free
operation of transformer. Therefore, periodical testing of the transformer oil BDV is
compulsory for ensuring healthiness of the transformer oil.
As per IEC, the minimum BDV of transformer oil should be 30 KV as per transformer
oil BDV test standard.
A DGA (Dissolved gas analysis) test will indicate high thermal gases (Methane,
Ethane, and Ethylene) as a result of overheating of the liquid. These gases are
formed from a breakdown of the liquid caused by heat. Heating may be caused by
poor contacts on a tap changer or loose connections on a bushing or a grounding
strap.

21. What kind of gas is found in the DGA test of oil?

Ans: A DGA test will indicate high thermal gases (Methane, Ethane, and Ethylene) as
a result of overheating of the liquid.

22. What does the transformer indicate when the amount of ethylene is too high?
23. What is the nominal ratio of CO2 and CO of the transformer? What does a high
ratio indicate?
Ans: The CO2/CO ratio becomes significant when individual gases are above
5000/500 ppm. According to the literature, the ratio of carbon dioxide and carbon
mono- oxide (CO2/CO) for a transformer with a healthy cellulose insulation system
should be between 3 and 11. A ratio below 3 indicates ageing of insulation by arcing.
A ratio above 10 indicates cellulose ageing from thermal heating. CO2/CO ratios less
than 3 are generally considered as an indication of probable paper involvement in a
fault, with possible carbonization, in the presence of other fault gases.
24. What is the way to recognize the transformer primary side and secondary side
from a distance?
Ans: Number of bushings. Primary- 3 nos., Secondary- 4 nos.
25. Why is the rating of transformer in MVA?
Ans: Copper losses (I²R) depend on current which passes through transformer
winding while Iron losses or core losses or Insulation losses depend on Voltage. i.e.,
total losses depend on voltage (V) and current (I) which are expressed in Volt
ampere (VA) and not on the load power factor (P.F). That’s why the transformer
rating may be expressed in VA or kVA, not in W or kW.
26. Transformer rating 80/120/150 MVA- Why are there three different ratings?
What is meant by three separate ratings?
Ans: Based on cooling system, this transformer can operate at 3 MVA ratings.
80 MVA- ONAN (Oil Natural Air Natural)
120 MVA- ONAF (Oil Natural Air Forced)
150 MVA- OFAF (Oil Forced Air Forced) * ODAF- Oil Directed Air Forced

27. In transformer, how much is the phase difference of voltage and current on load
normally?
Ans: The phase relationships for voltage and current between primary and
secondary circuits of a transformer are direct: ideally, zero phase shift. The dot
convention is a type of polarity marking for transformer windings showing which end
of the winding is which, relative to the other windings.
the phase difference between primary voltage and secondary voltage is i180
degrees in the case of an ideal transformer. In a practical transformer, it deviates
away from 180 degrees. At full load, the deviation is negligible.

28. What materials are used for transformer core?

Ans: Silicon steel
Silicon alloying- the higher resistivity reduces the eddy currents, so silicon steel is
used in transformer cores. Further increase in silicon concentration impairs the
steel's mechanical properties, causing difficulties for rolling due to brittleness

29. What measures are taken to reduce magnetic leakage in transformer?

Ans: Leakage flux in a transformer is minimized by interleaving the primary and
secondary windings.

30. Why is iron core of transformer is laminated?

Ans: The iron core of a transformer is laminated to reduce eddy currents. Eddy
currents are the small currents that result from the changing magnetic field created
by the alternating current in the first coil.

31. What is the staking factor? What is the value of stacking factor normally?
Ans: The stacking factor (also lamination factor or space factor) is a measure used in
electrical transformer design and some other electrical machines. It is the ratio of
the effective cross-sectional area of the transformer core to the physical cross-
sectional area of the transformer core. The two are different because of the way
cores are constructed. The stacking factor is usually 0.9 and it is always less than 1.

32. What is the maximum flux density of the core?

Ans: Generally, the maximum flux density in the transformer core varies from
manufacturer to manufacturer and from design to design. Choice of maximum flux
density is a tradeoff between the cost of transformer and the efficiency of
transformer. As we know, with increase in maximum flux density, the requirement
of core material reduces and leads to lesser core losses and better efficiency of
transformer. However, the cost of core materials goes on increasing with increase
in maximum flux density.
It is further to be noted that, due to increase in maximum flux density of the core
materials, the volt per turn of the transformer increases. Due to increase in volt per
turn, the requirement of copper materials, insulations and cooling reduces
considerably. All of these factors lead to better efficiency of transformer.
Considering the above factors, the choice of maximum flux density in the
transformer core becomes very important & critical. Generally, the values of
maximum flux density are chosen around 1.5T but in some specific case this value
may increase up to 1.8T or even 2T. This choice is purely determined by the
requirement of the transformer.
Hence, there is no exact value of maximum flux density in a transformer core. It
keeps on changing as per requirement in each & every type of transformer.

33. What is the no load current of the transformer normally?

Ans: The no-load current drawn by a transformer is usually 2 to 5 percent of the full-
load current.

34. What is the difference between core type and shell type transformer?
Ans:
Basis for
Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer
Comparison
Definition The winding surround the core. The core surround the winding.
Lamination The lamination is cut in the form Lamination are cut in the form of
Shape of the L strips. the long strips of E and L.
Cross Section Cross-section may be square, The cross section is rectangular in
cruciform and three stepped shape.
Copper Require More Less
Other Name Concentric Winding or Sandwich or Disc Winding
Cylindrical Winding.
Limb Two Three
Insulation More Less
Basis for
Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer
Comparison
Flux The flux is equally distributed on Central limb carry the whole flux
the side limbs of the core. and side limbs carries the half of the
flux.
Winding The primary and secondary Primary and secondary windings are
winding are placed on the side placed on the central limb
limbs.
Magnetic Two One
Circuit
Losses More Less
Maintenance Easy Difficult
Mechanical Low High
Strength
Output Less High
Natural Cooling Does not Exist Exist

35. What is limb in transformer?

Ans: The vertical portion of the iron core where the windings are placed is called
limb of a transformer.

36. Why is the LT side / low voltage side of the transformer with the core?
Ans: The following advantages of placing the low voltage winding nearer to the core
will be..
It reduces the leakage fluxes.
It reduces the requirements of insulation material .
It reduces the core loss.
It reduces the voltage shock if the breakdown of the insulation takes place.
It reduces the total conductor material.
If the high voltage (HV) winding is placed near the core, more insulation is needed
to insulate the high voltage winding of the transformer and the core. The thicker
insulation is required if the HV is placed near the core.
37. What type of insulation is used in power transformers?
Ans: Cellulose insulation with mineral oil has played a major role as the main
insulation system for transformers for a very long time. Cellulose paper, tapes, and
cloths have also been widely used.

38. What will happen if a DC supply is applied to a transformer?

Ans: It is very simple. You will have no output. This is because a transformer works
on the principle of electromagnetic induction, which requires a voltage source that
changes with time (alternating source). Thus since a dc supply is unidirectional, the
transformer cannot work.
When a DC voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, due to low
resistance, the winding acts as a short circuit across the terminals of the DC source
that lead to the flow of heavy current through the winding resulting in overheating
of the winding. Eventually, the source or the winding will be damaged. The effect of
current on winding depends on the applied DC voltage, rating of the transformer,
winding resistance, and how powerful the DC source is. “Nothing will happen if 5Vdc
is applied to a 50KVA transformer!”.

