Ebook Chemistry 10Th Edition Zumdahl Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Chemistry 10th Edition Zumdahl
Solutions Manual
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://testbankdeal.com/download/chemistry-10th-edition-zumdahl-solutions-manual/
CHAPTER 10
LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
Questions
14. Since the boiling point of water is less than the boiling point of C25H52, the nonpolar
hydrocarbon has the stronger intermolecular forces. Because C25H52 is a nonpolar compound,
it only exhibits London dispersion forces. We generally consider these forces to be weak.
However, with compounds that have large molar masses such as C25H52, these London
dispersion forces add up significantly and can overtake the relatively strong hydrogen-
bonding interactions in water. This is the case here.
15. Answer a is correct. Intermolecular forces are the forces between molecules that hold the
substances together in the solid and liquid phases. Hydrogen bonding is a specific type of
intermolecular forces. In this figure, the dotted lines represent the hydrogen bonding
interactions that hold individual H2O molecules together in the solid and liquid phases. The
solid lines represent the O−H covalent bonds.
16. Hydrogen bonding occurs when hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to highly
electronegative atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. Because the electronegativity
difference between hydrogen and these highly electronegative atoms is relatively large, the
N−H, O−H, and F−H bonds are very polar covalent bonds. This leads to strong dipole forces.
Also, the small size of the hydrogen atom allows the dipoles to approach each other more
closely than can occur between most polar molecules. Both of these factors make hydrogen
bonding a special type of dipole interaction.
17. Ideal gas molecules are assumed to exhibit no intermolecular forces and are assumed to be
volumeless. Real gases deviate from ideal gas behavior because real gases do exhibit
intermolecular forces and real gas molecules do have a volume. Between two gases, the gas
with the weaker intermolecular forces and the smaller size should behave more ideally at
some conditions. Both N2 and CO have similar size (molar mass), but the nonpolar N2
molecules only exhibit London dispersion forces while the polar CO molecules exhibit
additional dipole force. N2 will have the weaker intermolecular forces and should behave
more ideally than CO.
18. Doping silicon involves the replacing of a small fraction of the silicon atoms with other
atoms. These other atoms (dopants) either add electrons at an energy near that of the
conduction band in silicon (n-type) or creates holes (unfilled energy levels) at energies in the
previously filled molecular orbitals in silicon (p-type). Both n-type and p-type
semiconductors increase conductivity by creating an easier path for electrons to jump from
filled to unfilled energy levels.
19. Atoms have an approximately spherical shape (on average). It is impossible to pack spheres
together without some empty space among the spheres.
365
366 CHAPTER 10 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
20. Critical temperature: The temperature above which a liquid cannot exist; i.e., the gas cannot
be liquefied by increased pressure.
Critical pressure: The pressure that must be applied to a substance at its critical temperature
to produce a liquid.
The kinetic energy distribution changes as one raises the temperature (T4 > Tc > T3 > T2 >
T1). At the critical temperature Tc, all molecules have kinetic energies greater than the
intermolecular forces F, and a liquid can't form. Note: The various temperature distributions
shown in the plot are not to scale. The area under each temperature distribution should be
equal to each other (area = total number of molecules).
21. An alloy is a substance that contains a mixture of elements and has metallic properties. In a
substitutional alloy, some of the host metal atoms are replaced by other metal atoms of
similar size, e.g., brass, pewter, plumber’s solder. An interstitial alloy is formed when some
of the interstices (holes) in the closest packed metal structure are occupied by smaller atoms,
e.g., carbon steels.
22. Equilibrium: There is no change in composition; the vapor pressure is constant.
Dynamic: Two processes, vapor → liquid and liquid → vapor, are both occurring but with
equal rates, so the composition of the vapor is constant.
23. a. As the strength of the intermolecular forces increase, the rate of evaporation decreases.
b. As temperature increases, the rate of evaporation increases.
c. As surface area increases, the rate of evaporation increases.
24. H2O(l) → H2O(g) ∆H° = 44 kJ/mol; the vaporization of water is an endothermic process.
In order to evaporate, water must absorb heat from the surroundings. In this case, part of the
surroundings is our body. So, as water evaporates, our body supplies heat, and as a result,
our body temperature can cool down. From Le Châtelier’s principle, the less water vapor in
the air, the more favorable the evaporation process. Thus the less humid the surroundings,
the more favorably water converts into vapor, and the more heat that is lost by our bodies.
25. C2H5OH(l) → C2H5OH(g) is an endothermic process. Heat is absorbed when liquid ethanol
vaporizes; the internal heat from the body provides this heat, which results in the cooling of
the body.
26. The phase change H2O(g) → H2O(l) releases heat that can cause additional damage. Also,
steam can be at a temperature greater than 100°C.
CHAPTER 10 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 367
27. Sublimation will occur, allowing water to escape as H2O(g).
28. Water boils when the vapor pressure equals the external pressure. Because the external
pressure is significantly lower at high altitudes, a lower temperature is required to equalize
the vapor pressure of water to the external pressure. Thus food cooked in boiling water at
high elevations cooks at a lower temperature, so it takes longer.
29. The strength of intermolecular forces determines relative boiling points. The types of
intermolecular forces for covalent compounds are London dispersion forces, dipole forces,
and hydrogen bonding. Because the three compounds are assumed to have similar molar mass
and shape, the strength of the London dispersion forces will be about equal among the three
compounds. One of the compounds will be nonpolar, so it only has London dispersion forces.
The other two compounds will be polar, so they have additional dipole forces and will boil at
a higher temperature than the nonpolar compound. One of the polar compounds will have an
H covalently bonded to either N, O, or F. This gives rise to the strongest type of covalent
intermolecular forces, hydrogen bonding. The compound that hydrogen bonds will have the
highest boiling point, whereas the polar compound with no hydrogen bonding will boil at a
temperature in the middle of the other compounds.
30. a. Both forms of carbon are network solids. In diamond, each carbon atom is surrounded by
a tetrahedral arrangement of other carbon atoms to form a huge molecule. Each carbon
atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms.
The structure of graphite is based on layers of carbon atoms arranged in fused six-
membered rings. Each carbon atom in a particular layer of graphite is surrounded by
three other carbons in a trigonal planar arrangement. This requires sp2 hybridization.
Each carbon has an unhybridized p atomic orbital; all of these p orbitals in each six-
membered ring overlap with each other to form a delocalized π electron system.
b. Silica is a network solid having an empirical formula of SiO2. The silicon atoms are
singly bonded to four oxygens. Each silicon atom is at the center of a tetrahedral
arrangement of oxygen atoms that are shared with other silicon atoms. The structure of
silica is based on a network of SiO4 tetrahedra with shared oxygen atoms rather than
discrete SiO2 molecules.
Silicates closely resemble silica. The structure is based on interconnected SiO4 tetrahedra.
However, in contrast to silica, where the O/Si ratio is 2 : 1, silicates have O/Si ratios
greater than 2 : 1 and contain silicon-oxygen anions. To form a neutral solid silicate,
metal cations are needed to balance the charge. In other words, silicates are salts
containing metal cations and polyatomic silicon-oxygen anions.
When silica is heated above its melting point and cooled rapidly, an amorphous
(disordered) solid called glass results. Glass more closely resembles a very viscous
solution than it does a crystalline solid. To affect the properties of glass, several different
additives are thrown into the mixture. Some of these additives are Na2CO3, B2O3, and
K2O, with each compound serving a specific purpose relating to the properties of glass.
31. a. Both CO2 and H2O are molecular solids. Both have an ordered array of the individual
molecules, with the molecular units occupying the lattice points. A difference within each
solid lattice is the strength of the intermolecular forces. CO2 is nonpolar and only exhibits
London dispersion forces. H2O exhibits the relatively strong hydrogen-bonding

interactions. The differences in strength is evidenced by the solid-phase changes that
occur at 1 atm. CO2(s) sublimes at a relatively low temperature of −78˚C. In sublimation,
all of the intermolecular forces are broken. However, H2O(s) doesn’t have a phase change
until 0˚C, and in this phase change from ice to water, only a fraction of the intermolecular
forces are broken. The higher temperature and the fact that only a portion of the
intermolecular forces are broken are attributed to the strength of the intermolecular forces
in H2O(s) as compared to CO2(s).
Related to the intermolecular forces are the relative densities of the solid and liquid
phases for these two compounds. CO2(s) is denser than CO2(l), whereas H2O(s) is less
dense than H2O(l). For CO2(s) and for most solids, the molecules pack together as close
as possible; hence solids are usually more dense than the liquid phase. H2O is an
exception to this. Water molecules are particularly well suited for hydrogen bonding
interaction with each other because each molecule has two polar O−H bonds and two
lone pairs on the oxygen. This can lead to the association of four hydrogen atoms with
each oxygen atom: two by covalent bonds and two by dipoles. To keep this arrangement
(which maximizes the hydrogen-bonding interactions), the H2O(s) molecules occupy
positions that create empty space in the lattice. This translates into a smaller density for
H2O(s) as compared to H2O(l).
b. Both NaCl and CsCl are ionic compounds with the anions at the lattice points of the unit
cells and the cations occupying the empty spaces created by anions (called holes). In
NaCl, the Cl− anions occupy the lattice points of a face-centered unit cell, with the Na+
cations occupying the octahedral holes. Octahedral holes are the empty spaces created by
six Cl− ions. CsCl has the Cl− ions at the lattice points of a simple cubic unit cell, with the
Cs+ cations occupying the middle of the cube.
32. Because silicon carbide is made from Group 4A elements, and because it is extremely hard,
one would expect SiC to form a covalent network structure similar to diamond.
33. Chalk is composed of the ionic compound calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The electrostatic
forces in ionic compounds are much stronger than the intermolecular forces in covalent
compounds. Therefore, CaCO3 should have a much higher boiling point than the covalent
compounds found in motor oil and in H2O. Motor oil is composed of nonpolar C−C and C−H
bonds. The intermolecular forces in motor oil are therefore London dispersion forces. We
generally consider these forces to be weak. However, with compounds that have large molar
masses, these London dispersion forces add up significantly and can overtake the relatively
strong hydrogen-bonding interactions in water.
34. The interparticle forces in ionic solids (the ionic bonds) are much stronger than the
interparticle forces in molecular solids (dipole forces, London forces, etc.). The difference in
intermolecular forces is most clearly shown in the huge difference in melting points between
ionic and molecular solids. Table salt and ordinary sugar are both crystalline solids at room
temperature that look very similar to each other. However, sugar can be melted easily in a
saucepan during the making of candy, whereas the full heat of a stove will not melt salt.
When a substance melts, some interparticle forces must be broken. Ionic solids (salt) require
a much larger amount of energy to break the interparticle forces as compared to the relatively
weak forces in molecular solids (sugar).
35. The mathematical equation that relates the vapor pressure of a substance to temperature is:
ΔH vap  1 
ln Pvap = −   +C
R T
y m x +b
This equation is in the form of the straight-line equation (y = mx + b) If one plots ln Pvap
versus 1/T with temperature in Kelvin, the slope (m) of the straight line is −∆Hvap/R. Because
∆Hvap is always positive, the slope of the straight line will be negative.
36. The typical phase diagram for a substance shows three phases and has a positive-sloping
solid-liquid equilibrium line (water is atypical). A sketch of the phase diagram for I2 would
look like this:
s
l
g
P 90
torr
115o C
T
Statements a and e are true. For statement a, the liquid phase is always more dense than the
gaseous phase (gases are mostly empty space). For statement e, because the triple point is at
90 torr, the liquid phase cannot exist at any pressure less than 90 torr, no matter what the
temperature. For statements b, c, and d, examine the phase diagram to prove to yourself that
they are false.
Exercises
Intermolecular Forces and Physical Properties

37. Ionic compounds have ionic forces. Covalent compounds all have London dispersion (LD)
forces, whereas polar covalent compounds have dipole forces and/or hydrogen bonding
forces. For hydrogen-bonding (H-bonding) forces, the covalent compound must have either a
N−H, O−H, or F−H bond in the molecule.
a. LD only b. dipole, LD c. H-bonding, LD
d. ionic e. LD only (CH4 is a nonpolar covalent compound.)
f. dipole, LD g. ionic
38. a. ionic b. dipole, LD (LD = London dispersion) c. LD only

d. LD only (For all practical purposes, a C ‒ H bond can be considered as a nonpolar

bond.)
e. ionic f. LD only g. H-bonding, LD
39. a. OCS; OCS is polar and has dipole-dipole forces in addition to London dispersion (LD)
forces. All polar molecules have dipole forces. CO2 is nonpolar and only has LD forces.
To predict polarity, draw the Lewis structure and deduce whether the individual bond
dipoles cancel.
b. SeO2; both SeO2 and SO2 are polar compounds, so they both have dipole forces as well
as LD forces. However, SeO2 is a larger molecule, so it would have stronger LD forces.
c. H2NCH2CH2NH2; more extensive hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) is possible because

two NH2 groups are present.
d. H2CO; H2CO is polar, whereas CH3CH3 is nonpolar. H2CO has dipole forces in addition
to LD forces. CH3CH3 only has LD forces.
e. CH3OH; CH3OH can form relatively strong H-bonding interactions, unlike H2CO.
40. Ar exists as individual atoms that are held together in the condensed phases by London
dispersion forces. The molecule that will have a boiling point closest to Ar will be a nonpolar
substance with about the same molar mass as Ar (39.95 g/mol); this same size nonpolar
substance will have about equivalent strength of London dispersion forces. Of the choices,
only Cl2 (70.90 g/mol) and F2 (38.00 g/mol) are nonpolar. Because F2 has a molar mass
closest to that of Ar, one would expect the boiling point of F2 to be close to that of Ar.
41. a. Ar and HCl have similar molar masses, so the London dispersion forces in each
substance should be about the same. However, HCl is a polar compound while Ar is
nonpolar. HCl has additional dipole forces so it boils at a higher temperature.
b. HF is capable of H-bonding; HCl is not.
c. LiCl is ionic, and HCl is a molecular solid with only dipole forces and LD forces. Ionic
forces are much stronger than the forces for molecular solids.
d. n-Hexane is a larger molecule, so it has stronger LD forces.
42. The electrostatic potential diagrams indicate that ethanol and acetone are polar substances,
and that propane is a nonpolar substance. Ethanol, with the O−H covalent bond, will exhibit
relatively strong hydrogen bonding intermolecular forces in addition to London dispersion
forces. The polar acetone will exhibit dipole forces in addition to London dispersion forces,
and the nonpolar propane will only exhibit London dispersion (LD) forces. Therefore,
ethanol (with the H-bonding capacity) should have the highest boiling point, with polar
acetone having the next highest boiling point, and the nonpolar propane, with the weakest
intermolecular forces, will have the lowest boiling point.
43. Boiling points and freezing points are assumed directly related to the strength of the
intermolecular forces, whereas vapor pressure is inversely related to the strength of the
intermolecular forces.
a. HBr; HBr is polar, whereas Kr and Cl2 are nonpolar. HBr has dipole forces unlike Kr and
Cl2. So HBr has the stronger intermolecular forces and the highest boiling point.
b. NaCl; the ionic forces in NaCl are much stronger than the intermolecular forces for
molecular substances, so NaCl has the highest melting point.
c. I2; all are nonpolar, so the largest molecule (I2) will have the strongest LD (London
Dispersion) forces and the lowest vapor pressure.
d. N2; nonpolar and smallest, so it has the weakest intermolecular forces.
e. CH4; smallest, nonpolar molecule, so it has the weakest LD forces.
f. HF; HF can form relatively strong H-bonding interactions, unlike the others.
g. CH3CH2CH2OH; H-bonding, unlike the others, so it has strongest intermolecular forces.
44. a. CBr4; largest of these nonpolar molecules, so it has the strongest LD (London
Dispersion) forces.
b. F2; ionic forces in LiF are much stronger than the molecular forces in F2 and HCl. HCl
has dipole forces, whereas the nonpolar F2 does not exhibit these. So F2 has the weakest
intermolecular forces and the lowest freezing point.
c. CH3CH2OH; can form H-bonding interactions, unlike the other covalent compounds.
d. H2O2; the H−O−O−H structure has twice the number of H-bonding sites as compared to
HF, so H2O2 has the stronger H-bonding interactions and the greatest viscosity.
e. H2CO; H2CO is polar, so it has dipole forces, unlike the other nonpolar covalent
compounds, so H2CO will have the highest enthalpy of vaporization.
f. I2; I2 has only LD forces, whereas CsBr and CaO have much stronger ionic forces. I2 has
the weakest intermolecular forces, so it has smallest ΔHfusion.
Properties of Liquids
45. The attraction of H2O for glass is stronger than the H2O‒H2O attraction. The meniscus is
concave to increase the area of contact between glass and H2O. The Hg‒Hg attraction is
greater than the Hg‒glass attraction. The meniscus is convex to minimize the Hg‒glass
contact.
46. Water is a polar substance, and wax is a nonpolar substance; they are not attracted to each
other. A molecule at the surface of a drop of water is subject to attractions only by water
molecules below it and to each side. The effect of this uneven pull on the surface water
molecules tends to draw them into the body of the water and causes the droplet to assume the
shape that has the minimum surface area, a sphere.
47. The structure of H2O2 is H‒O‒O‒H, which produces greater hydrogen bonding than in water.
Thus the intermolecular forces are stronger in H2O2 than in H2O, resulting in a higher normal
boiling point for H2O2 and a lower vapor pressure.
48. CO2 is a gas at room temperature. As melting point and boiling point increase, the strength of
the intermolecular forces also increases. Therefore, the strength of forces is CO2 < CS2 <
CSe2. From a structural standpoint, this is expected. All three are linear, nonpolar molecules.
Thus only London dispersion forces are present. Because the molecules increase in size from
CO2 < CS2 < CSe2, the strength of the intermolecular forces will increase in the same order.
Structures and Properties of Solids
nλ 1 × 154 pm
49. nλ = 2d sin θ, d = = = 313 pm = 3.13 × 10 −10 m
2 sin θ 2 × sin 14.22°
nλ 2 × 154 pm
50. d= = = 408 pm = 4.08 × 10 −10 m
2 sin θ 2 × sin 22.20°
2 d sin θ 2 × 1.36 × 10 −10 m × sin 15.0 o

