Globalization Diversity Geography of A Changing World 5Th Edition Rowntree Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Globalization Diversity Geography of a
Changing World 5th Edition Rowntree

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Southwest Asia
7
and North Africa
Learning Objectives
• Explain how latitude and topography produce the region’s distinctive patterns of climate.
• Describe how the region’s fragile, often arid setting shapes contemporary environmental
challenges.
• Describe four distinctive ways in which people have learned to adapt their agricultural
practices to the region’s arid environment.
• Summarize the major forces shaping recent migration patterns within the region.
• List the major characteristics and patterns of diffusion of Islam.
• Identify the key modern religions and language families that dominate the region.
• Identify the role of cultural variables in understanding key regional conflicts in North Africa,
Israel, Syria, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula.
• Summarize the geography of oil and gas reserves in the region.
• Describe traditional roles for Islamic women and provide examples of recent changes.
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction: Southwest Asia and North Africa is an awkward term and complex
region; sometimes called “Middle East”; problems with identifying geographical limits
of region; diverse social milieu; region is a key culture hearth—produced many new
cultural ideas that diffused widely; many key members of Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) are located here; Islamic Fundamentalism in region
advocates return to more traditional practices; a related political movement is
Islamism—challenges the encroachment of global popular culture and blames Western
society for political, social, and economic problems; Cairo’s Tahrir Square was a
gathering point in the Arab Spring movement—a series of public protests, strikes, and
rebellions that called for fundamental government and economic reforms; the place of
Tahrir Square became a symbol
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© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Globalization and Diversity: Geography of a Changing World
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: Life in a Fragile Word: a complex
physical setting that belies the stereotype of shifting sands; a fragile environment that
faces difficult ecological problems
A. Regional Landforms: in North Africa, the Maghreb (“western island”) includes
Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia—is dominated near Mediterranean coastline by
Atlas Mountains; interior North Africa varies between rocky plateaus and
extensive desert lowlands; Southwest Asia is more mountainous; the Levant—
eastern Mediterranean; Arabian Peninsula is massive tilted plateau; north and east
of Arabian Peninsula are two upland areas: the Iranian and Anatolian plateaus
(Anatolia refers to peninsula of Turkey—sometimes called Asia Minor); smaller
lowlands in other parts of Southwest Asia, especially the Tigris and Euphrates
river valleys and the Jordan River valley
B. Patterns of Climate: complex pattern resultant from latitude and altitude; aridity
dominates much of region—nearly continuous belt of desert land stretches across
North Africa through Arabian Peninsula into Iran—plant and animal life has
adapted to extreme conditions; elsewhere, altitude produces climatic variety;
Atlas Mountains and nearby lowlands experience Mediterranean climate, also
found along Levant coastline and Anatolian plateaus and Elburz Mountains
C. Legacies of a Vulnerable Landscape: environmental history reflects both short-
sighted and resourceful practices; reveals hazards of lengthy human settlement on
marginal lands; island of Socotra illustrates fragile and vulnerable environment
and shows how processes of globalization threaten area’s ecological health
a. Deforestation and Overgrazing: an ancient problem in region; human
activities combined with natural conditions have reduce most of region’s
forests to grass and scrubs; several governments have launched
reforestation schemes
b. Salinization: the buildup of toxic salts in the soil is long problem;
resultant from irrigation practices; problem especially severe in Iraq
c. Managing Water: occupants have modified drainage systems and water
flows for thousands of years—usually at local level; scope of
environmental change in recent years has been magnified, with
construction of major dams, leading to additional problems of silting,
salinization, and collapse of fishing industries; in some places, water-
harvesting strategies have proven useful; fossil water—water supplies
stored underground, have been utilized; some countries investing in