39. What is hysteresis loss in transformer?

Ans: The loss in form of heat when the magnetization of the material is made to
alternate with respect to time. It is a type of energy loss that occurs in Electrical
machines due to the repeated magnetization and demagnetization of the iron core.
During the cycle of magnetization and demagnetization of magnetic substances,
energy is spent, and this spent energy appears in the form of heat.

40. Why does the sound of the transformer occur? When is the sound louder? Low
load or high load?
Ans: The basic cause of transformer noise is magnetostriction: the expansion and
contraction of the iron core (laminations) due to the magnetic effect of alternation
current flowing through the transformer coils. This produces an audible hum.
Magnetostriction may be partially controlled by the transformer design, but it
cannot be totally eliminated. It increases with load.
41. A transformer should normally run at what percentage of load?
Ans: Transformers should not be loaded to their full capacity, as they are designed
to work at their best under 50-60% of their rated capacity. The transformer doesn't
care. It is happy just to be energized with no load, 50% load and 100% and even
120% loads, as long there is adequate cooling.

42. Why measurements are made on the high side during short circuit testing? If
you measure on the low side, will the testing be correct?
Ans: In a short circuit test, our purpose is to find cu losses of T/F and series branch
parameters of equivalent circuit.
Short circuit test of T/F is conducted at its rated current and can be easily obtained
by applying 5-6% of normal voltage. We normally short lv windings and test is
performed from hv side.
The rated current on hv side is much less than lv side(VI = constant), so the rated hv
side current is easily achieved(compared to lv side).
and Also because we cannot short-circuit hv side, as, if we short-circuit hv
side, Voltage of hv side abruptly falls to zero and since VI(VA power=constant), so
the hv current will be very high(compared to low rated current on hv side), and will
burn the winding.

43. Why open circuit test is done on low voltage side? Can open circuit test be done
on high voltage side? Explain the details of what will be the problem.
Ans: In this test the high voltage side of the transformer is left open, i.e., the open
circuit test is to be performer on the low-voltage side of the transformer. The open-
circuit test is conducted to determine the core or iron losses and the no-load circuit
parameters R0 and Xm of the transformer.
The open circuit test is always performed on the low-voltage side of the transformer.
Because, if it is performed on the high voltage side, the no-load current I0 would be
inconveniently small and the applied voltage would be inconveniently large.
Its main reason is that open circuit test is conducted to find the core/iron loss of a
transformer (neglecting copper loss). If you conduct this test on the high voltage
side you are to supply a high voltage and hence it draws more power. In this case
the copper losses is to be taken into account for and the wattmeter doesn't gives
the iron loss but a sum of iron loss and copper loss.
44. When is the transformer at maximum efficiency?
Ans: Maximum Efficiency in a transformer is when copper loss = iron loss. The
transformer that has a variable load is designed to ensure maximum efficiency. This
is when the full load is at about 75%. Such transformers are often referred to as
distribution transformers.

45. What is the ratio correction factor?

Ans: The term “ratio-correction factor” is defined as “that factor by which the
marked (or nameplate) ratio of a current transformer must be multiplied to obtain
the true ratio.” The ratio errors of current transformers used for relaying are such
that, for a given magnitude of primary current, the secondary current is less than
the marked ratio would indicate; hence, the ratio-correction factor is greater than
1.0. A ratio-correction-factor curve is a curve of the ratio-correction factor plotted
against multiples of rated primary or secondary current for a given constant burden,
as in Fig. 1. Such curves give the most accurate results because the only errors
involved in their use are the slight differences in accuracy between CT’s having the
same nameplate ratings, owing to manufacturers’ tolerances. Usually, a family of
such curves is provided for different typical values of burden.

46. What are instrument transformers?

Ans: Types of Instrument Transformers
Instrument transformers are of two types –
Current Transformer (C.T.)
Potential Transformer (P.T.)
Current Transformer (C.T.)
Current transformer is used to step down the current of power system to a lower
level to make it feasible to be measured by small rating Ammeter (i.e. 5A ammeter).
A typical connection diagram of a current transformer is shown in figure below.

Primary of C.T. is having very few turns. Sometimes bar primary is also used. Primary
is connected in series with the power circuit. Therefore, sometimes it also called
series transformer. The secondary is having large no. of turns. Secondary is
connected directly to an ammeter. As the ammeter is having very small resistance.
Hence, the secondary of current transformer operates almost in short circuited
condition. One terminal of secondary is earthed to avoid the large voltage on
secondary with respect to earth. Which in turns reduce the chances of insulation
breakdown and also protect the operator against high voltage. More ever before
disconnecting the ammeter, secondary is short circuited through a switch ‘S’ as
shown in figure above to avoid the high voltage build up across the secondary.
Potential Transformer (P.T.)
Potential transformer is used to step down the voltage of power system to a lower
level to make is feasible to be measured by small rating voltmeter i.e. 110 – 120 V
voltmeter. A typical connection diagram of a potential transformer is showing figure
below.
Primary of P.T. is having large no. of turns. Primary is connected across the line
(generally between on line and earth). Hence, sometimes it is also called the parallel
transformer. Secondary of P.T. is having few turns and connected directly to a
voltmeter. As the voltmeter is having large resistance. Hence the secondary of a P.T.
operates almost in open circuited condition. One terminal of secondary of P.T. is
earthed to maintain the secondary voltage with respect to earth. Which assures the
safety of operators.
Difference between C.T. and P.T.
47. What does CT work?
Ans: A Current Transformer (CT) is used to measure the current of another circuit.
CTs are used worldwide to monitor high-voltage lines across national power grids. A
CT is designed to produce an alternating current in its secondary winding that is
proportional to the current that it is measuring in its primary. Current transformers
are used for protection, measurement and control in high-voltage electrical
substations and the electrical grid.

48. What is CT Ratio Error?

Ans: The CT ratio Error is defined as the per unit deviation in transformation ratio
from its nominal ratio. Ratio error is expressed in percentage.

In an instrument transformer, nominal ratio is defined as the ratio of the rated

primary current or voltage to the rated secondary winding current or voltage.

49. What is CT saturation? When does CT saturation occur? What is the problem of
CT saturation? What to do if saturation occurs?

Ans: CT Saturation

When the primary current is so high that the core cannot handle any more flux, the
CT is said to be in saturation. In saturation, there is no flux change when the primary
current changes (as the core is already carrying maximum flux). Since there is no flux
change there is no secondary current flow. Therefore in saturation, all of the
ratio current is used as magnetizing current and none flows in to the load connected
to the CT.
The point where CT saturates also known as the knee point, which according to IEC,
knee point is the voltage at which a 10% increase in voltage of CT secondary results
in a 50% increase in secondary current. For voltages greater than the knee point
voltage, the magnetizing current increases considerably even for small increments
in voltage across the secondary terminals.