51. λ= = = 7.04 × 10 −11 m = 0.704 Å = 70.4 pm
n 1
o
nλ 1 × 2.63 A
52. nλ = 2d sin θ, d = = = 4.91 Å = 4.91 × 10−10 m = 491 pm
2 sin θ 2 × sin 15.55o
o
nλ 2 × 2.63 A
sin θ = = o
= 0.536, θ = 32.4°
2d
2 × 4.91 A
53. A cubic closest packed structure has a face-centered cubic unit cell. In a face-centered cubic
unit, there are:
1 / 8 atom 1 / 2 atom
8 corners × + 6 faces × = 4 atoms
corner face
The atoms in a face-centered cubic unit cell touch along the face diagonal of the cubic unit
cell. Using the Pythagorean formula, where l = length of the face diagonal and r = radius of
the atom:
l2 + l2 = (4r)2
4r
l 2l2 = 16r2
l=r 8
l
l = r 8 = 197 × 10 −12 m × 8 = 5.57 × 10 −10 m = 5.57 × 10 −8 cm
Volume of a unit cell = l3 = (5.57 × 10 −8 cm)3 = 1.73 × 10 −22 cm3

1 mol Ca 40.08 g Ca
Mass of a unit cell = 4 Ca atoms × × = 2.662 × 10 −22 g Ca
6.022 × 10 23
atoms mol Ca
mass 2.662 × 10 −22 g

Density = = = 1.54 g/cm3
volume 1.73 × 10 − 22 cm 3
54. There are four Ni atoms in each unit cell. For a unit cell:
1 mol Ni 58.69 g Ni
4 Ni atoms × ×
mass 6.022 × 10 atoms
23 mol Ni
density = = 6.84 g/cm3 =
volume l3
Solving: l = 3.85 × 10 −8 cm = cube edge length
For a face-centered cube:
4r (4r)2 = l 2 + l 2 = 2l 2
l
r 8 = l, r = l / 8
r = 3.85 × 10 −8 cm / 8
r = 1.36 × 10 −8 cm = 136 pm
l
55. The unit cell for cubic closest packing is the face-centered unit cell. The volume of a unit cell
is:
V = l 3 = (492 × 10 −10 cm)3 = 1.19 × 10 −22 cm3
There are four Pb atoms in the unit cell, as is the case for all face-centered cubic unit cells.
The mass of atoms in a unit cell is:

1 mol Pb 207.2 g Pb
mass = 4 Pb atoms × × = 1.38 × 10 −21 g
6.022 × 10 23
atoms mol Pb
mass 1.38 × 10 −21 g

volume 1.19 × 10 − 22 cm 3
From Exercise 53, the relationship between the cube edge length l and the radius r of an atom
in a face-centered unit cell is l = r 8 .
l 492 pm
r= = = 174 pm = 1.74 × 10 −10 m
8 8
56. In simple cubic unit cell, there are:
8 corner atoms × 1/8 atom per corner = 1 atom/unit cell
The volume of the unit cell is l3 where l = cube edge length. For a unit cell of polonium:
1 mol Po 209 g Po
1 Po atom × ×
mass 6.022 × 10 23 atoms mol Po
density = = 9.2 g/cm3 = 3
volume l
Solving: l = 3.35 × 10 −8 cm = cube edge length (carrying an extra sig. fig.)
In a simple cubic unit cell, the atoms touch along the cube edge l:
2(radius) = 2r = l
2r l 2r = 3.35 × 10 −8 cm
r = 1.7 × 10 −8 cm
57. A face-centered cubic unit cell contains four atoms. For a unit cell:
mass of X = volume × density = (4.09 × 10 −8 cm)3 × 10.5 g/cm3 = 7.18 × 10 −22 g

1 mol X
mol X = 4 atoms X × = 6.642 × 10 −24 mol X
6.022 × 10 23 atoms
7.18 × 10 −22 g X
Molar mass = = 108 g/mol; the metal is silver (Ag).
6.642 × 10 − 24 mol X
58. For a face-centered unit cell, the radius r of an atom is related to the length of a cube edge l
by the equation l = r 8 (see Exercise 53).
Radius = r = l / 8 = 392 × 10−12 m / 8 = 1.39 × 10−10 m = 1.39 × 10−8 cm
The volume of a unit cell is l3, so the mass of the unknown metal (X) in a unit cell is:
21.45 g X
volume × density = (3.92 × 10−8 cm)3 × = 1.29 × 10−21 g X
cm 3
Because each face-centered unit cell contains four atoms of X:
1 mol X
mol X in unit cell = 4 atoms X × = 6.642 × 10−24 mol X
6.022 × 10 23 atoms X
Therefore, each unit cell contains 1.29 × 10−21 g X, which is equal to 6.642 × 10−24 mol X.
The molar mass of X is:

1.29 × 10 −21 g X
= 194 g/mol
6.642 × 10 − 24 mol X
The atomic mass would be 194 u. From the periodic table, the best choice for the metal is
platinum.
1 / 8 Ti
59. For a body-centered unit cell, 8 corners × + Ti at body center = 2 Ti atoms.
corner
All body-centered unit cells have two atoms per unit cell. For a unit cell where l = cube edge
length:
1 mol Ti 47.88 g Ti
2 atoms Ti × ×
6.022 × 10 atoms
23 mol Ti
density = 4.50 g/cm3 = 3
l
Solving: l = edge length of unit cell = 3.28 × 10 −8 cm = 328 pm
Assume Ti atoms just touch along the body diagonal of the cube, so body diagonal =
4 × radius of atoms = 4r.
The triangle we need to solve is:
4r
l 3.28 x 10 -8 cm
l √2
(3.28 x 10 -8cm) √ 2
(4r)2 = (3.28 × 10 −8 cm)2 + [(3.28 × 10 −8 cm) 2 ]2, r = 1.42 × 10 −8 cm = 142 pm
For a body-centered unit cell (bcc), the radius of the atom is related to the cube edge length
by: 4r = l 3 or l = 4r/ 3 .
60. From Exercise 59:
16r2 = l2 + 2l2
4r l = 4r/ 3 = 2.309 r
l
l = 2.309(222 pm) = 513 pm = 5.13 × 10−8 cm

l√ 2
In a body-centered cubic unit cell, there are two atoms per unit cell. For a unit cell:
1 mol Ba 137.3 g Ba
2 atoms Ba × ×
23
mol Ba 3.38 g
density = = −8
=
volume (5.13 × 10 cm) 3
cm 3
61. If gold has a face-centered cubic structure, then there are four atoms per unit cell, and from
Exercise 53:
2l2 = 16r2
4r
l l = r 8 = (144 pm) 8 = 407 pm
l = 407 × 10−12 m = 4.07 × 10−8 cm
1 mol Au 197.0 g Au
4 atoms Au × ×
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol Au
Density = −8
= 19.4 g/cm3
(4.07 × 10 cm) 3
If gold has a body-centered cubic structure, then there are two atoms per unit cell, and from
Exercise 59:
16r2 = l2 + 2l2
4r
l l = 4r/ 3 = 333 pm = 333 × 10−12 m
l = 333 × 10−10 cm = 3.33 × 10−8 cm

l√ 2
1 mol Au 197.0 g Au
2 atoms Au × ×
6.022 × 10 atoms
23
mol Au
Density = −8
= 17.7 g/cm3
(3.33 × 10 cm) 3
The measured density of gold is consistent with a face-centered cubic unit cell.
62. If face-centered cubic:
l = r 8 = (137 pm) 8 = 387 pm = 3.87 × 10 −8 cm

1 mol 183.9 g W
4 atoms W × ×
6.022 × 10 atoms
23 mol
density = = 21.1 g/cm3
(3.87 × 10 −8 cm) 3
If body-centered cubic:
4r 4 × 137 pm
l= = = 316 pm = 3.16 × 10 −8 cm
3 3
1 mol 183.9 g W
2 atoms W × ×
6.022 × 10 atoms
23 mol
density = −8
= 19.4 g/cm3
(3.16 × 10 cm) 3
The measured density of tungsten is consistent with a body-centered unit cell.
63. In a face-centered unit cell (a cubic closest packed structure), the atoms touch along the face
diagonal:
(4r)2 = l2 + l2
4r
l l=r 8
Vcube = l 3 = (r 8 )3 = (22.63)r3
There are four atoms in a face-centered cubic cell (see Exercise 53). Each atom has a volume
of (4/3)πr3 = volume of a sphere.
4
Vatoms = 4 × πr3 = (16.76)r3
3
Vatoms (16.76)r 3
So = = 0.7406, or 74.06% of the volume of each unit cell is occupied by
Vcube (22.63)r 3
atoms.
In a simple cubic unit cell, the atoms touch along the cube edge l:
2(radius) = 2r = l
2r l
Vcube = l3 = (2r)3 = 8r3
There is one atom per simple cubic cell (8 corner atoms × 1/8 atom per corner = 1 atom/unit
cell). Each atom has an assumed volume of (4/3)πr3 = volume of a sphere.
4
Vatom = πr3 = (4.189)r3
3
Vatom (4.189)r 3
So = = 0.5236, or 52.36% of the volume of each unit cell is occupied by
Vcube 8r 3
atoms.
A cubic closest packed structure (face-centered cubic unit cell) packs the atoms much more
efficiently than a simple cubic structure.
64. From Exercise 59, a body-centered unit cell contains two net atoms, and the length of a cube
edge l is related to the radius of the atom r by the equation l = 4r/ 3 .
Volume of unit cell = l3 = (4r/ 3 )3 = (12.32)r3

4
Volume of atoms in unit cell = 2 × πr3 = (8.378)r3
3
Vatoms (8.378)r 3
So = = 0.6800 = 68.00% occupied
Vcube (12.32)r 3
To determine the radius of the Fe atoms, we need to determine the cube edge length l.
 1 mol Fe 55.85 g Fe  1 cm 3
Volume of unit cell =  2 Fe atoms × ×
 × 23 mol Fe  × 7.86 g
 6.022 10 atoms 
= 2.36 × 10 −23 cm3
Volume = l3 = 2.36 × 10 −23 cm3, l = 2.87 × 10 −8 cm
l = 4r/ 3 , r = l 3 / 4 = 2.87 × 10 −8 cm × 3 / 4 = 1.24 × 10 −8 cm = 124 pm
65. Doping silicon with phosphorus produces an n-type semiconductor. The phosphorus adds
electrons at energies near the conduction band of silicon. Electrons do not need as much
energy to move from filled to unfilled energy levels, so conduction increases. Doping silicon
with gallium produces a p-type semiconductor. Because gallium has fewer valence electrons
than silicon, holes (unfilled energy levels) at energies in the previously filled molecular
orbitals are created, which induces greater electron movement (greater conductivity).
66. A rectifier is a device that produces a current that flows in one direction from an alternating
current that flows in both directions. In a p-n junction, a p-type and an n-type semiconductor
are connected. The natural flow of electrons in a p-n junction is for the excess electrons in the
n-type semiconductor to move to the empty energy levels (holes) of the p-type
semiconductor. Only when an external electric potential is connected so that electrons flow in
this natural direction will the current flow easily (forward bias). If the external electric
potential is connected in reverse of the natural flow of electrons, no current flows through the
system (reverse bias). A p-n junction only transmits a current under forward bias, thus
converting the alternating current to direct current.
67. In has fewer valence electrons than Se. Thus Se doped with In would be a p-type
semiconductor.
68. To make a p-type semiconductor, we need to dope the material with atoms that have fewer
valence electrons. The average number of valence electrons is four when 50-50 mixtures of
Group 3A and Group 5A elements are considered. We could dope with more of the Group 3A
element or with atoms of Zn or Cd. Cadmium is the most common impurity used to produce
p-type GaAs semiconductors. To make an n-type GaAs semiconductor, dope with an excess
Group 5A element or dope with a Group 6A element such as sulfur.
69. Egap = 2.5 eV × 1.6 × 10 −19 J/eV = 4.0 × 10 −19 J; we want Egap = Elight = hc/λ, so:
hc (6.63 × 10 −34 J s) (3.00 × 10 8 m/s)

λ = = −19
= 5.0 × 10 −7 m = 5.0 × 102 nm
E 4.0 × 10 J
hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J s) (2.998 × 10 8 m/s)

70. E= = = 2.72 × 10 −19 J = energy of band gap
λ 730. × 10 m −9
1 / 8 Cl − 1 / 2 Cl −
71. Sodium chloride structure: 8 corners × + 6 faces × = 4 Cl− ions
corner face
1 / 4 Na +
12 edges × + 1 Na+ at body center = 4 Na+ ions; NaCl is the formula.
edge
1 / 8 Cl −
Cesium chloride structure: 1 Cs+ ion at body center; 8 corners × = 1 Cl− ion
corner
CsCl is the formula.
Zinc sulfide structure: There are four Zn2+ ions inside the cube.
1 / 8 S2− 1 / 2 S2−
8 corners × + 6 faces × = 4 S2− ions; ZnS is the formula.
corner face
1 / 8 Ti 4+
Titanium oxide structure: 8 corners × + 1 Ti4+ at body center = 2 Ti4+ ions
corner
1/2 O 2−
4 faces × + 2 O2− inside cube = 4 O2− ions; TiO2 is the formula.
face
1 / 8 Ni 1 / 4 Ni
72. Both As ions are inside the unit cell. 8 corners × + 4 edges × = 2 Ni ions
corner edge
The unit cell contains 2 ions of Ni and 2 ions of As, which gives a formula of NiAs. We
would expect As to form 3− charged ions when in ionic compounds, so Ni exists as 3+
charged ions in this compound.
73. There is one octahedral hole per closest packed anion in a closest packed structure. If one-
half of the octahedral holes are filled, then there is a 2 : 1 ratio of fluoride ions to cobalt ions
in the crystal. The formula is CoF2, which is composed of Co2+ and F− ions.
74. There are two tetrahedral holes per closest packed anion. Let f = fraction of tetrahedral holes
filled by the cations.
2 2f
Na2O: Cation-to-anion ratio = = , f = 1; all the tetrahedral holes are filled by Na+
1 1
cations.
1 2f 1
CdS: Cation-to-anion ratio = = , f = ; one-half the tetrahedral holes are filled by
1 1 2
Cd2+ cations.
1 2f 1
ZrI4: Cation-to-anion ratio = = , f = ; one-eighth the tetrahedral holes are filled
4 1 8
by Zr4+ cations.
75. In a cubic closest packed array of anions, there are twice the number of tetrahedral holes as
anions present, and an equal number of octahedral holes as anions present. A cubic closest
packed array of sulfide ions will have four S2− ions, eight tetrahedral holes, and four
octahedral holes. In this structure we have 1/8(8) = 1 Zn2+ ion and 1/2(4) = 2 Al3+ ions
present, along with the 4 S2− ions. The formula is ZnAl2S4.
76. A repeating pattern in the two-dimensional structure is:
Assuming the anions A are the larger circles, there are four anions completely in this
repeating square. The corner cations (smaller circles) are shared by four different repeating
squares. Therefore, there is one cation in the middle of the square plus 1/4 (4) = 1 net cation
from the corners. Each repeating square has two cations and four anions. The empirical
formula is MA2.
77. 8 F− ions at corners × 1/8 F−/corner = 1 F− ion per unit cell; Because there is one cubic hole
per cubic unit cell, there is a 2 : 1 ratio of F− ions to metal ions in the crystal if only half of
the body centers are filled with the metal ions. The formula is MF2, where M2+ is the metal
ion.
78. Corners are shared by 8 cubic unit cells and edges are shared by 4 unit cells. Re ions at 8
corners: 8(1/8) = 1 Re ion; O ions at 12 edges: 12(1/4) = 3 O ions; the formula is ReO3.
Assuming the oxygen ion is a −2 charge, then the charge on Re is +3.
79. From Figure 10.36, MgO has the NaCl structure containing 4 Mg2+ ions and 4 O2− ions per
face-centered unit cell.
1 mol MgO 40.31 g MgO
4 MgO formula units × × = 2.678 × 10 −22 g MgO
6.022 × 10 23
atoms 1 mol MgO
1 cm 3
Volume of unit cell = 2.678 × 10 −22 g MgO × = 7.48 × 10 −23 cm3
3.58 g
Volume of unit cell = l3, l = cube edge length; l = (7.48 × 10 −23 cm3)1/3 = 4.21 × 10 −8 cm
For a face-centered unit cell, the O2− ions touch along the face diagonal:
2 × 4.21 × 10 −8 cm
2 l = 4 rO 2− , rO 2− = = 1.49 × 10 −8 cm
4
The cube edge length goes through two radii of the O2− anions and the diameter of the Mg2+
cation, so:
l = 2 rO 2− + 2 rMg 2+ , 4.21 × 10 −8 cm = 2(1.49 × 10 −8 cm) + 2 rMg 2 + , rMg 2+ = 6.15 × 10 −9 cm
80.
Assuming K+ and Cl− just touch along the cube edge l:
l = 2(314 pm) = 628 pm = 6.28 × 10−8 cm
Volume of unit cell = l3 = (6.28 × 10−8 cm)3
The unit cell contains four K+ and four Cl− ions. For a unit cell:
1 mol KCl 74.55 g KCl
4 KCl formula units × ×
6.022 × 10 formula units
23 mol KCl
density =
(6.28 × 10 −8 cm) 3
= 2.00 g/cm3
81. CsCl is a simple cubic array of Cl− ions with Cs+ in the middle of each unit cell. There is one
Cs+ and one Cl− ion in each unit cell. Cs+ and Cl− ions touch along the body diagonal.
Body diagonal = 2 rCs + + 2 rCl − = 3 l , l = length of cube edge
In each unit cell:

1 mol CsCl 168.4 g CsCl
mass = 1 CsCl formula unit × ×
6.022 × 10 23
formula units mol CsCl
= 2.796 × 10 −22 g
1 cm 3
volume = l 3 = 2.796 × 10 −22 g CsCl × = 7.04 × 10 −23 cm3
3.97 g CsCl
l 3 = 7.04 × 10 −23 cm3, l = 4.13 × 10 −8 cm = 413 pm = length of cube edge
2 rCs + + 2 rCl − = 3 l = 3 (413 pm) = 715 pm
The distance between ion centers = rCs + + rCl − = 715 pm/2 = 358 pm
From ionic radius: rCs + = 169 pm and rCl − = 181 pm; rCs + + rCl − = 169 + 181 = 350. pm
The distance calculated from the density is 8 pm (2.3%) greater than that calculated from
tables of ionic radii.
82. a. The NaCl unit cell has a face-centered cubic arrangement of the anions with cations in
the octahedral holes. There are four NaCl formula units per unit cell, and since there is a
1 : 1 ratio of cations to anions in MnO, then there would be four MnO formula units per
unit cell, assuming an NaCl-type structure. The CsCl unit cell has a simple cubic
structure of anions with the cations in the cubic holes. There is one CsCl formula unit per
unit cell, so there would be one MnO formula unit per unit cell if a CsCl structure is
observed.
Formula units of MnO 5.28 g MnO 1 mol MnO
= (4.47 × 10 −8 cm) 3 × 3
×
Unit cell cm 70.94 g MnO
6.022 × 10 23 formula units MnO
× = 4.00 formula units MnO
mol MnO 4
From the calculation, MnO crystallizes in the NaCl type structure.
b. From the NaCl structure and assuming the ions touch each other, then l = cube edge
length = 2rMn 2+ + 2rO 2− .
l = 4.47 × 10−8 cm = 2rMn 2+ + 2(1.40 × 10−8 cm), rMn 2+ = 8.35 × 10−8 cm = 84 pm
83. a. CO2: molecular b. SiO2: network c. Si: atomic, network

d. CH4: molecular e. Ru: atomic, metallic f. I2: molecular
g. KBr: ionic h. H2O: molecular i. NaOH: ionic
j. U: atomic, metallic k. CaCO3: ionic l. PH3: molecular
84. a. diamond: atomic, network b. PH3: molecular c. H2: molecular

d. Mg: atomic, metallic e. KCl: ionic f. quartz: network
g. NH4NO3: ionic h. SF2: molecular i. Ar: atomic, group 8A
j. Cu: atomic, metallic k. C6H12O6: molecular
85. a. The unit cell consists of Ni at the cube corners and Ti at the body center or Ti at the cube
corners and Ni at the body center.
b. 8 × 1/8 = 1 atom from corners + 1 atom at body center; empirical formula = NiTi
c. Both have a coordination number of 8 (both are surrounded by 8 atoms).
1/8 Al 1/2 Ni
86. Al: 8 corners × = 1 Al; Ni: 6 face centers × = 3 Ni
corner face center
The composition of the specific phase of the superalloy is AlNi3.
87. Structure 1 (on left) Structure 2 (on right)

1 / 8 Ca 1 / 8 Ti
8 corners × = 1 Ca atom 8 corners × = 1 Ti atom
corner corner
1/ 2 O 1/ 4 O
6 faces × = 3 O atoms 12 edges × = 3 O atoms
face corner
1 Ti at body center. Formula = CaTiO3 1 Ca at body center. Formula = CaTiO3
In the extended lattice of both structures, each Ti atom is surrounded by six O atoms.
88. With a cubic closest packed array of oxygen ions, we have 4 O2− ions per unit cell. We need
to balance the total −8 charge of the anions with a +8 charge from the Al3+ and Mg2+ cations.
The only combination of ions that gives a +8 charge is 2 Al3+ ions and 1 Mg2+ ion. The
formula is Al2MgO4.
There are an equal number of octahedral holes as anions (4) in a cubic closest packed array
and twice the number of tetrahedral holes as anions in a cubic closest packed array. For the
stoichiometry to work out, we need 2 Al3+ and 1 Mg2+ per unit cell. Hence one-half of the
octahedral holes are filled with Al3+ ions, and one-eighth of the tetrahedral holes are filled
with Mg2+ ions.
89. a. Y: 1 Y in center; Ba: 2 Ba in center

1 / 8 Cu 1 / 4 Cu
Cu: 8 corners × = 1 Cu, 8 edges × = 2 Cu, total = 3 Cu atoms
corner edge
1/ 4 O 1/ 2 O
O: 20 edges × = 5 O atoms, 8 faces × = 4 O atoms, total = 9 O atoms
edge face
Formula: YBa2Cu3O9
b. The structure of this superconductor material follows the second perovskite structure
described in Exercise 87. The YBa2Cu3O9 structure is three of these cubic perovskite unit
cells stacked on top of each other. The oxygen atoms are in the same places, Cu takes the
place of Ti, two of the calcium atoms are replaced by two barium atoms, and one Ca is
replaced by Y.
c. Y, Ba, and Cu are the same. Some oxygen atoms are missing.
1/ 4 O 1/ 2 O
12 edges × = 3 O, 8 faces × = 4 O, total = 7 O atoms
edge face
Superconductor formula is YBa2Cu3O7.
90. a. Structure (a):

1 / 8 Tl
Ba: 2 Ba inside unit cell; Tl: 8 corners × = 1 Tl
corner
1 / 4 Cu
Cu: 4 edges × = 1 Cu
edge
1/ 2 O 1/ 4 O
O: 6 faces × + 8 edges × = 5 O; Formula = TlBa2CuO5.
face edge
Structure (b):
Tl and Ba are the same as in structure (a).

1 / 4 Cu
Ca: 1 Ca inside unit cell; Cu: 8 edges × = 2 Cu
edge
1/ 2 O 1/ 4 O
O: 10 faces × + 8 edges × = 7 O; Formula = TlBa2CaCu2O7.
face edge
Structure (c):
Tl and Ba are the same, and two Ca are located inside the unit cell.
1 / 4 Cu 1/ 2 O 1/ 4 O
Cu: 12 edges × = 3 Cu; O: 14 faces × + 8 edges × =9O
edge face edge
Formula = TlBa2Ca2Cu3O9.
Structure (d): Following similar calculations, formula = TlBa2Ca3Cu4O11.
b. Structure (a) has one planar sheet of Cu and O atoms, and the number increases by one
for each of the remaining structures. The order of superconductivity temperature from
lowest to highest temperature is (a) < (b) < (c) < (d).
c. TlBa2CuO5: 3 + 2(2) + x + 5(−2) = 0, x = +3
Only Cu3+ is present in each formula unit.
TlBa2CaCu2O7: 3 + 2(2) + 2 + 2(x) + 7(−2) = 0, x = +5/2
Each formula unit contains 1 Cu2+ and 1 Cu3+.

TlBa2Ca2Cu3O9: 3 + 2(2) + 2(2) + 3(x) + 9(−2) = 0, x = +7/3

TlBa2Ca3Cu4O11: 3 + 2(2) + 3(2) + 4(x) + 11(−2) = 0, x = +9/4

d. This superconductor material achieves variable copper oxidation states by varying the
numbers of Ca, Cu, and O in each unit cell. The mixtures of copper oxidation states are
discussed in part c. The superconductor material in Exercise 89 achieves variable copper
oxidation states by omitting oxygen at various sites in the lattice.
Phase Changes and Phase Diagrams

91. If we graph ln Pvap versus 1/T with temperature in Kelvin, the slope of the resulting straight
line will be −ΔHvap/R.
Pvap ln Pvap T (Li) 1/T T (Mg) 1/T

1 torr 0 1023 K 9.775 × 10−4 K−1 893 K 11.2 × 10−4 K−1
10. 2.3 1163 8.598 × 10−4 1013 9.872 × 10−4
100. 4.61 1353 7.391 × 10−4 1173 8.525 × 10−4
400. 5.99 1513 6.609 × 10−4 1313 7.616 × 10−4
760. 6.63 1583 6.317 × 10−4 1383 7.231 × 10−4
For Li:
We get the slope by taking two points (x, y) that are on the line we draw. For a line,
slope = ∆y/∆x, or we can determine the straight-line equation using a calculator. The
general straight-line equation is y = mx + b, where m = slope and b = y intercept.
The equation of the Li line is: ln Pvap = −1.90 × 104(1/T) + 18.6, slope = −1.90 × 104 K
Slope = −ΔHvap/R, ΔHvap = −slope × R = 1.90 × 104 K × 8.3145 J/K•mol
ΔHvap = 1.58 × 105 J/mol = 158 kJ/mol
For Mg:
The equation of the line is: ln Pvap = −1.67 × 104(1/T) + 18.7, slope = −1.67 × 104 K
ΔHvap = −slope × R = 1.67 × 104 K × 8.3145 J/K•mol
ΔHvap = 1.39 × 105 J/mol = 139 kJ/mol
The bonding is stronger in Li because ΔHvap is larger for Li.
92. We graph ln Pvap vs 1/T. The slope of the line equals − ΔHvap/R.
T(K) 103/T (K−1) Pvap (torr) ln Pvap
273 3.66 14.4 2.67

283 3.53 26.6 3.28
293 3.41 47.9 3.87
303 3.30 81.3 4.40
313 3.19 133 4.89
323 3.10 208 5.34
353 2.83 670. 6.51
6.6 − 2.5
Slope = −3
= − 4600 K
(2.80 × 10 − 3.70 × 10 −3 ) K −1
− ΔH vap − ΔH vap
−4600 K = = , ΔHvap = 38,000 J/mol = 38 kJ/mol
R 8.3145 J/K • mol
To determine the normal boiling point, we can use the following formula:
 P  ΔH vap  1 1
ln 1  =  − 
 P2  R  T2 T1 
At the normal boiling point, the vapor pressure equals 1.00 atm or 760. torr. At 273 K, the
vapor pressure is 14.4. torr (from data in the problem).
 14.4  38,000 J/mol  1 1 

ln  =  −  , −3.97 = 4.6 × 103(1/T2 − 3.66 × 10−3)
 760.  8.3145 J/K • mol  T2 273 K 
−8.6 × 10−4 + 3.66 × 10−3 = 1/T2 = 2.80 × 10−3, T2 = 357 K or 84°C = normal boiling point
93. At 100.°C (373 K), the vapor pressure of H2O is 1.00 atm = 760. torr. For water, ΔHvap =
40.7 kJ/mol.
P  ∆H vap  1 1   P  ∆H vap  1 1 
ln 1 =  − or ln 2  =  −
P  R  T2 T1  P  R  T1 T2 
 2   1 
 520. torr  40.7 × 103 J/mol  1 1   1 1 

ln  =  −  , −7.75 × 10−5 =  − 
 760. torr  8.3145 J/K • mol  373 K T2   373 K T2 
1 1 1
−7.75 × 10−5 = 2.68 × 10−3 − , = 2.76 × 10−3, T2 = = 362 K or 89°C
T2 T2 2.76 × 10 −3
94. At 100.°C (373 K), the vapor pressure of H2O is 1.00 atm. For water, ΔHvap = 40.7 kJ/mol.
 P  ∆H vap  1 1  P  ∆H vap  1 1 
ln 1  =  −  or ln 2  =  − 
 2
P R  2
T T1  1
P R  1
T T2
 P2  40.7 × 10 3 J/mol  1 1 
ln  = 
 − , ln P2 = 0.51, P2 = e0.51 = 1.7 atm
 1.00 atm  8.3145 J/K • mol  373 K 388 K 
 3.50  40.7 × 10 3 J/mol  1 1   1 1 

ln  =  − , 2.56 × 10 − 4 =  − 
 1.00  8.3145 J/K • mol  373 K T2   373 K T2 
1 1 1
2.56 × 10−4 = 2.68 × 10−3 − , = 2.42 × 10−3, T2 = = 413 K or 140.°C
T2 T2 2.42 × 10 −3
95. Let P1 = 760. torr, T1 = 273.2 + 34.6 = 307.8 K, P2 = 400. torr, T2 = 273.2 + 17.9 = 291.1 K:
P  ΔH vap  1 1   760 torr  ΔH vap  1 1 

ln 1  =  − , ln  =  − 
P
 2

 R T
 2 T1 
 400. torr  8.3145 J/K • mol  291.1 K 307.8 K 
Solving: ∆Hvap = 2.86 × 104 J/mol = 28.6 kJ/mol
 P  ∆H vap  1 1  P  ∆H vap  1 1 
96. ln 1  =  −  or ln 2  =  − 
 P2  R  T2 T1   P1  R  T1 T2 
 P2  59.1 × 10 3 J/mol  1 1 
ln  =  − 
 1.00 atm  8.3145 J/K • mol  630. K 298 K 
ln P2 = −12.57, P2 = e−12.57 = 3.47 × 10−6 atm = mercury vapor pressure at 25oC