Importance of CT Saturation in Differential Protection Schemes

A differential protection scheme is stable if it only trips on internal faults, or faults

that happened within the zone of protection (ZOP) in between both CTs. Differential
protection scheme should not trip on external faults. The magnetizing
characteristics of both CTs used for differential protection must be the same, which
means they have the same knee point voltage and the same excitation current at
midpoint.
For example, CT1 and CT2 have different magnetizing characteristics, during
external fault, high fault current of the same magnitude will flow through both CTs.
CT1 saturates while CT2 does not. There will not be secondary current flow in CT1
because the primary current is used as excitation current. Therefore, the differential
protection relays will get tripped with nuisance tripping.

50. When is the phase angle error of the current transfromer negative? Why is that?

Ans: At the load of very low power factor the phase angle error will be negative.
51. Mention applications of PT.

Ans: The applications are

• Used in relay and metering circuits

• Uses in power line carrier communication circuits

• Used in protection systems electrically

• Used for protecting feeders

• Used for the protection of impedance in the generators

• Used in synchronization of generators and feeders.

• Used as protection voltage transformers

52. What is the standard value of CT and PT?

Ans: The normal range of the current transformer for measuring the current is 5A or
1A whereas the standard voltage at the secondary winding of the potential
transformer is up to 110V. The transformation ratio of the current transformer is
always remained high, whereas for the potential transformer it remains low.

Industry standards have established 120 volts as the secondary rating of potential
transformers having primary ratings up to 24,000 volts and 115 volts as the
secondary rating of PT's having ratings above 24,000 volts.

Typical ratios are 200:5, 400:5, 600:5, 800:5 and so on. Again, what this means is
that when the stated value of amps is flowing through the primary side of the CT, 5
amps is flowing through the secondary side. The rating factor is used when
determining what size CT to use in a particular installation.

53. Is the output of the DC generator DC or AC?

Ans: A direct-current (DC) generator is a rotating machine that supplies an electrical

output with unidirectional voltage and current.

54. If the output of DC generator is AC, why is it called DC generator?

Ans: A DC generator is, at its core, an AC generator with its output rectified to DC.
Usually this rectification is full-wave, and further often includes filtering, so the
output of the whole “device” is DC, but typically has a good deal of ripple. From a
physical construction perspective, DC generators are just a lengthened AC generator
such that the housing contains the rectification at one end.

55. How is AC to DC made in DC Generator?

Ans:
56. What is armature reaction?

Ans: The current flowing through the armature conductors creates a magnetic field,
which is called as armature flux. This armature flux distorts and weakens the
magnetic flux produced by the main poles. This effect of armature flux on the main
flux is known as armature reaction.

The armature reaction in a DC generator causes the following adverse effects

• As the total field flux produced by each pole is slightly reduced, which reduces
the generated EMF.

• Due to the shifting of the resultant flux axis, the MNA is also shifted in the
direction of rotation of the generator.

• Due to the armature reaction, a flux is established in the commutating zone

or neutral zone. This flux in the neutral zone induces conductor voltage that
causes the commutation problems.

57. How is armature reaction reduced?

Ans: There are four methods to reduce the armature reaction problem

Adjust the Brush Position

In this method, rotate the brush mechanism to find the correct neutral zone
position. This can be applied only fixed load current.

Modify the Ends of the Poles

In this method, the field pole tip is to be modified so that high flux cannot exist on
the ends because of the high reluctance path.

Interpoles

The effect of armature reaction can be reduced by placing a set of interpoles or

commutating poles between the main poles of the DC generator. The polarity of
interpole must be that of the main pole just next of it in the direction of rotation.
The interpole windings are connected in series with the armature so that respective
fluxes rise and fall together with the changes in the load current.
Compensating Winding

The heavy-duty operations produce very sudden changes in the armature reaction.
In such generators, the interpoles do not adequately neutralize the armature flux.
Hence, to overcome this problem, the compensating windings are used.

The compensating winding is an auxiliary winding embedded in the slots of the main
poles. The compensating winding is connected in series with the armature in such a
way that the direction of the current in the compensating conductors in any one
pole face will be opposite to the direction of current through the adjacent armature
conductors. Hence, the compensating windings produce a flux equal and opposite
to the armature flux and thus completely neutralize the armature reaction.

58. Why armature in alternator is stationary and magnetic field is rotating while DC
generator armature is rotating part and magnetic field is stationary?

Ans: DC motors and generators are built with the field windings in the stator and the
armature windings in the rotor, with current going into the rotor through the use of
brushes and a commutator so that the same poles get the same current near them,
no matter what winding it is. AC motors and generators are built with the field
windings in the rotor and the armature windings in the stator so that they can have
a higher voltage and current capacity in the armature without making the rotor too
heavy. The Rotor is supplied DC voltage through slip rings, so that the field windings
can create a stable and constant magnetic field, while the current in the armature
windings changes with the frequency of the alternations of current direction.
59. What is the difference between short pitch and full pitch? What are the
advantages of short pitch?

Ans: The angular distance between the two coil sides is one pole pitch, it is called a
full pitch coil. The angular distance between the two coil sides is less than one pole
pitch, it is termed short pitch or fractional pitch coil.

In practice, short-pitch coils are more preferred because of the following

advantages, by using a short pitch coil copper is saved at the end connections. The
effects of distorting harmonics are less compared to full pitch coil, thus improving
the waveform of the induced emf i.e., more sinusoidal.

60. What is the way to reduce eddy current loss?

Ans: One of the most effective ways to reduce eddy currents in motors is to
use laminations (thin sheets of metal that are electrically insulated from one
another), which have a smaller surface area and higher resistance that a solid core.

61. What are the conditions of paralleling the alternator? Advantage and
Disadvantage of parallel operation of alternators? What are the conditions of
paralleling the transformer? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
paralleling the transformer?

Ans: In order to connect an alternator safely in parallel with another alternators or

busbars, the following conditions should be satisfied −

• The phase sequence of the busbar voltages and the incoming alternator
voltage must be the same.

• The busbar voltages and the terminal voltage of the incoming alternator must
be in phase.

• The terminal voltage of the incoming alternator must be equal to the busbar
voltages.
 • The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming machine must be
equal to the frequency of the voltages of the busbar.

The following are the advantages of operating several units in parallel to supply a
common load over a single large unit.

• When the number of small alternators is operated supplying a common load.

By scheduling the maintenance and repair work of individual generators one
after the other, the continuity of the supply can be maintained. In the case of
a single large alternator, the supply is interrupted if the continuity of supply is
the first priority.

• It is uneconomic to run a large alternator on low loads. By operating several

small units, we can either disconnect or reconnect alternators from the
parallel operation depending upon the load requirement.

• It is easy to install a new additional alternator with the existing parallelly

operated alternators when the load demand increased behind the existing
capacity. Thereby decreasing the initial capital cost compared to the cost
required to buy a new single large alternator in anticipation of increased load
demand.

• The machines will operate at their rated capacity, thereby efficiency

increases.

• If there is an internal fault in the alternator. The respective alternator gets

isolated while the remaining alternators will be operated without interrupting
the power supply.