97.
98. a. The plateau at the lowest temperature signifies the melting/freezing of the substance.
Hence the freezing point is 20°C.
b. The higher temperature plateau signifies the boiling/condensation of the substance. The
temperature of this plateau is 120°C.
c. X(s) → X(l) ∆H = ∆Hfusion; X(l) → X(g) ∆H = ∆Hvaporization
The heat of fusion and the heat of vaporization terms refer to enthalpy changes for the
specific phase changes illustrated in the equations above. In a heating curve, energy is
applied at a steady rate. So the longer, higher temperature plateau has a larger enthalpy
change associated with it as compared to the shorter plateau. The higher temperature
plateau occurs when a liquid is converting to a gas, so the heat of vaporization is greater
than the heat of fusion. This is always the case because significantly more intermolecular
forces are broken when a substance boils than when a substance melts.
99. a. Many more intermolecular forces must be broken to convert a liquid to a gas as compared
with converting a solid to a liquid. Because more intermolecular forces must be broken,
much more energy is required to vaporize a liquid than is required to melt a solid.
Therefore, ∆Hvap is much larger than ∆Hfus.
1 mol Na 2.60 kJ
b. 1.00 g Na × × = 0.113 kJ = 113 J to melt 1.00 g Na
22.99 g mol Na
1 mol Na 97.0 kJ
c. 1.00 g Na × × = 4.22 kJ = 4220 J to vaporize 1.00 g Na
22.99 g mol Na
d. This is the reverse process of that described in part c, so the energy change is the same
quantity but opposite in sign. Therefore, q = −4220 J; i.e., 4220 of heat will be released.
1 mol C 6 H 6 9.92 kJ
100. Melt: 8.25 g C6H6 × × = 1.05 kJ
78.11 g mol C 6 H 6
1 mol C 6 H 6 30.7 kJ
Vaporize: 8.25 g C6H6 × × = 3.24 kJ
78.11 g mol C 6 H 6
As is typical, the energy required to vaporize a certain quantity of substance is much larger
than the energy required to melt the same quantity of substance. A lot more intermolecular
forces must be broken to vaporize a substance as compared to melting a substance.
101. To calculate qtotal, break up the heating process into five steps.
H2O(s, −20.0°C) → H2O(s, 0.0°C), ΔT = 20.0°C; let sice = specific heat capacity of ice:
2.03 J
q1 = sice × m × ΔT = × 500. g × 20.0°C = 2.03 × 104 J = 20.3 kJ
g oC
1 mol 6.02 kJ
H2O(s, 0.0°C) → H2O(l, 0.0°C), q2 = 500. g H2O × × = 167 kJ
18.02 g mol
4.18 J
H2O(l, 0.0°C) → H2O(l, 100.0°C), q3 = × 500. g × 100.0°C = 2.09 × 105J = 209 kJ
g oC
1 mol 40.7 kJ
H2O(l, 100.0°C) → H2O(g, 100.0°C), q4 = 500. g × × = 1130 kJ
18.02 g mol
2.02 J
H2O(g, 100.0°C) → H2O(g, 250.0°C), q5 = × 500. g × 150.0°C = 1.52 × 105 J
g oC
= 152 kJ
qtotal = q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 + q5 = 20.3 + 167 + 209 + 1130 + 152 = 1680 kJ
102. To calculate qtotal, break up the heating process into five steps. 1.00 mol H2O = 18.0 g
H2O(s, −30.0°C) → H2O(s, 0.0°C), ΔT = 30.0°C; let sice = specific heat capacity of ice:
2.03 J
q1 = sice × m × ΔT = × 18.0 g × 30.0°C = 1.10 × 103 J = 1.10 kJ
g oC
6.02 kJ
H2O(s, 0.0°C) → H2O(l, 0.0°C), q2 = 1.00 mol × = 6.02 kJ
mol
4.18 J
H2O(l, 0.0°C) → H2O(l, 100.0°C), q3 = × 18.0 g × 100.0°C = 7520 J = 7.52 kJ
g oC
40.7 kJ
H2O(l, 100.0°C) → H2O(g, 100.0°C), q4 = 1.00 mol × = 40.7 kJ
mol
2.02 J
H2O(g, 100.0°C) → H2O(g, 140.0°C), q5 = × 18.0 g × 40.0°C = 1450 J = 1.45 kJ
g oC
qtotal = q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 + q5 = 1.10 + 6.02 + 7.52 + 40.7 + 1.45 = 56.8 kJ
30.0 g 1 mol H 2 O
103. Total mass H2O = 18 cubes × = 540. g; 540. g H2O × = 30.0 mol H2O
cube 18.02 g
Heat removed to produce ice at −5.0°C:
 4.18 J   6.02 × 103 J   2.03 J 

 × 540. g × 22.0 o C  +  × 30.0 mol  +  × 540. g × 5.0 o C 
 
 g°C   mol   g°C 
= 4.97 × 104 J + 1.81 × 105 J + 5.5 × 103 J = 2.36 × 105 J
1 g CF2 Cl 2
2.36 × 105 J × = 1.49 × 103 g CF2Cl2 must be vaporized.
158 J
1 mol 368 kJ
104. Heat released = 0.250 g Na × × = 2.00 kJ
22.99 g 2 mol
1 mol H 2 O 6.02 kJ
To melt 50.0 g of ice requires: 50.0 g ice × × = 16.7 kJ
18.02 g mol
The reaction doesn't release enough heat to melt all of the ice. The temperature will remain at
0°C.
105. A: solid B: liquid C: vapor
D: solid + vapor E: solid + liquid + vapor
F: liquid + vapor G: liquid + vapor H: vapor
triple point: E critical point: G
Normal freezing point: Temperature at which solid-liquid line is at 1.0 atm (see following
plot).
Normal boiling point: Temperature at which liquid-vapor line is at 1.0 atm (see following
plot ).
1.0
atm
nfp nbp
Because the solid-liquid line equilibrium has a positive slope, the solid phase is denser than
the liquid phase.
106. a. 3
b. Triple point at 95.31°C: rhombic, monoclinic, gas

Triple point at 115.18°C: monoclinic, liquid, gas

Triple point at 153°C: rhombic, monoclinic, liquid
c. From the phase diagram, the monoclinic solid phase is stable at T = 100.°C and P = 1
atm.
d. Normal melting point = 115.21°C; normal boiling point = 444.6°C; the normal melting
and boiling points occur at P = 1.0 atm.
e. Rhombic is the densest phase because the rhombic-monoclinic equilibrium line has a
positive slope, and because the solid-liquid equilibrium lines also have positive slopes.
f. No; P = 1.0 × 10 −5 atm is at a pressure somewhere between the 95.31 and 115.18°C triple
points. At this pressure, the rhombic and gas phases are never in equilibrium with each
other, so rhombic sulfur cannot sublime at P = 1.0 × 10 −5 atm. However, monoclinic
sulfur can sublime at this pressure.
g. From the phase diagram, we would start off with gaseous sulfur. At 100.°C and ~1 × 10−5
atm, S(g) would convert to the solid monoclinic form of sulfur. Finally at 100.°C and
some large pressure less than 1420 atm, S(s, monoclinic) would convert to the solid
rhombic form of sulfur. Summarizing, the phase changes are S(g) → S(monoclinic) →
S(rhombic).
107. a. two
b. Higher-pressure triple point: graphite, diamond and liquid; lower-pressure triple point at
∼107 Pa: graphite, liquid and vapor
c. It is converted to diamond (the more dense solid form).
d. Diamond is more dense, which is why graphite can be converted to diamond by applying
pressure.
108. The following sketch of the Br2 phase diagram is not to scale. Because the triple point of Br2
is at a temperature below the freezing point of Br2, the slope of the solid-liquid line is
positive.
100
Solid Liquid
Pressure (atm)
1
0.05 Gas
-7.3 -7.2 59 320

o
Temperature ( C)
The positive slopes of all the lines indicate that Br2(s) is more dense than Br2(l), which is
more dense than Br2(g). At room temperature (~22°C) and 1 atm, Br2(l) is the stable phase.
Br2(l) cannot exist at a temperature below the triple-point temperature of −7.3°C or at a
temperature above the critical-point temperature of 320°C. The phase changes that occur as
temperature is increased at 0.10 atm are solid → liquid → gas.
109. Because the density of the liquid phase is greater than the density of the solid phase, the slope
of the solid-liquid boundary line is negative (as in H2O). With a negative slope, the melting
points increase with a decrease in pressure, so the normal melting point of X should be
greater than 225°C.
110.
760 s l
P
(torr)
g
280
-121 -112 -107
T(°C)
From the three points given, the slope of the solid-liquid boundary line is positive, so Xe(s) is
more dense than Xe(l). Also, the positive slope of this line tells us that the melting point of
Xe increases as pressure increases. The same direct relationship exists for the boiling point of
Xe because the liquid-gas boundary line also has a positive slope.
Additional Exercises
111. The covalent bonds within a molecule are much stronger than the intermolecular forces
between molecules. Consider water, which exhibits a very strong type of dipole force called
hydrogen bonding. When water boils at 100oC, hydrogen bonding intermolecular forces are
broken in the liquid resulting in H2O(l) converting to H2O(g). At 100oC, the covalent bonds
within each water molecule are not broken; if they were broken, then H and O atoms would
be produced. It takes a lot more energy than what is provided at 100oC to break the covalent
bonds within a water molecule; the intramolecular forces within a covalent compound are
much stronger than the intermolecular forces between molecules.
112. Neopentane is more compact than n-pentane. There is less surface-area contact among
neighboring neopentane molecules. This leads to weaker London dispersion (LD) forces and
a lower boiling point.
113. As the physical properties indicate, the intermolecular forces are slightly stronger in D2O than
in H2O.
114. CH3CO2H: H-bonding + dipole forces + London dispersion (LD) forces
CH2ClCO2H: H-bonding + larger electronegative atom replacing H (greater dipole) + LD

forces
CH3CO2CH3: Dipole forces (no H-bonding) + LD forces
From the intermolecular forces listed above, we predict CH3CO2CH3 to have the weakest
intermolecular forces and CH2ClCO2H to have the strongest. The boiling points are
consistent with this view.
115. At any temperature, the plot tells us that substance A has a higher vapor pressure than sub-
stance B, with substance C having the lowest vapor pressure. Therefore, the substance with
the weakest intermolecular forces is A, and the substance with the strongest intermolecular
forces is C.
NH3 can form hydrogen-bonding interactions, whereas the others cannot. Substance C is
NH3. The other two are nonpolar compounds with only London dispersion forces. Because
CH4 is smaller than SiH4, CH4 will have weaker LD forces and is substance A. Therefore,
substance B is SiH4.
116. As the electronegativity of the atoms covalently bonded to H increases, the strength of the
hydrogen-bonding interaction increases.
N ⋅⋅⋅ H‒N < N ⋅⋅⋅ H‒ O < O ⋅⋅⋅ H‒O < O ⋅⋅⋅ H‒F < F ⋅⋅⋅ H‒F
weakest strongest
117. X(s, −35.0°C) → X(s, −15.0°C), ΔT = 20.0°C; let ssolid = specific heat capacity of X(s):
3.00 J
q1 = ssolid × m × ΔT = × 10.0 g × 20.0°C = 600. J
g oC
1 mol 5.00 kJ
X(s, −15.0°C) → X(l, −15.0°C), q2 = 10.0 g X × × = 0.500 kJ = 500. J
100.0 g mol
2.50 J
X(l, −15.0°C) → X(l, 25.0°C), q3 = × 10.0 g × 40.0°C = 1.00 × 103 J
g oC
qtotal = q1 + q2 + q3 = 600. + 500. + 1.00 × 103 = 2.10 × 103 J

1 min
2.10 × 103 J × = 4.67 min
450.0 J
118. Step 1: X(g, 100.0°C) → X(g, 75°C), q1 = sgas × 100.0 g × −25.0°C = −(2.50 × 103)sgas
− 20.00 kJ
Step 2: X(g, 75.0°C) → X(l, 75.0°C), q2 = 1.000 mol × = −20.00 kJ
mol
2.50 J
Step 3: X(l, 75.0°C) → X(l, 50.0°C), q3 = × 100.0 g × −25.0°C = −6.25 × 103 J
g oC
qtotal = q1 + q2 + q3, −28.75 × 103 J = −(2.50 × 103)sgas − 20.00 × 103 J − 6.25 × 103 J
(2.50 × 103)sgas = 2.50 × 103, sgas = 1.00 J/g•oC
1 / 8 Xe 1/ 4 F
119. 8 corners × + 1 Xe inside cell = 2 Xe; 8 edges × + 2 F inside cell = 4 F
corner edge
The empirical formula is XeF2.
120. One B atom and one N atom together have the same number of electrons as two C atoms. The
description of physical properties sounds a lot like the properties of graphite and diamond, the
two solid forms of carbon. The two forms of BN have structures similar to graphite and
diamond.
121. B2H6: This compound contains only nonmetals, so it is probably a molecular solid with
covalent bonding. The low boiling point confirms this.
SiO2: This is the empirical formula for quartz, which is a network solid.
CsI: This is a metal bonded to a nonmetal, which generally form ionic solids. The
electrical conductivity in aqueous solution confirms this.
W: Tungsten is a metallic solid as the conductivity data confirm.
122. Ar is cubic closest packed. There are four Ar atoms per unit cell, and with a face-centered
unit cell, the atoms touch along the face diagonal. Let l = length of cube edge.
Face diagonal = 4r = l 2 , l = 4(190. pm)/ 2 = 537 pm = 5.37 × 10−8 cm
1 mol 39.95 g
4 atoms × ×
23
mol
Density = = −8
= 1.71 g/cm3
volume (5.37 × 10 cm) 3
1 mol
123. 24.7 g C6H6 × = 0.316 mol C6H6
78.11 g
0.08206 L atm
0.316 mol × × 293.2 K
nRT K mol
PC6 H 6 = = = 0.0760 atm, or 57.8 torr
V 100.0 L
124. In order to set up an equation, we need to know what phase exists at the final temperature. To
heat 20.0 g of ice from −10.0 to 0.0°C requires:
2.03 J
q= × 20.0 g × 10.0°C = 406 J
g °C
To convert ice to water at 0.0°C requires:

1 mol 6.02 kJ
q = 20.0 g × × = 6.68 kJ = 6680 J
18.02 mol
To chill 100.0 g of water from 80.0 to 0.0°C requires:
4.18 J
q= × 100.0 g × 80.0°C = 33,400 J of heat removed
g °C
From the heat values above, the liquid phase exists once the final temperature is reached (a
lot more heat is lost when the 100.0 g of water is cooled to 0.0°C than the heat required to
convert the ice into water). To calculate the final temperature, we will equate the heat gain by
the ice to the heat loss by the water. We will keep all quantities positive in order to avoid sign
errors. The heat gain by the ice will be the 406 J required to convert the ice to 0.0°C plus the
6680 J required to convert the ice at 0.0°C into water at 0.0°C plus the heat required to raise
the temperature from 0.0°C to the final temperature.
4.18 J
Heat gain by ice = 406 J + 6680 J + × 20.0 g × (Tf − 0.0°C) = 7.09 × 103 + (83.6)Tf
g °C
4.18 J
Heat loss by water = × 100.0 g × (80.0°C − Tf) = 3.34 × 104 − 418Tf
g °C
Solving for the final temperature:
7.09 × 103 + (83.6)Tf = 3.34 × 104 − 418Tf, 502Tf = 2.63 × 104, Tf = 52.4°C
125. H2O(g, 125°C) → H2O(g, 100.°C), q1 = 2.02 J/g•°C × 75.0 g × (−25°C) = −3800 J = −3.8 kJ
1 mol − 40.7 kJ
H2O(g, 100.°C) → H2O(l, 100.°C), q2 = 75.0 g × × = −169 kJ
18.02 g mol
H2O(l, 100.°C) → H2O(l, 0°C), q3 = 4.18 J/g•°C × 75.0 g × (−100.°C) = −31,400 J = −31.4 kJ
To convert H2O(g) at 125°C to H2O(l) at 0°C requires (−3.8 kJ − 169 kJ – 31.4 kJ =) −204 kJ
of heat removed. To convert from H2O(l) at 0°C to H2O(s) at 0°C requires:
1 mol − 6.02 kJ
q4 = 75.0 g × × = −25.1 kJ
18.02 g mol
This amount of energy puts us over the −215 kJ limit (−204 kJ − 25.1 kJ = −229 kJ). There-
fore, a mixture of H2O(s) and H2O(l) will be present at 0°C when 215 kJ of heat is removed
from the gas sample.
P  ΔH vap  1 1   836 torr  ΔH vap  1 1 

126. ln 1  =  − , ln  =  − 
P
 2

 R T
 2 T1 
 213 torr  8.3145 J/K • mol  313 K 353 K 
Solving: ∆Hvap = 3.1 × 104 J/mol; for the normal boiling point, P = 1.00 atm = 760. torr.
 760. torr  3.1 × 10 4 J/mol  1 1 1 1

ln  =  −  , − = 3.4 × 10 −4
 213 torr  8.3145 J/K • mol  313 K T1  313 T1
T1 = 350. K = 77°C; the normal boiling point of CCl4 is 77°C.
127. If we extend the liquid-vapor line of the water phase diagram to below the freezing point, we
find that supercooled water will have a higher vapor pressure than ice at −10°C (see Figure
10.44 of the text). To achieve equilibrium, there must be a constant vapor pressure. Over
time, supercooled water will be transformed through the vapor into ice in an attempt to
equilibrate the vapor pressure. Eventually there will only be ice at −10°C along with H2O(g)
at the vapor pressure given by the solid-vapor line in the phase diagram at −10°C.
128. At 100.°C (373 K), the vapor pressure of H2O is 1.00 atm. For water, ΔHvap = 40.7 kJ/mol.
 P  ∆H vap  1 1  P  ∆H vap  1 1 
ln 1  =  −  or ln 2  =  − 
 
P2 R  T2 T1   
P1 R  T1 T2 
 P2  40.7 × 103 J/mol  1 1 

ln  =  − , ln P2 = 5.27, P2 = e5.27 = 194 atm
 1.00 atm  8.3145 J/K • mol  373 K 623 K 
In theory, a pressure greater than 194 atm must be applied to liquefy steam at 350.oC.
454 g
129. 1.00 lb × = 454 g H2O; a change of 1.00°F is equal to a change of 5/9°C.
lb
4.18 J 5
The amount of heat in J in 1 Btu is × 454 g × °C = 1.05 × 103 J = 1.05 kJ.
g°C 9
It takes 40.7 kJ to vaporize 1 mol H2O (ΔHvap). Combining these:
1.00 × 10 4 Bu 1.05 kJ 1 mol H 2 O

× × = 258 mol/h; or:
h Btu 40.7 kJ
258 mol 18.02 g H 2 O

× = 4650 g/h = 4.65 kg/h
h mol
130. The critical temperature is the temperature above which the vapor cannot be liquefied no
matter what pressure is applied. Since N2 has a critical temperature below room temperature
(~22°C), it cannot be liquefied at room temperature. NH3, with a critical temperature above
room temperature, can be liquefied at room temperature.
ChemWork Problems
131. a. dipole, LD (SF4 is a polar compound.) b. LD only (CO2 is a nonpolar compound.)
c. H-bonding, LD (H-bonding due to the O−H bond) d. H-bonding, LD
e. dipole, LD (ICl5 is a polar compound.) f. LD only (XeF4 is a nonpolar compound.)

CO2 and XeF4 are nonpolar covalent compounds, so they only exhibit London dispersion
forces. CH3CH2OH and HF are covalent compounds that contain either an N−H, O−H, or
F−H bond, so they exhibit hydrogen bonding forces. SF4 and ICl5 are polar covalent
compounds, so they exhibit dipole-dipole forces.
132. a. True; b. False; large nonpolar compounds are liquids and solids at 25 oC.
c. False; H2O has perfect symmetry to form two H−bonding interactions per molecule (two
covalently boned H atoms and two lone pairs of electrons on the central atom). NH3, with
only one lone pair, can only form one H−bonding interaction per molecule. Therefore, the
H−bonding forces are stronger in H2O as compared to NH3. This is why the boiling point
of H2O is greater than that of NH3.
d. True; SO2 is a polar molecule so it exhibits dipole−dipole forces (as well as London
dispersion forces).
e. True; in general, the larger the molar mass of a compound, the stronger the London
dispersion forces.
133. As the strength of the intermolecular forces increase, boiling points increase while vapor
pressures at a specific temperature decrease.
a. False; the ionic forces in LiF are much stronger than molecular intermolecular forces
found in H2S.
b. True; HF is capable of H−bonding, HBr is not.
c. True; the larger Cl2 molecule will have the stronger London dispersion forces.
d. True; HCl is a polar compound while CCl4 is a nonpolar compound.
e. False; the ionic forces in MgO are much stronger than the molecular intermolecular
forces found in CH3CH2OH.
134. A cubic closest packed structure has a face-centered cubic unit cell. In a face-centered cubic
unit, there are:
1 / 8 atom 1 / 2 atom
8 corners × + 6 faces × = 4 atoms
corner face
The atoms in a face-centered cubic unit cell touch along the face diagonal of the cubic unit
cell. Using the Pythagorean formula, where l = length of the face diagonal and r = radius of
the atom:
l2 + l2 = (4r)2
4r
l 2l2 = 16r2
l=r 8
l
l = r 8 = 143 × 10 −12 m × 8 = 4.04 × 10 −10 m = 4.04 × 10 −8 cm
Volume of a unit cell = l3 = (4.04 × 10 −8 cm)3 = 6.59 × 10 −23 cm3

1 mol Al 26.98 g Al
Mass of a unit cell = 4 Al atoms × × = 1.792 × 10 −22 g Ca
6.022 × 10 23
atoms mol Al
−22
mass 1.792 × 10 g
volume 6.59 × 10 − 23 cm 3
1/8 Mn
135. 8 corner Mn ions × + 1 Mn ion inside cell = 2 Mn ions per unit cell
corner
1/2 O
4 face O ions × + 2 O ions inside cell = 4 O ions per unit cell
face
The empirical formula is MnO2. Assuming each oxygen ion has a 2− charge, then each
manganese ion has a 4+ charge.
136. There are two tetrahedral holes per closest packed anion. Let f = fraction of tetrahedral holes
filled by the cations.
2 2f
K2O: Cation-to-anion ratio = = , f=1
1 1
All the tetrahedral holes are filled by K+ cations.
137. a. Kr: group 8A b. SO2: molecular c. Ni: metallic

d. SiO2: network e. NH3: molecular f. Pt: metallic
60 s 750. J
138. Energy added to ice cubes = 5.00 min × × = 2.25 × 105 J = 225 kJ
min s
1 mol H 2 O 6.02 kJ
Energy to melt ice cubes: 403 g H2O × × = 135 kJ
18.02 g mol H 2 O
Energy remaining to heat water = 225 kJ – 135 kJ = 90. kJ
4.18 J
9.0 × 104 J = swater × mass × ΔT = × 403 g × ΔT, ΔT = 53.4oC
g oC
The final temperature of the water will increase from 0 oC to 53.4oC.
139. At 56.5°C (329.7 K), the vapor pressure of acetone is 760. torr. Let T2 = 23.5oC = 296.7 K
 P  ∆H vap  1 1  P  ∆H vap  1 1 
ln 1  =  −  or ln 2  =  − 
 P2  R  T2 T1   P1  R  T1 T2 
 P2  32.0 × 10 3 J/mol  1 1  P2
ln  =  −  , = e−1.30, P2 = 207 torr
 760. torr  8.3145 J/K • mol  329.7 K 296. 7 K  760 .
140. a. False; the normal melting point is about 185 K; the normal boiling point is about 270 K.
b. False; c. True
d. False; at 1.5 atm, the melting point is about 250 K.
e. True
Challenge Problems
141. ∆H = qp = 30.79 kJ; ∆E = qp + w, w = −P∆V

101.3 J
w = −P∆V = −1.00 atm(28.90 L) = −28.9 L atm × = −2930 J
L atm
∆E = 30.79 kJ + (−2.93 kJ) = 27.86 kJ
142. XeCl2F2, 8 + 2(7) + 2(7) = 36 e−
Cl F Cl F
Xe or Xe
Cl F F Cl
Polar (bond dipoles do Nonpolar (bond dipoles

not cancel each other) cancel each other)
These are two possible square planar molecular structures for XeCl2F2. One structure has the
Cl atoms 90° apart; the other has the Cl atoms 180° apart. The structure with the Cl atoms 90°
apart is polar; the other structure is nonpolar. The polar structure will have additional dipole
forces, so it has the stronger intermolecular forces and is the liquid. The gas form of XeCl2F2
is the nonpolar form having the Cl atoms 180° apart.
143. A single hydrogen bond in H2O has a strength of 21 kJ/mol. Each H2O molecule forms two
H bonds. Thus it should take 42 kJ/mol of energy to break all of the H bonds in water.
Consider the phase transitions:
6.0 kJ 40.7 kJ
Solid liquid vapor ∆Hsub = ∆Ηfus + ∆Hvap
∆Hsub = 6.0 kJ/mol + 40.7 kJ/mol = 46.7 kJ/mol; it takes a total of 46.7 kJ/mol to convert
solid H2O to vapor. This would be the amount of energy necessary to disrupt all of the
intermolecular forces in ice. Thus (42 ÷ 46.7) × 100 = 90.% of the attraction in ice can be
attributed to H bonding.
3785 mL 0.998 g 1 mol H 2 O

144. 1 gal × × × = 210. mol H2O
gal mL 18.02 g
From Table 10.9, the vapor pressure of H2O at 25°C is 23.756 torr. The water will evaporate
until this partial pressure is reached.
0.08206 L atm
210. mol × × 298 K
nRT K mol
V= = = 1.64 × 105 L
P 1 atm
23.756 torr ×
760 torr
Dimension of cube = (1.64 × 105 L × 1 dm3/L)1/3 = 54.7 dm

1m 1.094 yards 3 ft
54.7 dm × × × = 18.0 ft
10 dm m yard
The cube has dimensions of 18.0 ft × 18.0 ft × 18.0 ft.
145. The structures of the two C2H6O compounds (20 valence e−) are:
H H
H C C O H exhibits relatively strong hydrogen bonding
H H
H H
H C O C H does not exhibit hydrogen bonding
H H
The liquid will have the stronger intermolecular forces. Therefore, the first compound
(ethanol) with hydrogen bonding is the liquid and the second compound (dimethyl ether) with
the weaker intermolecular forces is the gas.
146. Benzene Naphthalene

H
H H
H H
H H
H H
H H
H
H H
LD forces only LD forces only
Note: London dispersion (LD) forces in molecules such as benzene and naphthalene are
fairly large. The molecules are flat, and there is efficient surface-area contact between
molecules. Large surface-area contact leads to stronger London dispersion forces.
Cl
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) has polar bonds but is a nonpolar
C molecule. CCl4 only has LD forces.
Cl Cl
Cl
In terms of size and shape, the order of the strength of LD forces is: CCl4 < C6H6 < C10H8
The strengths of the LD forces are proportional to size and are related to shape. Although the
size of CCl4 is fairly large, the overall spherical shape gives rise to relatively weak LD forces
as compared to flat molecules such as benzene and naphthalene. The physical properties
given in the problem are consistent with the order listed above. Each of the physical
properties will increase with an increase in intermolecular forces.
Acetone Acetic acid
O O
H 3C C CH 3 H 3C C O H
LD, dipole LD, dipole, H-bonding
Benzoic acid
C O H LD, dipole, H-bonding
We would predict the strength of interparticle forces of the last three molecules to be:
acetone < acetic acid < benzoic acid
polar H-bonding H-bonding, but large LD forces because of greater size
and shape
This ordering is consistent with the values given for boiling point, melting point, and ΔHvap.
The overall order of the strengths of intermolecular forces based on physical properties are:
acetone < CCl4 < C6H6 < acetic acid < naphthalene < benzoic acid
The order seems reasonable except for acetone and naphthalene. Because acetone is polar,
we would not expect it to boil at the lowest temperature. However, in terms of size and
shape, acetone is the smallest molecule, and the LD forces in acetone must be very small
compared to the other molecules. Naphthalene must have very strong LD forces because of
its size and flat shape.
147. NaCl, MgCl2, NaF, MgF2, and AlF3 all have very high melting points indicative of strong
intermolecular forces. They are all ionic solids. SiCl4, SiF4, F2, Cl2, PF5, and SF6 are nonpolar
covalent molecules. Only London dispersion (LD) forces are present. PCl3 and SCl2 are polar
molecules. LD forces and dipole forces are present. In these eight molecular substances, the
intermolecular forces are weak and the melting points low. AlCl3 doesn't seem to fit in as
well. From the melting point, there are much stronger forces present than in the nonmetal
halides, but they aren't as strong as we would expect for an ionic solid. AlCl3 illustrates a
gradual transition from ionic to covalent bonding, from an ionic solid to discrete molecules.
148. Total charge of all iron ions present in a formula unit is +2 to balance the −2 charge from the
one O atom. The sum of iron ions in a formula unit is 0.950. Let x = fraction Fe2+ ions in a
formula unit and y = fraction of Fe3+ ions present in a formula unit.
Setting up two equations: x + y = 0.950 and 2x + 3y = 2.000
Solving: 2x + 3(0.950 − x) = 2.000, x = 0.85 and y = 0.10

0.10
= 0.11 = fraction of iron as Fe3+ ions
0.95
If all Fe2+, then 1.000 Fe2+ ion/O2− ion; 1.000 − 0.950 = 0.050 = vacant sites. 5.0% of the
Fe2+ sites are vacant.
149. Assuming 100.00 g:

1 mol 1 mol
28.31 g O × = 1.769 mol O; 71.69 g Ti × = 1.497 mol Ti
16.00 g 47.88 g
1.769 1.497
= 1.182; = 0.8462; the formula is TiO1.182 or Ti0.8462O.
1.497 1.769
For Ti0.8462O, let x = Ti2+ per mol O2− and y = Ti3+ per mol O2−. Setting up two equations and
solving:
x + y = 0.8462 (mass balance) and 2x + 3y = 2 (charge balance)
2x + 3(0.8462 − x) = 2, x = 0.539 mol Ti2+/mol O2- and y = 0.307 mol Ti3+/mol O2−
0.539
× 100 = 63.7% of the titanium ions are Ti2+ and 36.3% are Ti3+ (a 1.75 : 1 ion ratio).
0.8462
150. First, we need to get the empirical formula of spinel. Assume 100.0 g of spinel:
1 mol Al
37.9 g Al × = 1.40 mol Al
26.98 g Al
1 mol Mg
17.1 g Mg × = 0.703 mol Mg The mole ratios are 2 : 1 : 4.
24.31 g Mg
1 mol O
45.0 g O × = 2.81 mol O Empirical formula = Al2MgO4
16.00 g O
Assume each unit cell contains an integral value (x) of Al2MgO4 formula units. Each
Al2MgO4 formula unit has a mass of 24.31 + 2(26.98) + 4(16.00) = 142.27 g/mol.
1 mol 142.27 g
x formula units × ×
6.022 × 10 23 formula units mol 3.57 g
Density = −8
=
(8.09 × 10 cm) 3
cm 3
Solving: x = 8.00
Each unit cell has 8 formula units of Al2MgO4 or 16 Al, 8 Mg, and 32 O ions.
Density Mn mass Mn × volumeCu mass Mn volumeCu

151. = = ×
Density Cu volumeMn × massCu massCu volumeMn
The type of cubic cell formed is not important; only that Cu and Mn crystallize in the same
type of cubic unit cell is important. Each cubic unit cell has a specific relationship between
the cube edge length l and the radius r. In all cases l ∝ r. Therefore, V ∝ l3 ∝ r3. For the
mass ratio, we can use the molar masses of Mn and Cu since each unit cell must contain the
same number of Mn and Cu atoms. Solving:
density Mn mass Mn volumeCu 54.94 g/mol (rCu ) 3

= × = ×
density Cu massCu volumeMn 63.55 g/mol (1.056 rCu ) 3
3
density Mn  1 
= 0.8645 ×   = 0.7341
density Cu  1.056 
densityMn = 0.7341 × densityCu = 0.7341 × 8.96 g/cm3 = 6.58 g/cm3
152. a. The arrangement of the layers is:
Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 4
A total of 20 cannon balls will be needed.

b. The layering alternates abcabc, which is cubic closest packing.
c. tetrahedron
153. a
As P is lowered, we go from a to b on the phase
diagram. The water boils. The boiling of water is
P endothermic, and the water is cooled (b → c),
forming some ice. If the pump is left on, the ice
c b will sublime until none is left. This is the basis of
freeze drying.
T
154. w = −PΔV; assume a constant P of 1.00 atm.