• Due to the limitation of the capacity of alternator that can be built. A power
station with a single large alternator cannot meet the requirement of large
load demand (more than 1200 MVA). Such a large alternator cannot be built
due to physical and economic considerations.

The disadvantage of generators in parallel is the additional equipment and the extra
cost of that equipment, that is needed to synchronize the generators. This extra
equipment also must keep the generators in parallel and not let one generator take
the lead. If this happens, that generator will take the full load and probably trip off
line. This action then overloads the other paralleled generator an then it to will trip
off line.

Conditions to connect transformers in parallel-

Advantages of Parallel operation of Transformers

The parallel operation has mainly the following advantages.

o Maximize electrical power system efficiency

• The transformer operates at almost its full efficiency when it operates at full
load. If we run numbers of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only
those transformers which will give the total demand by running nearer to its
full load rating for that time. When load increases, we can switch on one by
 one other transformer connected in parallel to fulfill the total power demand.
This way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.

o Maximize electrical power system Stability

• It is possible to take a transformer for maintenance if all the transformers run

in parallel, thus the other parallel transformers in the system will deliver the
load without total interruption of power.

o Maximize electrical power system Flexibility

• The total connected load can be increased or decreased according to the

dynamic load scenario. If the load increases in the future, one more
transformer can be installed and it can be run in parallel with the existing
transformers to cater to the total load requirement.

Disadvantages of Parallel Operation of Transformers

• Risk of very high short-circuit currents.

• High probability of error due to technical confusion in the system.
• Since it is a complex system, a lot of auxiliary equipment is needed.
• Risk of formation of circulating currents between transformers.
• Due to high current, it can cause big errors in cases where it is not used correctly.

62. What does alternator output voltage depends on? How to vary alternator output
voltage?

Ans: The magnitudes of the generated voltages are dependent on the flux produced
by the rotor, the number of turns on the stator coils and the speed of rotation of the
rotor. The rotor speed will also dictate the frequency of the generated voltage.

A voltage regulator controls alternator output by changing the amount of current

flow through the rotor windings. Any change in rotor winding current changes the
strength of the magnetic field acting on the stator windings. In this way, the voltage
regulator can maintain a preset charging voltage.
63. After connecting the alternator to the grid, what can be done to
increase/decrease the power?

Ans:

64. What is turbo alternator?

Ans: A turbo generator is an electric generator connected to the shaft of a steam

turbine or gas turbine for the generation of electric power.

65. What type of alternator is used in hydro power plants?

Ans:

Synchronous Generator Salient Pole vs Non-Salient Pole

Salient Pole Synchronous Alternator:

• Salient pole Generators will have large diameter and short axial length
• Pole shoes cover 2/3 of the pitch
 • Salient Poles are laminated in order to reduce eddy currents
• They are used in hydraulic turbines or diesel engines
• Salient pole generators will have typical speed about 100 to 375 rpm.
• As the speed of the water turbine is slow hence a greater number of poles are
required to attain the frequency. Therefore, Salient pole machines will have
typically number of poles will be between 4 to 60.
• Cheaper compared to cylindrical rotor machines for speeds below 1000rpm.
• Causes excessive windage losses
• Flux distribution is not uniform due to the presence of salient poles, hence
emf waveform generated is not good compared to cylindrical machine
• Salient Pole Synchronous Generators are employed in Hydro-Power plants.

Non-Salient pole Synchronous Alternator:

• Non-Salient pole generators will have smaller diameter and longer

axial length
• They are used for High speed operation (typically speed will be 1500 and 3000
rpm)
• Better in dynamic balancing because of absence of salient poles.
• Less windage loss
• Robust construction and noiseless operation
• Nearly sinusoidal flux distribution around the periphery, therefore gives a
better emf waveform than salient pole machine
• No need to provide damper windings (except in special case to assist the
synchronizing) because the field poles themselves acts as efficient dampers.
• Non-Salient pole generators are used in Thermal, Gas and in Nuclear Power
plants.

66. What is winding factor?

Ans: Winding factor is the ratio of electromotive force (EMF) produced by a stator
having a short-pitch, distributed, or skewed winding, with a stator having full-pitch,
concentrated, and non-skewed, windings.

The winding factor is often expressed as the product of three factors: the pitch
factor (also called chording or coil-span factor), the distribution factor (also called
breadth, spread or zone factor) and the skew factor. It provides a way to compare
of the effectiveness of different designs of stators for alternators.
67. When is the terminal voltage of an alternator greater than the no load voltage?

Ans: Terminal voltage is not always less than generated voltage in magnitude.
Difference is due to voltage drop in armature resistance and leakage reactance and
changes in airgap flux due to armature reaction. These drops are phasers and
depend on magnitude and phase of current. Hence terminal voltage in most cases
will be lower than generated voltage. However, with leading power factor loads
terminal voltage can be higher than generated voltage.

68. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of the dark lamp method.

Ans: The procedure of connecting an alternator to the infinite power grid or with a
common bus to which the number of other generators are already connected in
parallel is known as synchronizing of the alternator. Here we are going to discuss
three Dark Lamp Method of alternator synchronizing.

Three Dark Lamp Method of Synchronizing

As shown in the diagram alternator A is already connected to the infinite bus or grid.
The other alternator named with B is to be synchronized with grid or bus by using
the three dark lamp method.
Let lamps L1, L2 and L3 are connected across R-R', Y-Y' and B-B' terminals of
synchronizing switch, here R, Y, and B are the terminals of the infinite bus bar, and
R', Y' and B' are the terminals of incoming alternator B.

When voltages are equal and the frequencies of alternator B and Bus is the same
and the phase sequence of both is correct then the voltage across three lamps will
be zero. Hence lamps are completely dark and this is the right time to close
synchronizing switch.

If the frequency of the alternator B is different than grid frequency and other
conditions are satisfied then the lamps will flicker simultaneously.

The frequency of flickering of the lamp depends upon the frequency difference
between incoming alternator B and the grid frequency fb-fa.

If the phase sequence of alternator B and grid is not correct then the lamps will
flicker one by one. Then the phase sequence is corrected by interchanging any two
leads of incoming alternator B.

The flickering of lamps L1, L2, and L3 are reduced by varying the speed of the prime
mover of the incoming alternator.

If the voltage of the grid and the incoming alternator is not equal and other
conditions are fulfilled then all lamps will be equally bright and will continue to attain
equal brightness.
Advantages of the Dark Lamp Method

• 3 dark lamp method is cheaper.

• The correct phase sequence can be easily identified.

Disadvantages of the Dark Lamp Method

• The lamp becomes dark at about half of its rated voltage. Hence, it is possible
that the synchronizing switch might be closed even when there is a phase
difference present between the grid and incoming alternator.
• The filament of the lamp might burn out.
• the flicker of the lamps does not show which lamp has the higher frequency.

69. What does infinity bus bar mean?

Ans: the power system behaves like a large alternator having virtually zero internal
impedance and infinite rotational inertia. Such kind of system having constant
voltage and constant frequency regardless of the load is known as infinite busbar
system or infinite bus.

70. What does zone protection mean in power system?

Ans: The “protection zone” in an electrical power system is defined as the specific
region within the system that is monitored and protected from faults by protective
relays. This zone is established around each major piece of equipment within the
power system.

The protection zone surrounds each power equipment. When a fault occurs in any
of the zone, then only the circuit breaker in that zone trips. Therefore, only a faulty
element is disconnected without affecting the rest of the system.

71. Why is zone-1 protection 80%? Why not 100%?

Ans: Zone-1 is meant for protection of the primary line. Typically, it is set to cover
80% of the line length. Zone-1 provides fastest protection because there is no
intentional time delay associated with it. Operating time of Zone-1 can be of the
order of 1 cycle.
Zone 1 does not cover the entire length of the primary line because it is difficult to
distinguish between faults which are close to bus B like fault at F1, F2, F3 and F4. In
other words, if a fault is close to bus, one cannot ascertain if it is on the primary line,
bus or on back up line. This is because of the following reasons:

CTs and PTs have limited accuracy. During fault, a CT may partially or complete
saturate. The resulting errors in measurement of impedance seen by relay, makes it
difficult to determine fault location at the boundary of lines very accurately.

72. What is the difference between IDMT relay and DT relay.

Ans:

DMT: Inverse definite Mean Time

The relay operating time is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the fault
current. For low amount of fault current relay takes more time to operate, for higher
current the relay trips fast.

DT: Definite Time over current relay

The operating time is fixed irrespective of the fault current and the time setting can
be controlled manually. i.e if you set a DT relay to operate 10 secs, for 5000 Amps,
means the relay allows 5000 + Amps for 10 secs, beyond 10 sec, the relay trips the
circuit. Since the operating time of the relay is constant. Generally, less sensitive
(higher pickup) to prevent operating for load inrush. Mostly these relays are used as
feeder over-load protection, motor overload, busbar over load etc. Relay should be
coordinated with other definite time relays.

73. What is the current capacity of ACSR, Grossbeak, ACCC, Finch Conductor?

Ans:

74. Which fault is most common in transmission lines?

Ans:
75. Why is there no zero-sequence current in a line to line fault? Will the fault
current be higher if the fault is near the transformer, or will it be higher if the fault
is further from the transformer?

Ans: zero-sequence fault current is absent during a line-to-line fault in a power

system. This is because there is no contact between the ground and conductors, and
hence, no current flows in the ground or neutral conductors.

If we are dealing with radial networks, the highest fault currents are more likely to
occur on the supply side, near the transformer. Furthermore, the larger the
transformer, the higher the rated load current.

76. What is the function of lighting arrester? How does it work?

Ans: Arresters are typically installed near critical appliances or points of entry, such
as an electrical panel or near a generator. When potentially dangerous lightning
strikes, the arrester activates and diverts the lightning to the ground, where it will
disperse harmlessly.

Lightning arrestor working principle is, once the voltage surge travels
throughout the conductor then it reaches the location of the arrestor where it is
installed. So, it will break down the insulation of the lightning arrestor for a moment,
so voltage surge can be discharged toward the ground. Once the voltage of the
system falls under the fixed value, then the insulation will be restored among the
ground & conductor. Further, the current flow toward the ground will be stopped.

Types of Lightning Arrester

Generally, lightning arresters are classified into different types. The construction of
lightning arrestors is different based on its type but the working principle is the
same. It provides a low resistance pathway to the surges in the direction of the
ground. The types are

Horn Gap Arresters

As the name suggests, this arrestor has two metal rods in horn-shaped. The
arrangement of these metal rods can be done around a small air gap. The distance
between these two rods can be increased because they increase from the gap. The
metal rods are located on ceramic insulators.
The connection of the horn can be done by connecting it to two dissimilar wires.
One side of the horn can be connected to the line throughout a resistance & choke
coil whereas the other side is grounded efficiently.

horn-gap-arrester

The resistance restricts the flow of current toward a minute value. The choke coil is
used to provide less reactance at the usual power frequency and also provides high
reactance at transient frequency. Therefore, the choke coil doesn’t permit the
transients to go into the apparatus to be protected. The gap among the horns can
be adjusted so that the usual supply voltage is not sufficient to cause an arc.

Multi-Gap Arresters

These types of arresters are designed with a sequence of metal cylinders that are
insulated and divided through air gaps with each other. In the sequence of cylinders,
the primary cylinder is connected toward the electrical line, whereas the remaining
cylinders are connected to the ground by series resistance. Some of the gaps among
the next cylinders contain a shunt resistance that grabs a surge when there is a
surplus of voltage.

Valve-Type Arresters

These kinds of arresters are applicable to electrical systems that are high-powered.
These devices include two main parts like a sequence of spark gaps as well as a series
of non-linear resistor discs.
The working of these devices can be done whenever an extreme voltage causes the
spark gaps to stroke & the non-linear resisters hold the voltage within the ground.
Whenever the surge of surplus power stops, the spark gaps can be pushed
separately by the resisters.

Pellet-Type Arresters

The designing of these arresters can be done with glass tubes that are filled with
lead pellets. These are finished from an inside of lead peroxide coated through the
lead oxide.

Lead oxide within the lead peroxide is not powerfully conductive. Once the lead
oxide is heated up, it turns into lead peroxide and provides the place to flow the
current. Whenever the flow of current is transmitted, then the lead peroxide will be
changed reverse to lead oxide. This kind of arrester is not broadly used.
77. What is OPGW, what does it do?

Ans: An optical ground wire (also known as an OPGW or, in the IEEE standard,
an optical fiber composite overhead ground wire) is a type of cable that is used
in overhead power lines. Such cable combines the functions
of grounding and communications. An OPGW cable contains a tubular structure
with one or more optical fibers in it, surrounded by layers
of steel and aluminum wire. The OPGW cable is run between the tops of high-
voltage electricity pylons. The conductive part of the cable serves to bond adjacent
towers to earth ground, and shields the high-voltage conductors
from lightning strikes. The optical fibers within the cable can be used for high-speed
transmission of data, either for the electrical utility's own purposes of protection
and control of the transmission line, for the utility's own voice and data
communication, or may be leased or sold to third parties to serve as a high-speed
fiber interconnection between cities.

78. What is Protection Overlap in power system?

Ans: The boundaries of protective zones are decided by the locations of the current
transformer. In practice, various protective zones are overlapped.
The overlapping of protective zones is done to ensure the complete safety of each
and every element of the system. The zone which is unprotected is called a dead
spot. The zones are overlapped and hence there is no chance of existence of a dead
spot in a system. For the failures within the region where two adjacent protective
zones are overlapped, more circuit breakers get tripped than the minimum
necessary to disconnect the faulty element.
79. What is the difference between electrical grounding and electrical earthing?

Ans:
Basis For
Grounding Earthing
Comparison
Definition The current carrying part is The body of the equipment is
connected to ground. connected to ground.
Location Between the neutral of the Between the equipment body and
equipment and ground earth pit which is placed under the
earth surface.
Symbol

Zero Potential Does not have Have

Protection Protect the power system Protect the human from electric
equipment. shock.
Application Provide the return path to the It discharges the electrical energy to
current. the earth.
Types Three (Solid, Resistance and Five (Pipe, Plate, Rod earthing,
Reactance grounding) earthing through tap and strip
earthing)
Color of wire Black Green
Use For balancing the unbalance For avoiding the electrical shock.
load.
Examples Neutral of generator and power The enclosure of the transformer,
transformer is connected to generator, motor etc. are connected
ground. to the earth.
Definition of Grounding
In grounding, the current carrying parts are directly connected to the ground. The
grounding provides the return path for the leakage current and hence protect
the power system equipment from damage.