0.08206 L atm
1.00 mol × × 373 K
nRT K mol
V373 = = = 30.6 L for 1 mol of water vapor
P 1.00 atm
Because the density of H2O(l) is 1.00 g/cm3, 1.00 mol of H2O(l) occupies 18.0 cm3 or
0.0180 L.
w = −1.00 atm(30.6 L − 0.0180 L) = −30.6 L atm

101.3 J
w = −30.6 L atm × = −3.10 × 103 J = −3.10 kJ
L atm
ΔE = q + w = 40.7 kJ − 3.10 kJ = 37.6 kJ

37.6
× 100 = 92.4% of the energy goes to increase the internal energy of the water.
40.7
The remainder of the energy (7.6%) goes to do work against the atmosphere.
155. For a cube: (body diagonal)2 = (face diagonal)2 + (cube edge length)2
In a simple cubic structure, the atoms touch on cube edge, so the cube edge = 2r, where r
= radius of sphere.
2r
2r
Face diagonal = ( 2r ) 2 + ( 2r ) 2 = 4r 2 + 4r 2 = r 8 = 2 2 r
Body diagonal = (2 2 r ) 2 + (2r ) 2 = 12r 2 = 2 3 r
The diameter of the hole = body diagonal − 2(radius of atoms at corners).

2 3 r − 2r
Diameter = 2 3 r − 2r; thus the radius of the hole is: = ( 3 − 1)r
2
The volume of the hole is

4
3
π [( 3 − 1)r ] .
3
156. Using the ionic radii values given in the question, let’s calculate the density of the two
structures.
Normal pressure: Rb+ and Cl− touch along cube edge (form NaCl structure).
Cube edge = l = 2(148 + 181) = 658 pm = 6.58 × 10−8 cm; there are four RbCl units per unit
cell.
4(85.47) + 4(35.45)
Density = d = = 2.82 g/cm3
6.022 × 10 23 (6.58 × 10 −8 ) 3
High pressure: Rb+ and Cl− touch along body diagonal (form CsCl structure).
2r− + 2r+ = 658 pm = body diagonal = l 3 , l = 658 pm/ 3 = 380. pm

85.47 + 35.45
Each unit cell contains 1 RbCl unit: d = = 3.66 g/cm3
6.022 × 10 23 (3.80 × 10 −8 ) 3
The high-pressure form has the higher density. The density ratio is 3.66/2.82 = 1.30. We
would expect this because the effect of pressure is to push things closer together and thus
increase density.
Integrative Problems
19.0 g
157. Molar mass of XY = = 144 g/mol
0.132 mol
X: [Kr] 5s24d10; this is cadmium, Cd.
Molar mass Y = 144 – 112.4 = 32 g/mol; Y is sulfur, S.
The semiconductor is CdS. The dopant has the electron configuration of bromine, Br.
Because Br has one more valence electron than S, doping with Br will produce an n-type
semiconductor.
158. Assuming 100.00 g of MO2:

1 mol O
23.72 g O × = 1.483 mol O
16.00 g O
1 mol M
1.483 mol O × = 0.7415 mol M
2 mol O
100.00 g – 23.72 g = 76.28 g M
76.28 g
Molar mass M = = 102.9 g/mol
0.7415 mol
From the periodic table, element M is rhodium (Rh).
The unit cell for cubic closest packing is face-centered cubic (4 atoms/unit cell). The atoms
for a face-centered cubic unit cell are assumed to touch along the face diagonal of the cube,
so the face diagonal = 4r. The distance between the centers of touching Rh atoms will be the
distance of 2r, where r = radius of Rh atom.
Face diagonal = 2 l, where l = cube edge.

Face diagonal = 4r = 2 × 269.0 × 10 −12 m = 5.380 × 10 −10 m
5.380 × 10 −10 m
2 l = 4r = 5.38 × 10 −10 m, l = = 3.804 × 10 −10 m = 3.804 × 10 −8 cm
2
1 mol Rh 102.9 g Rh
4 atoms Rh × ×
6.0221 × 10 atoms
23
mol Rh
Density = −8
= 12.42 g/cm3
(3.804 × 10 cm) 3
P  ∆H vap  1 1  296 J 200.6 g

159. ln 1 =  − ; ∆H vap = × = 5.94 × 104 J/mol Hg
P  R T  g mol
 2   2 T1 
 2.56 × 10 −3 torr  5.94 × 10 4 J/mol  1 1 

ln  =  − 
 P2 
 8.3145 J/K • mol  573 K 298.2 K 
 2.56 × 10 −3 torr 
ln  = –11.5, P2 = 2.56 × 10 −3 torr/e −11.5 = 253 torr
 P2 
 
 1 atm 
 253 torr ×  × 15.0 L
PV  760 torr 
n= = = 0.106 mol Hg
RT 0.08206 L atm
× 573 K
K mol
6.022 × 10 23 atoms Hg
0.106 mol Hg × = 6.38 × 1022 atoms Hg
mol Hg
Marathon Problem
160. q = s × m × ∆T; heat loss by metal = heat gain by calorimeter. The change in temperature for
the calorimeter is ∆T = 25.2°C ±0.2°C – 25.0°C ±0.2°C. Including the error limits, ∆T can
range from 0.0 to 0.4°C. Because the temperature change can be 0.0°C, there is no way that
the calculated heat capacity has any meaning.
The density experiment is also not conclusive.

4g
d= 3
= 10 g/cm3 (1 significant figure)
0.42 cm
5g
dhigh = = 12.5 g/cm3 = 10 g/cm3 to 1 sig fig
0.40 cm 3
3g
dlow = 3
= 7 g/cm3
0.44 cm
From Table 1.5, the density of copper is 8.96 g/cm3. The results from this experiment cannot
be used to distinguish between a density of 8.96 g/cm3 and 9.2 g/cm3.
The crystal structure determination is more conclusive. Assuming the metal is copper:
3
 1 × 10 −10 cm 
volume of unit cell = (600. pm) 
3  = 2.16 × 10 − 22 cm 3
 1 pm 
 