When the fault occurs in the

equipment, the current in all the three phases of the equipment become unbalance.
The grounding discharges the fault current to the ground and hence makes the
system balance
The grounding has several advantages like it eliminates the surge voltage and also
discharge the over voltage to the ground. The grounding provides the great safety
to the equipment and improves the service reliability.
Definition of Earthing
The ‘earthing’ means the connection of non-current carrying part of the equipment
to the earth. When the fault occurs in the system, then the potential of the non-
current part of the equipment raises, and when any human or stray animal touch
the body of the equipment, then they may get shocked.
 The earthing discharges the leakage
current to the earth and hence avoid the personnel from the electric shock. It also
protects the equipment from lightning strokes and provides the discharge path for the
surge arrester, gap and other devices.
80. Show single line diagram of power station and substation.
Ans:

81. How to select the pick-up value of the relay?

Ans: Pick-up value is the minimum relay operating coil current above which the relay
starts its operation. If the relay operating coil current is less than the pick-up value
relay does not operate
Drop out value: It is the largest value of the actuating quantity when its value is
decreased from pickup value, the relay will reset or de-energize.
The relay should allow normal load as well as a certain degree of overload to be
supplied. So the pickup value of the relay should be more than maximum load. At
the same time, the relay should be sensitive enough to respond to the smallest fault.
So, pickup value should be less than the smallest fault current.
82. What is the difference between fuse and breaker?
Ans: The main difference between fuse and circuit breaker is that circuit breaker
functions to mechanically disconnect the connection any time the power load
exceeds supply. This helps prevent fires and other problems on connected devices.
On the other hand, a fuse prevents a specific device from spoiling in case the current
incoming exceeds the required.
Reusability
While a fuse blows out when current incoming exceeds required by a device, it
cannot be reused after this. However, a circuit breaker functions by tripping and
disconnecting the connection mechanically. It can simply be flipped back on hence
is reused severally.
Operation Principle
While a circuit breaker electromagnetically switches off the connection, the fuse
utilizes conducting materials whose electrical and thermal property damage when
the current exceeds required.
Operation Mode
A circuit breaker operates mechanically and manually while the fuse is automatic
though also mechanically since you have to re-fix it.
Response Time
The response time for the fuse is 0.002 seconds while that of the circuit breaker is
0.02 – 0.05 seconds.
Switching Action
While a circuit breaker can be used on ON/OFF switches, a fuse cannot.
Protection
While a fuse prevents devices and homes against power overloads only, circuit
breakers protect homes and devices against power overloads and short-circuiting.
This is also an important consideration for those choosing between fuse vs circuit
breaker.
Breaking Capacity
Fuses carry a lower breaking capacity than circuit breakers.
Application
Circuit breakers are used to protect the entire home than individual electronic
devices. Fuses protect individual devices rather than the entire home or apartment.
This is also important when deciding between fuse box vs circuit breaker.
Cost Part
Circuit breakers are more costly than fuses. Indeed, the cost of a fuse is
incomparably low to that of a circuit breaker. Cost is one consideration when
deciding between circuit breaker vs fuse.

83. What is primary and back up protection?

Ans: Primary Protection
The main protection or primary protection is the first line protection which provides
quick-acting and selective clearing of a fault within the boundary of the circuit
section or element it protects. The main protection is provided in each section of an
electrical installation.
Backup Protection
The backup protection provides the back up to the main protection whenever it fails
in operation or its cut out for repairs. The backup protection is essential for the
proper working of the electrical system. The backup protection is the second line of
defense which isolates the faulty section of the system in case the main protection
fails to function properly. The failure of the primary protection occurs because of
the failure of the DC supply circuit, current or voltage supply to relay circuit, relay
protective circuit or because of the circuit breaker.
The backup protection may be provided either on the same circuit breaker which
would be normally opened by the main protection or in the different circuit breaker.
The backup protection is mainly used where the main protection of the adjacent
circuit is unable to back up the main protection of the given circuit. Sometimes for
simplification, the backup protection has a low sensitivity and operated over a
limited backup zone.
Example: Consider the remote backup protection is provided by a small time graded
relay, as shown in the figure below. Let F be the fault occur on relay R4. The relay
R4 operates the circuit breaker at D and isolate the faulty section. Now if the circuit
breaker D fails to operate, the faulty section would be isolated by the operation of
the relay R3 at C.

The use of the backup protection depends on the economics and technical
consideration. The backup protection usually for the economic reason not so fast as
the main protection.
84. How many times the fault current is normally set for full load current?
Ans: The fault current contribution from motors in the system is important. In many
cases motors can contribute four to six times there normal full load current. Even if
the current is for a very short duration, it is critical that it be included in the fault
current calculation.

85. What is the cause of transmission line fault?

Ans: Causes of Electrical Faults
Weather conditions: It includes lighting strikes, heavy rains, heavy winds, salt
deposition on overhead lines and conductors, snow and ice accumulation on
transmission lines, etc. These environmental conditions interrupt the power supply
and also damage electrical installations.
Equipment failures: Various electrical equipments like generators, motors,
transformers, reactors, switching devices, etc causes short circuit faults due to
malfunctioning, ageing, insulation failure of cables and winding. These failures result
in high current to flow through the devices or equipment which further damages it.
Human errors: Electrical faults are also caused due to human errors such as selecting
improper rating of equipment or devices, forgetting metallic or electrical conducting
parts after servicing or maintenance, switching the circuit while it is under servicing,
etc.
Smoke of fires: Ionization of air, due to smoke particles, surrounding the overhead
lines results in spark between the lines or between conductors to insulator. This
flashover causes insulators to lose their insulting capacity due to high voltages.

86. What is busbar protection? Describe some busbar protection scheme.

Ans: Busbar protection is a protection scheme meant to protect the busbar
from electrical fault. Various feeders are connected to a busbar through circuit
breaker in any of the bus configuration viz. Double Busbar arrangement or one and
half breaker scheme. The main purpose of this busbar is to increase the reliability of
power system by maintain the evacuation of power in case of tripping of any feeder
due to fault. Let us understand this in detail.
Figure below depicts a single bus to which four feeders are connected. Feeder-1 is
generator feeder. This means that the generator power is evacuated by remaining
three feeders i.e. Feeder-2,3&4. In case there occurs any fault in any feeder (say in
Feeder-2), the respective breaker CB-2 will trip. Under this case, the generator
power will be evacuated through busbar by Feeder-3&4. Thus the generator will
remain stable. But if it happen so that all the feeders i.e. 2,3&4 trips, the generated
power will not be evacuated. In this case, the station will either run on house load
or will trip its generator. Thus it is clear from above discussion that, busbar
arrangement improves the reliability of system.
Let us now focus on busbar protection. Suppose there occurs a fault in the bus as
shown in figure below.

To protect the bus from faults, it is mandatory to disconnect it from all the power
sources as soon as possible. This means that, breaker CB-1, 2, 3 & 4 must open
during actuation of busbar protection. You might think that only CB-1 should open.
But actually it is not so. Since all the feeders-2, 3 & 4 are connected to Grid, they
may feed fault as Grid is an immense source of power. Thus to summarize, all the
connected feeders to the bus must open on actuation of busbar protection. The
functional requirement of busbar protection is to iolate the busbar in case of bus
fault. Busbar protection is thus very important as it leads to disconnection of all
connected feeders.
Busbar Protection Scheme or How Busbar Protection Works?
Busbar protection scheme incorporates busbar differential relay (87) which may
either be high impedance or low impedance differential relay. When high
impedance differential relay is used, it is called High Impedance Busbar protection.
Similarly, when low impedance differential relay is used, it is called low impedance
busbar protection. Anyhow, differential relay is used to detect the bus fault.
Let us consider one and half breaker scheme to understand busbar protection. In
one and half breaker scheme, there are two main buses: Bus-1 and Bus-2. Two
feeders are connected to the bus through two main CBs and one tie CB as shown in
figure below. In the figure below, CB-1A & CB-1B are main breaker and CB-1C is tie
breaker.
Two feeders 1 and 4 are connected to Bus-1 and Bus-2 respectively. Thus in this
breaker arrangement, two different busbar protection are to be implemented to
protect Bus-1 and Bus-2. The protection adopted to protect Bus-1 is called the Zone-
1 BB protection and that meant for Bus-2 is called Zone-2 busbar protection. The
protection scheme for Zone-1 and Zone-2 are identical in all respect. Therefore for
better understanding, we will only focus on Zone-1 BB protection.
If you carefully observe the above bus arrangement, you will notice that two CT
cores are provided just after CB-1A. Each of the CT secondary cores is connected
together in parallel and to the relay in high impedance differential scheme as shown
in figure below.

Care must be taken of CT polarity while connecting the secondary in parallel

otherwise the relay will operate under normal condition.

87. Why are conductors bundled? What if not? How to reduce Proximity Effect?
Ans: Bundled conductors are primarily employed to reduce the corona loss and radio
interference. However they have several advantages:
• Bundled conductors per phase reduces the voltage gradient in the vicinity of
the line. Thus reduces the possibility of the corona discharge. (Corona effect
will be observed when the air medium present between the phases charged
up and start to ionize and acts as a conducting medium. This is avoided by
employing bundled conductors)
• Improvement in the transmission efficiency as loss due to corona effect is
countered.
 • Bundled conductor lines will have higher capacitance to neutral
in comparison with single lines. Thus they will have higher charging currents
which helps in improving the power factor.
• Bundled conductor lines will have higher capacitance and lower inductance
than ordinary lines they will have higher Surge Impedance
Loading (Z=(L/C)1/2). Higher Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) will have higher
maximum power transfer ability.
• With increase in self GMD or GMR inductance per phase will be reduced
compared to single conductor line. This results in lesser reactance per phase
compared to ordinary single line. Hence lesser loss due to reactance drop.

It is possible to reduce the proximity effect by reducing the size of the conductor
and the frequency and by increasing the voltage and space between conductors.

88. How harmonic current is injected into the transmission line?

Ans: Harmonics are distorted electrical waveforms that introduce inefficiencies into
your electrical system. They produce wasteful heat and can cause plant issues and
fees from your local power company.
Harmonic frequencies flow into the electrical system as a result of nonlinear
electronic switching devices, such as variable frequency drives (VFDs), computer
power supplies and energy-efficient lighting. Similarly, companies with heavy
motor, VFD and lighting loads need to be aware of the problems that harmonics can
cause.
These problems include:
• Increased electrical usage
• Increased wear and tear on motors/equipment
• Higher maintenance costs
• Power quality problems upstream and downstream
• Utility penalties for introducing problems to the power grid
Harmonics are the result of nonlinear loads that convert AC line voltage to
DC. Harmonics flow into the electrical system because of nonlinear electronic
switching devices, such as variable frequency drives (VFDs), computer power
supplies and energy-efficient lighting.
The general categories of harmonic producing loads (also called nonlinear loads) are:
• Power electronic equipment VFDs, electronically commutated (EC) motors,
rectifiers, computers, LED lights, EV chargers, etc.)
• Arcing devices (welders, arc furnaces, fluorescent lights, etc.)
 • Iron saturating devices (transformers)
Today, the most prevalent and growing harmonic sources are:
• VFD’s, EC motors, battery chargers and EV chargers
• Computer power supplies and other electronics
• LED and fluorescent lighting

89. What to do to keep the frequency stable?

Ans: Frequency variations in a power system occur because of an imbalance
between generation and load. When the frequency value of a power system reaches
the emergency condition, the control strategy is initiated.

National Grid instructing flexible generators to either increase or decrease

generation so electricity supply is matched exactly to demand. If this is unbalanced
it affects the network’s frequency and lead to instability and equipment damage.
Generators are set up to respond automatically to these request, correcting
frequency deviations in seconds.

90. What is critical disruptive voltage? What is transient voltage, sub transient
voltage?

Ans: Critical disruptive voltage is defined as the minimum phase-to-neutral voltage

at which corona occurs.

The concept of Subtransient, Transient and Steady State arises in case of fault in an
Alternator. Let us assume a sudden short circuit in three phase of alternator. The
fault current will flow in all the three phases of alternator and its waveform will be
as shown in figure below.
When the alternator is short-circuited, the currents in all the three-phases rise
rapidly to a high value of about 10 to 18 times of full load current, during the first
quarter cycle. The flux crossing the air gap is large during a first couple of cycles. The
reactance during these first two or three cycle is least and the short circuit current
is high. This reactance is called subtransient reactance and is denoted by X”. The first
few cycles come under sub-transient state.

After a first few cycles, the decrement in the r.m.s. value of short circuit current is
less rapid than the decrements during the first few cycles. This state is called the
Transient State and the reactance in this state is called transient reactance X’.
The circuit breaker contacts separate in the transient state.
Finally the transient dies out and the current reaches a steady sinusoidal state called
the Steady State. The reactance in this state is called steady state reactance Xd. Since
the short circuit current of the alternator lags behind the voltage by 90 degree, the
reactance involved are direct axis reactance.
As clear from the figure above, the d.c. components in the three phases are
different; hence the waveforms of the three phases are not identical. If voltage of
phase, say, Y, is maximum at the instant of short circuit, the DC component of short
circuit current is zero. Hence the waveform is symmetrical as shown in figure below.
The currents and reactance are given by the following expressions,

Where
I = Steady state current, r.m.s. value
I’ = Transient current, r.m.s. value
I” = Sub-transient current, r.m.s. value
Ea = Induced e.m.f. per phase
Xd = Direct axis synchronous reactance
Xd’ = Direct axis transient reactance
Xd” = Direct axis sub-transient reactance
As the short circuit occurs, the short-circuit current attains high value. The circuit
breaker contact starts separating after the operation of the protective relay. The
contacts of the circuit breaker separate during ‘transient state.’ The r.m.s. value of
the current at the instant of the contact separation is called the breaking current of
the circuit-breaker and is expressed in kA.
If a circuit-breaker closes on existing fault, the current would increase to a high value
during the first, half cycle. The highest peak value of the current is reached during
the peak of the first current loop. This peak value is called making current of the
circuit breaker and is expressed in kA. This is the reason making current of Circuit
Breaker is higher than the Breaking Current.