1 mol Cu 63.55 g Cu
Cu mass in unit cell = 4 atoms × × = 4.221 × 10 −22 g Cu
6.022 × 10 atoms
23 mol Cu
mass 4.221 × 10 −22 g
d= = − 22
= 1.95 g/cm3
volume 2.16 × 10 cm 3
Because the density of Cu is 8.96 g/cm3, then one can assume this metal is not copper. If the
metal is not Cu, then it must be kryptonite (as the question reads). Because we don’t know the
molar mass of kryptonite, we cannot confirm that the calculated density would be close to 9.2
g/cm3.
To improve the heat capacity experiment, a more precise balance is a must and a more precise
temperature reading is needed. Also, a larger piece of the metal should be used so that ∆T of
the calorimeter has more significant figures. For the density experiment, we would need a
more precise balance and a more precise way to determine the volume. Again, a larger piece
of metal would help in order to ensure more significant figures in the volume.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
This is the letter which Alcuin wrote to the Bishop and monks of
Lindisfarne:—
“To the best sons in Christ of the most blessed Ep. 24. a.d. 793.
father the holy bishop Cuthbert, Higbald the bishop
and the whole body of the Church of Lindisfarne, the deacon
Alchuine sends greeting with heavenly benediction in Christ.
“When I was with you, your friendly love was wont to give me
much joy. And now that I am absent the calamity of your affliction
greatly saddens me every day. The pagans have contaminated the
sanctuaries of God, and have poured out the blood of saints round
about the altar; have laid waste the house of our hope, have
trampled upon the bodies of saints in the temple of God like dung in
the street. What can I say but groan forth along with you before the
altar of Christ, Spare, O Lord, spare thy people; give not thine
heritage to the Gentiles, lest the pagans say ‘Where is the God of
the Christians?’
“What assurance is there for the churches of Britain if the holy
Cuthbert, with so great a number of saints, does not defend his own
Church? Either this is the beginning of greater affliction, or else the
sins of the dwellers there have called it upon them. It has not
happened by chance; it is the sign that calamity was greatly
deserved.
“But now, ye that survive, stand like men, fight bravely, defend the
camp of God. Remember Judas Machabeus, how he purged the
Temple of God, and freed the people from a foreign yoke. If anything
in your manner of life needs correction, pray correct it speedily. Call
back to you your patrons, who have left you for a time. It was not that
their influence with God’s mercy failed; but, we know not why, they
did not speak. Do not boast yourselves in the vanity of raiment; that
is matter not of boasting but of disgrace for priests and servants of
God. Do not blur the words of your prayers with drunkenness. Do not
go forth after pleasures of the flesh and greediness of the world; but
remain firmly in the service of God and in the discipline of the life by
rule; that the most holy fathers whose sons you are may not cease to
be your protectors. Go in their footsteps, and abide secure in their
prayers. Be not degenerate sons of such ancestry. Never will they
cease from your defence, if they see you follow their example.
“Be not utterly cast down in mind by this calamity. God chastens
every son whom he receives; and He has chastened you the more
because he loves you more. Jerusalem, the city loved of God, and
the Temple of God, perished in the flames of the Chaldeans. Rome,
with her coronal of holy Apostles and innumerable martyrs, has been
broken up by a pagan visitation; but by God’s pity has quickly
recovered. Nearly the whole of Europe has been laid waste by the
sword and the fire of Goths and of Huns; but now, by God’s mercy,
as the sky is adorned with stars, so the land of Europe shines bright
with churches, and in them the divine offices of the religion of Christ
flourish and increase.
“And thou, holy father, leader of the people of God, shepherd of
the holy flock, physician of souls, light set upon a candlestick, be the
form of all goodness to them that see you, the herald of salvation to
all that hear you. Let your company be honest in character, an
example to others unto life, not to destruction. Let thy banquets be
with sobriety, not with drunkenness. Let thy dress be suited to thy
condition. Be not conformed unto men of the world in any vain thing.
The empty adornment of dress, and the useless care for it, is for
thee a reproach before men and a sin before God. It is better to
adorn with good habits the soul that is to live for ever, than to dress
up in delicate garments the body that soon will decay in the dust. Let
Christ be clothed and fed in the person of the poor man, that so with
Christ you may reign. The ransom of a man is true riches. If we love
gold, we should send it before us to heaven, where it will be of
service to us. What we love, we have; then let us love that which is
eternal, not that which is perishable. Let us aim at the praise of God,
not of men. Let us do what did the holy men whom we laud. Let us
follow their footsteps on earth, that we may be worthy to be
partakers in their glory in the heavens.
“May the protection of the divine pity keep you from all adversity,
and set you with your fathers in the glory of the kingdom of heaven.
When our lord, King Karl, comes home, his enemies by God’s mercy
subdued, we will arrange to go to him, God helping us. If we are able
then to help your holiness, either in the matter of the youths who
have been carried captive by the pagans, or in any other need of
yours, we will take diligent care to carry it through.”
Alcuin soon after wrote another letter to the bishop and monks of
Lindisfarne, and yet another to Cudrad, probably Cuthred, a
presbyter of Lindisfarne, who had been carried off by the Northmen
and then rescued. In these letters he urges them to bear in mind that
prayers are more valuable as a defence than collections of arrows
and weapons, and heaps of stones for hurling at an enemy. From
this it would appear that the monastery at Lindisfarne was being
fortified.
To the monks of Wearmouth and Jarrow, whose geographical
situation rendered them very liable to a raid by the pirate northmen,
he wrote a very long and interesting letter, some extracts from which
may here be given.
“Keep most diligently the regular life [the life by Ep. 27. a.d. 793.
rule] which your most holy fathers, [the abbats]
Benedict[137] [Biscop] and Ceolfrid,[138] decreed for you.
“Let the Rule of Saint Benedict [of Nursia, the abbat of Monte
Cassino] be very often read in the assembly of the brethren, and
expounded in the vulgar tongue that all may understand.
“Consider whom you have as your defence against the pagans
who have appeared in your maritime parts. Set not your hope on
arms, but on God. Trust not to carnal flight, but in the prayer of your
forefathers. Who does not fear the terrible fate which has befallen
the church of the holy Cuthbert? You, also, dwell on the sea, from
which this pest first comes.
“Bear in mind the nobleness of your fathers, and be not
degenerate sons. Look at the treasures of your library, the beauty of
your churches, the fairness of your buildings. How happy the man
who, from those most fair dwellings, passes to the joys of the
kingdom of heaven.
“Accustom the boys to the praise of the heavenly King, not to
digging out the earths of foxes, not to coursing the swift hare. How
impious it is to leave the worship of Christ and follow the trace of the
fox. Let them learn the sacred Scriptures, that when they are grown
up they may teach others. He who does not learn in youth does not
teach in age. Remember Bede the presbyter, the most noble teacher
of our age, what a love he had for learning as a boy; what honour he
has now among men; what glory of reward with God. Quicken
slumbering minds with his example. Attend lectures; open your
books; study the text; understand its meaning; that you may both
feed yourselves and feed others with the food of the spiritual life.
“Avoid private feasting and secret drinking as a pitfall of hell.
Solomon says that stolen waters are sweet, and bread eaten in
secret is pleasant, but the guests are in the depth of hell; he means
that at such feasts there are demons present. Do not lose eternal
joys for sloth of mind or fleshly delights.”
As we have seen, the same destruction that had come upon
Lindisfarne came very soon after upon Wearmouth and Jarrow. Bede
little knew how close home the blow which he forecast would strike.
We should have felt that something was wanting if no letter had
been preserved from Alcuin to the bishop and monks of Hexham.
Hexham was the see of one of Bede’s most highly valued
correspondents, Acca. Of the very small number of letters written by
Bede which have come down to us, only fourteen in all, eight are
addressed to Acca. They are in the main formal treatises on several
parts of the Old and New Testaments, including a treatise on the
Temple of Solomon which was probably suggested by the
remarkable illustration of the Tabernacle in the Codex Amiatinus.
The Church of St. Andrew, Hexham, built by Wilfrith, and St. Peter,
Ripon, also built by him, were in Wilfrith’s time the two finest
churches north of the Alps. We have the description of them by
Wilfrith’s chaplain, Stephen Eddi.[139] Almost the whole of one of the
two exquisite sculptured crosses which were placed at the head and
foot of Acca’s grave is still in existence. The magnificent restoration
of the Abbey Church of Hexham in this year of grace, 1908, is one of
the greatest ecclesiastical works of the young twentieth century.
“To the shepherd of chief dignity Aedilberit[140] Ep. 88. Before
the bishop, and to all the congregation of the Oct. 16, 797.
servants of God in the Church of St. Andrew [of
Hexham], Alchuini, the humble client of your love in Christ, wishes
health.
“Earnestly desirous of spiritual friendship, I am at pains to address
to your sanctity the poor letters of my littleness, both that I may
renew the pact of our ancient intimacy and that I may commend
myself to your most sacred prayers. And if according to the Apostle
the prayer of one just man availeth much, how much more the
prayers of a most holy congregation in Christ, the intercessions of
whose peaceful concord daily at the canonical hours are believed to
reach heaven, while the secret prayer of each single one beyond
doubt reaches to the ears of the omnipotent God. Wherefore with all
humility of entreaty, so far as my request may avail with your piety, I
commend myself both to the united prayer of all and to the individual
prayer of each; that by the prayers of your sanctity, freed from the
chain of my sins, I may with you, my dearest friends, enter the gates
of life.
“O most noble progeny of holy fathers, successors of their honour
and their venerable life, and inhabiters of their most beautiful places,
follow the footsteps of your fathers; that from these most beautiful
habitations you may attain by the gift of God to a portion in the
eternal blessedness of those that begat you, to the beauty of the
kingdom of heaven.
“Learn to know God and to obey His precepts, Himself saying to
you ‘If thou wilt enter into life, keep the Commandments.’ Therefore
the reading of the Holy Scriptures is necessary, for in them each may
learn what he must follow and what avoid. Let the light of learning
dwell among you, and give light through you to other churches, that
the praise of you may sound forth in the mouth of all, and your
reward may remain eternal in the heavens. Each man shall receive
the reward of his own work. Teach diligently the boys and the young
men the knowledge of books in the way of the Lord, that they may
become worthy to succeed to your honour, and may be your
intercessors. For the prayers of the living are profitable to the dying,
whether to the pardon of sin or to the increase of glory. He who sows
not does not reap; he who learns not does not teach. And such a
house as yours without teachers cannot be, or can scarcely be, safe.
Great is alms-doing, to feed the poor with food for the body; but
greater is it to satisfy the hungry soul with spiritual doctrine. As the
provident shepherd takes care to supply his flock with all that is best,
so the good teacher ought with all pains to procure for those under
him the pastures of eternal life. For the increase of the flock is the
glory of the shepherd, and the multitude of the wise is the safety of
the world. I am aware that you, most holy fathers, fully know all this,
and accomplish it; but the love of him that dictates this has dragged
the words from his mouth, believing that you are willing to read with
pious humility that which I dictate with devoted soberness in the love
of God. Again and again I beseech you that you deign to have my
name in memory among those of your friends.
“May the God Christ Himself hearken to your kindliness
interceding for the whole Church of God, and grant that we may
attain unto the glory of eternal beatitude, my dearest brothers.”
CHAPTER VIII
Alcuin’s letters to King Eardulf and the banished intruder Osbald.—His letters to
King Ethelred and Ethelred’s mother.—The Irish claim that Alcuin studied at
Clonmacnoise.—Mayo of the Saxons.
Alcuin had grievous anxieties about the manner of life of the kings
of his native province, and the continual revolutions and disputed
successions. Things got worse as he grew into older age—old age
as it was then counted.
In the previous chapter we have seen a letter of his to Ethelred,
the King of Northumbria, under date 793. He wrote another letter to
him in that same year, which he addressed in the following
affectionate form:—“To my most excellent son Ethelred the king, to
my most sweet friends Osbald the patrician and Osbert the duke, to
all the friends of my brotherly love, Alchuin the levite desires eternal
beatitude.”
In the year 796 Ethelred, as we have seen, was killed in a faction
fight, after putting to death the last two males of the royal line of
Eadbert, the brother of Archbishop Ecgbert, and was succeeded by
“my most sweet friend Osbald the patrician”, who, however, only
reigned twenty-seven days, and had not time to strike any coins with
his name and effigy. Eardulf, a man of considerable position,
succeeded. He was in a very full manner recognized as king, being
consecrated, as Simeon of Durham tells us (a.d. 796), “in the Church
of St. Peter, at the altar of the blessed apostle Paul, where the race
of the Angles first received the grace of baptism.” On this altar, see
page 81.
It is an interesting fact that we have two letters of Alcuin, written,
the one to (28) Osbald on his banishment, the other to (29) Eardulf
on his succession to the throne from which Osbald had been
banished. It can very seldom have happened that a man has had to
write two letters under such conditions.
“To the illustrious man Eardwulf the King, Ep. 65. a.d. 796.
Alchuine[141] the deacon sends greeting.
“Mindful of the old friendship to which we are pledged, and
rejoicing greatly in thy venerated salutation, I am at pains to address
thy laudable person with a letter on a few points touching the
prosperity of the kingdom conferred on thee by God, and the
salvation of thy soul, and the manner in which the honour put into thy
hands by the gift of God may remain stable.
“Thou knowest very well from what dangers the divine mercy has
freed thee,[142] and how easily, when it would, it has brought thee to
the kingdom. Be always grateful, and mindful of such very great gifts
of God to thee; that as far as thou canst the will of God thou wilt do
with thy whole heart; and be obedient to the servants of God who
keep thee warned of His Commandments. Know of a surety that
none other can preserve thy life than He who hath freed thee from
present death; and none can protect and keep thee in that honour of
thine but He who of His free pity hath granted that dignity to thee.
Keep diligently in thy mind mercy and justice, for, as Solomon says,
and, more than that, God allows, in mercy and justice shall the
throne of a kingdom be established.
“Consider most intently for what sins thy predecessors have lost
their kingdom and their life, and take exceeding care that thou do not
the like, lest the same judgement fall on thee. The perjuries of some
God has condemned; the adulteries of others He has punished; the
avarice and deceits of others He has avenged; the injustice of others
has displeased Him. God is no respecter of persons, and those who
do such things shall not possess the kingdom of God. Instruct first
thyself in all goodness and soberness, and afterwards the people
over whom thou art set, in all modesty of life and of raiment, in all
truth of faith and of judgements, in keeping the Commandments of
God and in probity of morals. So wilt thou both stablish thy kingdom,
and save thy people, and rescue them from the wrath of God, which
by sure signs has long been hanging over them.
“Never would so much blood of nobles and of rulers be poured
forth in your nation, never would the pagans lay waste holy places,
never would such injustice and arrogance prevail among the people,
if it were not that the manifest vengeance of God hangs over the
inhabiters of the land. Do thou, preserved as I believe for better
times, kept to set thy country right, do thou, by God’s grace aiding
thee, work out with full intent, in God’s will, the safety of thine own
soul and the prosperity of the country and the people committed to
thy charge; so that out of the setting-right of those subject to thy rule,
thy kingdom here on earth may be stablished, and the glory of the
kingdom to come be granted to thee and thy descendants.
“Let this letter, I pray you, be kept with you, and very often read,
for the sake of thy welfare and of my love, that the omnipotent God
may deign to preserve thee in the increase of His holy church for the
welfare of our race, flourishing long time in thy kingdom and
advancing in all that is good.”
That letter finished, Alcuin proceeded next to write to the expelled
usurper Osbald. He did not mince matters; he dealt, as people say,
very faithfully with him.
“To my loved friend Osbald,[143] Alchuine the Ep. 66. a.d. 796.
deacon sends greeting.
“I am displeased with thee, that thou didst not obey me when I
urged thee in my letter of more than two years ago to abandon the
lay life and serve God according to thy vow. And now a worse, a
more disastrous fate has come upon thy life. Turn again, turn again
and fulfil thy vow. Seek an opportunity for entering upon the service
of God, lest thou perish with those infamous men, if indeed thou art
innocent of the blood of thy lord.[144] But if thou art guilty, by consent
or design, confess thy sin; be reconciled with God, and leave the
company of the murderers. The love of God and of the saints is
better for thee than that of evil-doers.
“Add not sin to sin by devastating thy country, by shedding blood.
Think how much blood of kings, princes, and people has been shed
by thee and thy kinsmen. Unhappy generation, from which so many
evils have happened to the land. Set thyself free, I beseech thee by
God, that thou perish not eternally. While there is time, run, hasten,
hurry, to the mercy of God, who is ready to receive the penitent and
to comfort them that turn to Him; lest a day come when thou
wouldest and canst not. Do not incur the shame of giving up what
thou hast begun. There is more shame in your soul perishing
eternally than in deserting in the present impious men. Better still if
you can convert some of them from the wickedness they have
committed: do your best, that you may have the reward of your own
repentance and of other’s repentance too. This is the love that
covereth a multitude of sins; do this, and live happily and fare well in
peace.
“I beg that you will have this letter frequently read in your
presence, that you may be mindful of yourself in God, and may know
what care I have, distant though I am, of your welfare.
“If you can at all influence for good the people[145] among whom
you are in exile, do not neglect the opportunity, that you may by
God’s grace the earlier reach your own recovery.”
The murder of Ethelred gave rise to this letter. Alcuin had been
very faithful in his advice to Ethelred, as the following letter well
shows. It is very carefully composed, and a great anxiety breathes in
every balanced phrase.
“To the most beloved lord Aedelred the king Ep. 42. 790-795.
Alchuine the deacon sends greeting.
“The intimacy of love urges me to write an intimate letter to thee
alone.[146] Because I shall always love thee I shall never cease to
admonish thee, in order that, being subdued to the will of God thou
mayest be made worthy of His protection, and the nobility of the
royal dignity may be made honourable by nobility of conduct.
“No man is free or noble who is the slave of sin. The Lord says,
[147] ‘Whosoever committeth sin is the slave of sin.’ It becometh not
thee, seated on the throne of the kingdom, to live like common men.
Anger should not be lord over thee, but reason. Pity should make
thee loveable, not cruelty hateful. Truth should proceed from thy
mouth, not falsehood. Be to thine own self conscious of chasteness,
not of lust; of self-control, not of riotous living; of sobriety, not of
drunkenness. Be not notable in any sin, but laudable in every good
work. Be large in giving, not greedy in taking. Let justice embellish all
thine actions. Be the type of honour to all that see thee. Do not, do
not, take other men’s goods by force lest thou lose thine own. Fear
God who has said ‘with what judgement ye judge ye shall be judged.’
Love the God Christ and obey His commands, that His mercy may
preserve in blessing to thee, and to thy sons and followers, the
kingdom which He has willed that thou shouldest hold, and may
deign to grant the glory of future beatitude.
“May the omnipotent God cause to flourish in felicity of reign, in
dignity of life, in length of prosperity, thee, my most beloved son.”
We have letters written by Alcuin to Etheldryth the mother of king
Ethelred, queen of Ethelwold Moll, king of Northumbria 759 to 765,
who married her at Catterick in 762. In her widowhood she became
an abbess, ruling over a mixed monastery of men and women, as is
shown by the following letter, written before Ethelred’s violent death:
—
“To the most loved sister in Christ the Mother Ep. 50. a.d. 793-
Aedilthyde the humble levite Alchuine sends 796.
greeting.
“When I gratefully received the gifts of your benignity, and gladly
heard the salutation of your love, I confess that I was made glad by a
great sweetness. For I knew that faithful love remained constant in
your breast, which neither distance by land nor the stormy wave of
tidal sea could stop from flying to me with beneficent munificence,
even as it is said, ‘Many waters cannot quench love, neither can the
floods drown it.’[148]
“That thou mayest be worthy to hear in the day of judgement the
voice of God saying, ‘Well done, thou good and faithful servant,’
instruct with instant care those that are under thee, admonish them
by word, perfect them by example, for their safety is thy reward. Be
not silent for fear of man, but for love of God speak, convince,
rebuke, beseech. Them that sin openly chastise before all,[149] that
the rest may fear. Some admonish in the spirit of gentleness, others
seize in the pastoral staff, diligently thinking out the remedy which
best suits each. Sweet potions cure some; bitter, others. Honour the
old women and the old men as mothers and fathers; love the
youthful as brothers and sisters; teach the little ones as sons and
daughters; have care for all in Christ, that in Christ you may have
reward for all.
“Let thy vigils and prayers be frequent; let psalms be in thy mouth,
not vain talk on thy tongue; the love of God in thy heart, not worldly
ambition in thy mind; for all that is loved in the world passes away, all
that is esteemed in Christ remains. Whether we will or no, we shall
be eternal. We should study with all intentness faithfully there to live
where we are always to remain.
“Honour frequently with divine praise and alms to the poor the
festivals of saints, that you may be worthy of their intercession and
partakers of their bliss. Let thy discourses be laudable for their truth;
thy conduct loveable for its sobriety and modesty; thy hands
honourable for their free giving. Let the whole round of your life be
an example in all goodness to others, that the dignity of your person
be praised by all, be loved by many, and the name of God through
thee be praised; as the Truth Itself saith, ‘Let your light so shine
before men that they may see your good works and glorify your
Father which is in heaven.’”
The line which Alcuin takes in attempting to console Etheldryth
after the violent death of a son who had lived a violent life, was a
remarkable one.
“I cannot in bodily presence address by word of Ep. 62.
mouth your most sweet affection, because we live
so far apart. I therefore do by the ministry of a letter that which is
denied to my tongue. With all the power of my heart, I desire that you
go forward in every good thing, most dear mother, and be made
worthy to be counted in the number of them of whom, in the gospel,
our Lord Jesus Christ made answer, ‘Whosoever shall do the will of
my Father which is in heaven, the same is my mother and my
brother.’[150] How ‘mother,’ unless He is daily generated by holy love
in the bowels of a perfect heart? See what a Son a pious mother can
have—that same God, King, Redeemer, in all tribulations Consoler.
“Many are the tribulations of the just, but more are the
consolations of Christ. By what event of secular misery should one
be beaten who possesses in his breast the source of all consolation,
that is, Christ indwelling. Nay, rather should such an one rejoice in
tribulations, because of the hope of eternal beatitude, as the Apostle
says, ‘By much tribulation we must enter into the kingdom of God,’
and, ‘The Lord chasteneth every son whom He receiveth’; and of the
Apostles He saith, ‘They departed from the presence of the council,
rejoicing that they were counted worthy to suffer shame for His
name.’
“Let your love know that your spiritual Son the Lord Jesus is not
mortal. He lives, He lives, on the right hand of God He lives and
reigns.
“Be not broken down by the death of your son after the flesh, the
departure of his body, but labour every hour, every moment, that his
soul may live in happiness with Christ. Let the hope of His goodness
be your consolation, for many are the mercies of God. He has left
thee thy son’s survivor that through thy intercessions and alms He
may have mercy on him too. It may be that he died in his sins, but in
the divine pity it may be wrought that he live; for the robber who in
his wickedness hanged with Christ was saved in the mercy of Christ.
Mourn not for him whom you can not recall. If he is with God, mourn
him not as lost, but be glad that he has gone before you into rest. If
there are two friends, the death of the first to die is happier than the
death of the other, for he has one to intercede for him daily with
brotherly love, and to wash with tears the errors of his earlier life.
And doubt not that the care of pious solicitude which you have for his
soul is profitable. It profits thee and him. Thee, that thou dost it in
faith and love; him, that either his pain is lightened or his bliss is
increased. Great and inestimable is the pity of our Lord Jesus Christ,
who would have all men be saved and none perish.”
Our next episode takes us back to York, where one of Alcuin’s own
pupils was elected to the archbishopric. It may be well to mention
here, and to dispose of, a curious question which has been raised in
connexion with Alcuin’s studies in the time of his youth, pursued as
we believe only at York.
Alcuin is claimed by the Irish as one of the many Ep. 14. a.d. 790.
English youths who were brought up in Irish
monasteries, and they name Clonmacnoise as the place of study. Dr.
John Healy, the learned Roman Bishop of Clonfert, writes thus[151]:
—“There is fortunately a letter of his still preserved, which shows
quite clearly that he was a student of Clonmacnoise, and a pupil of
Colgu, and which also exhibits the affectionate veneration that he
retained through life for his Alma Mater at Clonmacnoise.” But the
letter does not bear that interpretation, and, indeed, the learned
bishop has to read Hibernia instead of Britannia in the only place
where the island of Colgu’s home is named, or to understand an
implied contrast between Britain and Ireland which would be too
obscure in a perfectly simple matter. “I have sent to your love”,
Alcuin says, “some oil, which now scarcely exists in Britain, that you
may supply it where the bishops need it, for the furtherance of the
honour of God.[152] I have sent also to the brethren, of the alms of
King Karl[153]—I beseech you, pray for him—fifty sicles[154], and of
my own alms fifty sicles; to the brethren of Baldhuninga to the south,
thirty sicles of the alms of the king and thirty of my own alms, and
twenty sicles of the alms of the father of the family of Areida and
twenty of my own alms; and to each of the anchorites three sicles of
pure gold, that they may pray for me and for the lord King Charles.”
There is nothing here that points to Ireland except the name of the
person to whom the letter is addressed, Colcu, whom Alcuin speaks
of as “the blessed master and pious father”. The name Baldhuninga
is very Northumbrian, the home of the family of Baldhun. The
mention of anchorites has been supposed to look like Ireland, but we
must remember that Alcuin himself, in singing the praises of the
saints of the Church of York, tells of the life of only two persons of his
own time other than kings and archbishops, and they were
anchorites.[155] The gift of money from the father-of-the-family of
Areida clearly comes from some one in Gaul who is very closely
associated with Alcuin himself. It so happens that the Abbey of Tours
had a small cell dedicated to St. Aredius, and the suggestion may be
hazarded that the little family of monks there sent through their prior
the twenty sicles which Alcuin doubled. It is evident that Colcu had
conferred benefits on those in whom Alcuin was specially interested,
and we may suppose that on some visit to Alcuin he had delivered a
course of lectures by which the monks of St. Aredius had profited.
He was probably a professor (his actual title was lector, a name still
kept up for a public lecturer at the University of Cambridge) at the
School of York. There was a famous Reader in Theology of the same
name, or as much the same as any one can expect in early Erse,
Colgan or Colgu, who lived and lectured at Clonmacnoise and died
there in 794, four years after Alcuin wrote this letter at the beginning
of the year 790. It is of course tempting to suppose that this famous
Irishman, the first Ferlegind or Lector recorded in the Irish Annals,
was the Colcu to whom Alcuin wrote, the Colcu of whom Alcuin in a
letter written at the end of this same year 790 said that he was with
him and was well. That letter was addressed to one of Alcuin’s
pupils, Joseph, whose master the letter says Colcu had been. On the
whole, we must take it that our Colcu was too closely associated with
Alcuin’s teaching and with Northumbria to be the Colgu of whom
Bishop Healy says that though he was a Munster-man by birth he
seems to have lived and died at Clonmacnoise. But it is another
puzzling coincidence that Simeon of Durham records the death of
Colcu, evidently as of one who had worked in the parts of which he
was commissioned to write, in the year of the death of Colgu of
Clonmacnoise, 794: “Colcu, presbyter and lector, migrated from this
light to the Lord.”
We have a letter of Alcuin’s addressed to “the Ep. 217. a.d. 792-
most noble sons of holy church who throughout the 804.
breadth of the Hibernian island are seen to serve
Christ the God in the religious life and in the study of wisdom”. In this
letter Alcuin fully recognizes that in the old time most learned
masters used to come from Hibernia to Britain, Gaul, and Italy, and
did excellent work among the churches. But beyond that, the letter,
which is far from a short one, is so completely vague that it is
impossible to imagine that Alcuin had studied in Ireland, or had had
the help, in England or in France, of one of the most famous of Irish
teachers from one of the most famous of their seats of religion and
learning.
The same impression is given by Alcuin’s letter Ep. 276.
to the monks of Mayo, of whom he naturally knew
more. When the Conference of Whitby went against the Scotic
practices, Bishop Colman retired, first to Iona, then to Inisbofin, and
then to the place in Ireland now called Mayo, where he settled the
thirty Anglo-Saxon monks who had accompanied him, leaving the
Scotic monks, formerly of Lindisfarne, in Inisbofin, “the island of the
white heifer.” Bede tells us that Mayo was kept supplied by English
monks, so that it was called Mayo of the Saxons. Curiously enough
they kept up the practice of having a bishop at their head in
succession to their first head, Bishop Colman of Lindisfarne. There
were bishops of Mayo down to 1559. In Alcuin’s time Mayo was still
a Saxon monastery. The Irish Annals of the Four Masters mention a
Bishop Aedan of Mayo, in 768; but his real name was English,
Edwin, not Irish, Aedan, as we learn from Simeon of Durham. Alcuin
must certainly have mentioned his own visit to Ireland in his letter to
the monks of Mayo, if such a visit had ever taken place. The letter
was written late in his life. He tells them that when he lived in
Northumbria he used to hear of them from brethren who visited
England. He reminds them that for the love of Christ they had
chosen to leave their own country, and live in a land foreign to them,
and be oppressed by nefarious men. He urged them to keep
zealously the regular life, as established by their holy predecessors;
and to devote themselves to study, for a great light of knowledge had
come forth from them, and had lighted many places in Northumbria.
The lord bishop they must hold as a father in all reverence and love,
and he must rule them and their life with all fear in the sight of God.
The story of the migration from Lindisfarne to Mayo, as told by
Bede (H. E. iv. 4), is so quaintly Irish in its main part, that it may fairly
be told here in Bede’s words. After stating that Colman took with him
all the Scotic monks of Lindisfarne, and thirty Saxons, and went first
to Iona, he proceeds thus:—
“Then he went away to a small island some distance off the west
coast of Hibernia, called in the Scotic tongue Inis-bofin, that is, the
Isle of the White Heifer. There he built a monastery, and in it he
placed the monks of both nations whom he had brought with him.
They could not agree among themselves; for the Scots left the
monastery when the summer came and harvest had to be gathered
in, and roamed about through places with which they were
acquainted. When winter came they returned to the monastery, and
claimed to live on what the English had stored. Colman felt that he
must find some remedy. Looking about near and far he found a place
on the main land suitable for the construction of a monastery, called
in the Scots tongue Mageo. He bought a small portion of the land
from the earl to whom it belonged, on which to build, on condition
that the monks placed there should offer prayers to God for him who
had allowed it to be purchased. With the help of the earl and all the
neighbours he built the monastery and placed the English monks in
it, leaving the Scots on Inisbofin. The monastery is to this day held
by English monks. It has grown large from small beginnings, and is
commonly called Mageo[156]. All has been brought into good order,
and it contains an excellent body of monks, collected from the
province of the Angles. They live by the labour of their own hands in
great continence and simplicity, after the example of their venerable
fathers, under the Rule and under a canonical abbat.”
Bede appears to have not known anything of a bishop-abbat of
Mayo.
It is clear that the bishop-abbat acted as a diocesan bishop in the
neighbourhood of Mayo. In the year 1209 the Irish Annals record the
death of Cele O’Duffy, Bishop of Magh Eo of the Saxons, the name
Magh Eo, or Mageo, meaning the Plain of Yews. In 1236 Mayo of the
Saxons was pillaged by a Burke, who “left neither rick nor basket of
corn in the church-enclosure of Mayo, or in the yard of the church of
St. Michael the Archangel; and he carried away eighty baskets out of
the churches themselves”. It was for protection in such raids that the
round towers were built adjoining the churches. In 1478 the death of
Higgins, Bishop of Mayo of the Saxons, is recorded. The see was
about that time annexed to Tuam so completely that the Canons of
Mayo ceased to have the status of Canons of a Cathedral Church.
Alcuin used the form Mugeo, not Mageo, and Simeon of Durham
calls it “Migensis ecclesia”. This last form explains the signature—or
rather the “subscription”—of one of six bishops present at a Council
under King Alfwold of Northumbria in 786, “Ego Aldulfus Myiensis
ecclesiae episcopus devota voluntate subscripsi[157].”
CHAPTER IX
Alcuin’s letter to all the prelates of England.—To the Bishops of Elmham and
Dunwich.—His letters on the election to the archbishopric of York.—To the new
archbishop, and the monks whom he sent to advise him.—His urgency that
Bishops should read Pope Gregory’s Pastoral Care.
Alcuin, as we have seen, felt himself entitled to write frankly to

persons in the most exalted and important positions, though only an
abbat. To individual bishops and archbishops he wrote very frankly,
though only a deacon. In his correspondence with kings and bishops
and other persons in his native land, we get the impression that he
felt himself to be in a much larger sphere of operations, able to take
a much larger view of affairs, than from the nature of the case they
could be or do.
Here is a letter which may be taken as a good illustration of this
remark:—
“To the most holy in Christ and in all honour to be Ep. 61. a.d. 796.
by us beloved, the pontiffs of Britain our most
sweet native land, the humble levite Alchuin, a son of the holy
church of York, greeting in the love of Christ.
“Having great confidence in your goodness, my reverend fathers,
and in the acceptableness to God of your prayers, and having a
convenient opportunity for commending myself to your charity as a
body, I do not neglect the occasion of time and messenger. I offer
myself to your holiness, suppliantly praying each one of you to take
me as his son for the love and affection of God, and to intercede
along with his fellow-warriors for the safety of my soul. For I also,
according to the ability of my littleness, am a devoted interceder for
your honour and success.
“Let your affection know that the lord Charles the king greatly
desires the supplications of your holiness to the Lord, alike for
himself and the stability of his realm and for the spread of the
Christian name, and for the soul of the most reverend father Adrian
the Pope, for faithfulness of friendship towards a dead friend is most
highly approved.
“One who intercedes for such a friend no doubt greatly enhances
his own merits with God. The aforesaid lord king for the furtherance
of this his petition has sent to your holiness some small gifts of
blessing.[158] I pray you to accept with gladness what he has sent
and to do faithfully what he asks of you; that the faith of your
goodness may meet with a great reward from God, and the religion
of humbleness may be widely praised among men.
“O my most holy fathers and shepherds, O most clear light of the
whole of Britain, feed the flock of Christ, which is with you, by
assiduous preaching of the Gospel and good example of holy life.
Preach with truth, correct with vigour, exhort with persuasion. Stand
with your loins girt in the army of Christ, and your lights burning, that
your light may shine before all who are in the house of God, that they
may see your good works and glorify our Father which is in Heaven.
The time of labour here is exceeding short, the time of reward is the
longest eternity. What is happier than to pass from this present
misery to eternal bliss. See to it diligently that the land which our
ancestors received by the gift of God may by celestial benediction be
preserved to our descendants. The increase of the flock is the
reward of the shepherd, the safety of the people the praise of the
priest. Let all intemperance and injustice be prohibited, all honesty
and sobriety be taught, that in every walk of life the God Christ be
honoured, and His blessed grace keep you in every part to the
praise and glory of His name for ever.
“That you may be sure this comes from us, we have sub-sealed it
with our seal.
“The blessing of God the Father in the grace and love of Christ
and in the consolation of the Holy Spirit be with you and keep you in
all good, my lords most holy, my fathers most worthy of honour,
mindful of us for ever. Amen.”

Ebook Chemistry 10Th Edition Zumdahl Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook Chemistry 10Th Edition Zumdahl Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemistry 10th Edition Zumdahl

LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

22. Equilibrium: There is no change in composition; the vapor pressure is constant.

b. As temperature increases, the rate of evaporation increases.

c. As surface area increases, the rate of evaporation increases.

27. Sublimation will occur, allowing water to escape as H2O(g).

London dispersion forces. H2O exhibits the relatively strong hydrogen-bonding

Intermolecular Forces and Physical Properties

d. ionic e. LD only (CH4 is a nonpolar covalent compound.)

38. a. ionic b. dipole, LD (LD = London dispersion) c. LD only

d. LD only (For all practical purposes, a C ‒ H bond can be considered as a nonpolar

c. H2NCH2CH2NH2; more extensive hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) is possible because

b. HF is capable of H-bonding; HCl is not.

d. n-Hexane is a larger molecule, so it has stronger LD forces.

Structures and Properties of Solids

2 d sin θ 2 × 1.36 × 10 −10 m × sin 15.0 o

l = r 8 = 197 × 10 −12 m × 8 = 5.57 × 10 −10 m = 5.57 × 10 −8 cm

Volume of a unit cell = l3 = (5.57 × 10 −8 cm)3 = 1.73 × 10 −22 cm3

mass 2.662 × 10 −22 g

For a face-centered cube:

The mass of atoms in a unit cell is:

mass 1.38 × 10 −21 g

56. In simple cubic unit cell, there are:

8 corner atoms × 1/8 atom per corner = 1 atom/unit cell

Solving: l = 3.35 × 10 −8 cm = cube edge length (carrying an extra sig. fig.)

mass of X = volume × density = (4.09 × 10 −8 cm)3 × 10.5 g/cm3 = 7.18 × 10 −22 g

Radius = r = l / 8 = 392 × 10−12 m / 8 = 1.39 × 10−10 m = 1.39 × 10−8 cm

The molar mass of X is:

Solving: l = edge length of unit cell = 3.28 × 10 −8 cm = 328 pm

The triangle we need to solve is:

(4r)2 = (3.28 × 10 −8 cm)2 + [(3.28 × 10 −8 cm) 2 ]2, r = 1.42 × 10 −8 cm = 142 pm

60. From Exercise 59:

l = 2.309(222 pm) = 513 pm = 5.13 × 10−8 cm

l = 407 × 10−12 m = 4.07 × 10−8 cm

l = 333 × 10−10 cm = 3.33 × 10−8 cm

62. If face-centered cubic:

l = r 8 = (137 pm) 8 = 387 pm = 3.87 × 10 −8 cm

The measured density of tungsten is consistent with a body-centered unit cell.

Volume of unit cell = l3 = (4r/ 3 )3 = (12.32)r3

Volume = l3 = 2.36 × 10 −23 cm3, l = 2.87 × 10 −8 cm

l = 4r/ 3 , r = l 3 / 4 = 2.87 × 10 −8 cm × 3 / 4 = 1.24 × 10 −8 cm = 124 pm

hc (6.63 × 10 −34 J s) (3.00 × 10 8 m/s)

hc (6.626 × 10 −34 J s) (2.998 × 10 8 m/s)

76. A repeating pattern in the two-dimensional structure is:

l = 2 rO 2− + 2 rMg 2+ , 4.21 × 10 −8 cm = 2(1.49 × 10 −8 cm) + 2 rMg 2 + , rMg 2+ = 6.15 × 10 −9 cm

Assuming K+ and Cl− just touch along the cube edge l:

l = 2(314 pm) = 628 pm = 6.28 × 10−8 cm

Volume of unit cell = l3 = (6.28 × 10−8 cm)3

Body diagonal = 2 rCs + + 2 rCl − = 3 l , l = length of cube edge

In each unit cell:

l 3 = 7.04 × 10 −23 cm3, l = 4.13 × 10 −8 cm = 413 pm = length of cube edge

2 rCs + + 2 rCl − = 3 l = 3 (413 pm) = 715 pm

l = 4.47 × 10−8 cm = 2rMn 2+ + 2(1.40 × 10−8 cm), rMn 2+ = 8.35 × 10−8 cm = 84 pm

83. a. CO2: molecular b. SiO2: network c. Si: atomic, network

84. a. diamond: atomic, network b. PH3: molecular c. H2: molecular

c. Both have a coordination number of 8 (both are surrounded by 8 atoms).

87. Structure 1 (on left) Structure 2 (on right)

89. a. Y: 1 Y in center; Ba: 2 Ba in center

90. a. Structure (a):

Tl and Ba are the same as in structure (a).

Structure (d): Following similar calculations, formula = TlBa2Ca3Cu4O11.

c. TlBa2CuO5: 3 + 2(2) + x + 5(−2) = 0, x = +3