91. What is circuit breaker making current? What is auto recloser?

Ans: The making current of the circuit breaker is the maximum peak value of the
current that the breaker can interrupt without any damage if the breaker is closed
at fault.

The term auto-reclosing in transmission lines refers to the automatic reclosing of

breaker contacts after momentary isolation of the system from the fault. Generally,
the faults on the transmission lines are categorized into three types namely
transient, semi-permanent and permanent faults.
It has been found that about 70% to 80% of the faults occurring on the overhead
transmission lines are temporary faults (transient and semi-permanent faults) which
are of a short duration of time. Thus by implementing an automatic reclosing
mechanism for breakers, the longer duration of outages due to temporary faults can
be overcome. Successful auto-reclosing can enhance stability margins and overall
system stability.
Types of auto reclosing:
• Single Shot Auto-reclosing
• Multi-Shot Auto-reclosing
• Single-phase Auto-reclosing
• Three-phase Auto-reclosing
• Delayed Auto-reclosing
Advantages of Auto-recloser:
 • Auto-reclosing circuit breakers enhance the stability margins.
• They improve the system's reliability.
• In the transmission system with automatic reclosing circuit breakers, there is
no need for an operator to reclose the circuit breaker contacts manually for
temporary and semi-permanent faults.
• It reduces the unnecessary long-duration outages due to temporary faults.
• It provides a greater advantage in remote locations by eliminating the
frequent need for an operator which is difficult in the case of remote locations
for reclosing circuit breakers for temporary or semi-permanent faults.
• In the case of radial feeders where the continuity of supply is difficult to
maintain under fault conditions can be reduced.
Limitations of Auto-recloser:
• An Auto-recloser circuit breaker is not suitable for permanent faults since the
fault exists even after reclosing the circuit a number of times.
• Auto-recloser gets locked after pre-defined trips. This condition is called a
reclose lockout. In order to unlock auto reclose, a manual reset is to be done
by service personnel. Auto-recloser goes into the lock-out stage after 4 trips
and this has been standardized by the manufacture.
• The defective auto-recloser element may affect the whole function of auto-
recloses.

92. What is Slack Bus?

Ans:
93. What is the difference between electrical and electronics equipment?
Ans:

94. What is passband?

Ans: A passband is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through
a filter. For example, a radio receiver contains a bandpass filter to select the
frequency of the desired radio signal out of all the radio waves picked up by its
antenna. The passband of a receiver is the range of frequencies it can receive when
it is tuned into the desired frequency (channel).

95. What Kind of Hinging Principle Does a Microwave Oven Use?

Ans: Microwave ovens work on the principle of conversion of electromagnetic
energy into thermal energy.
96. What is Buck Boost Converter?
Ans: The buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output
voltage magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage
magnitude.
A buck-boost converter is commonly used to create a constant DC output voltage
from a variable DC input voltage source.
Buck converters are mostly used for USB on the go, point of load converters for PCs
and laptops, Battery Chargers, Quad Copters, Solar Chargers, and power audio
amplifiers.
Irregularity on light intensity leads to deviation of voltage output produced by the
solar panel. With the use of buck-boost converters, the amount of output voltage
may be set to higher or lower than the input voltage, enabling us to maintain the
desired output voltage. The amount of output voltage produced is controlled by a
microcontroller program which regulates pulse widths produced by PWM signals.

97. Discuss PWM.

Ans: Pulse width modulation reduces the average power delivered by an electrical
signal by converting the signal into discrete parts. In the PWM technique, the signal’s
energy is distributed through a series of pulses rather than a continuously varying
(analogue) signal.
Applications of Pulse Width Modulation
Due to the high efficiency, low power loss, and the PWM technique’s ability to
precisely control the power, the technique is used in a variety of power applications.
Some of the applications of PWM are as follows:
• The pulse width modulation technique is used in telecommunication for
encoding purposes.
• The PWM helps in voltage regulation and therefore is used to control the
speed of motors.
• The PWM technique controls the fan inside a CPU of the computer, thereby
successfully dissipating the heat.
• PWM is used in Audio/Video Amplifiers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Pulse Width Modulation
First, let us talk about the advantages of the pulse width modulation technique
before discussing its disadvantages:
• PWM technique prevents overheating of LED while maintaining its brightness.
• PWM technique is accurate and has a fast response time.
• PWM technique provides a high input power factor.
 • PWM technique helps motors generate maximum torque even when they run
at lower speeds.
The above were some of the advantages of the Pulse width modulation technique,
now let us look at some of the disadvantages:
• As the PWM frequency is high, switching losses are considerably high.
• It induces Radio Frequency Interference (RFI).

98. What is modulation and demodulation? What is encoder and decoder? What is
pseudo random noise?

Ans: In modulation, the message signal is added on a carrier wave for

transmission. In demodulation, the message is separated from the carrier signal.
The baseband signals transmitted by the sender are not capable of direct
transmission. The strength of the message signal should be increased so that it can
travel longer distances. This is where modulation is essential.

The PRN code, as far as I understand it, acts as an Identifier for each GPS Satellite.
GPS is a 'receive only' system, which is based on the measurement of time between
the receiver (your GPS unit) and the Satellite. That's all good, but if your receiver
doesn't know from which satellite it is receiving a signal, the information would be
useless. Therefore, the receiver is always aware of where the satellites should be via
a built-in almanac. That almanac also contains the identifier for each satellite, the
PRN code.
The PRN code in itself is a sort of white noise randomly generated by the satellite.
Only it's not random, if you 'listen' to it long enough (i.e. you compare it bit for bit)
you would see a pattern - The actual data amount sent is as large as 700+ gb and
only repeats once a week. And it is that pattern that is recognized by your receiver
and lets you lock on to the satellite.
99. What are sampling, quantization and cross- talk?
Ans: The process of converting continuous time signals into equivalent discrete time
signals, can be termed as Sampling.

Quantization is the process of mapping continuous infinite values to a smaller set of

discrete finite values.

Crosstalk is a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields of one

telecommunication signal affecting a signal in an adjacent circuit.
Crosstalk occurs when a signal transmitted on one copper twisted pair in a bundle
radiates and potentially interferes with and degrades the transmission on another
pair.
100. Application of Amplifier.
Ans:
• it is used to amplify the audio signals (speaker, VHF, PA system Ship horn)
• It is used as a voltage and current regulator
• It is used as an analogue to digital converter & vice versa
• It is used as a servo amplifier in motor
• The output signal from the amplifier is supplied to a relay in a circuit
• It is used in Gyrocompass
• It is used in the Engine room, deck and other alarms
• It is used in various Sensors
• It is used in electrical protection systems