seawater desalination projects; hydropolitics—interplay of water
resource issues and politics—has raised tensions between countries that
share drainage basins; region’s physical geography produced choke
points—where narrow waterways are vulnerable to military blockade
or disruption
D. Climate Change in Southwest Asia and North Africa: projected changes will
aggravate environmental issues; temperature change will likely impact region—
warmer temperatures will produce higher evaporation rates and lower overall soil
moisture thus stressing crops, grasslands, vegetation; may adversely affect
hydroelectric potential; sea-level changes will threaten Nile Delta, thus harming
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Chapter 7: Southwest Asia and North Africa
agriculture; climate change may augment political tensions; three aspects of the
IPCC 2014 report: higher evaporation and lower soil moisture; warmer
temperatures reduced runoff and hydroelectric potential; more extreme
summertime temperature records
III. Population and Settlement: Changing Rural and Urban Worlds: human geography
of region demonstrates intimate tie between water and life; some areas sparsely
populated, others suffer from crowding and overpopulation
A. The Geography of Population: approximately 500 million people in region,
distribution is varied; dense populations along coasts of Atlas Mountains; much of
Egypt is sparsely populated except along Nile River; in Southwest Asia, many
people live in coastal zones; high population densities in better-watered areas of
eastern Mediterranean, Turkey, and Iran; physiological density—number of
people per unit area of arable land—is very high by global standards
B. Water and Life: Rural Settlement Patterns: Southwest Asia is one of world’s
earliest hearths of domestication—the purposeful selection and breeding of plants
and animals; beginning 10,000 years ago, cattle, sheep, and goats were
domesticated, as well as wheat and barley; much activity focused on Fertile
Crescent—ecologically diverse zone stretches from Levant inland through
northern Syria and into Iraq; knowledge of irrigation and also emergence of
political states contributed to diffusion of agriculture into Tigris and Euphrates
valleys (Mesopotamia) and North Africa’s Nile Valley
a. Pastoral Nomadism: a traditional form of subsistence agriculture where
people move livestock seasonally; nomads practice transhumance—
seasonally moving livestock to cooler, greener high-country pastures in
summer and returning to valleys and lowlands for fall and winter
grazing—practiced in Atlas Mountains and Anatolian Plateau
b. Oasis Life: permanent oases exist where high groundwater levels or
modest deep-water wells provide reliable water; tightly clustered, often
walled villages, with intensely utilized fields located near oases; usually
produce for subsistence—but increased demands for some products (e.g.,
figs and dates) have incorporated these isolated locations into global
economy
c. Exotic Rivers: historically, most dense settlements tied to irrigated river
valleys; here, exotic rivers transport river from humid regions to arid
regions; important in Nile Valley, Jordan River, foothills of Atlas
Mountains, and Anatolian and Iranian plateaus
d. The Challenge of Dryland Agriculture: Mediterranean climates permit
dryland agriculture that depends on seasonal moisture; mechanization,
crop specialization, fertilizer use are transforming agricultural settings
C. Many-Layered Landscapes: The Urban Imprint: cities have played key role
in human geography of region for centuries
a. A Long Urban Legacy: cities historically as centers of political and
religious authority; urbanization in Mesopotamia began by 3500 BCE; early
cities of Eridu and Ur; other cities along trade routes; Islam left enduring
mark on cities; traditional Islamic city includes walled core (medina)
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dominated by central mosque, nearby bazaar (suq) which serves as market,

housing districts as maze of narrow streets for shade and privacy; European
colonialism shaped some cities with westernized architecture
b. Signatures of Globalization: since 1950s cities in region have become
gateways to global economy; new investment, industrialization, tourism—
expanded airports, commercial/financial districts, industrial parks, luxury
tourist facilities; oil-rich states of Persian Gulf have displayed greatest
changes in urban landscape
D. A Region on the Move: new patterns of migration reflect global economy and
recent political events; foreign workers have migrated to areas with large labor
demands—with economic, social, and demographic implications; political forces
have affected migration, including refugee movements; the Syrian conflict has
impacted both neighboring states (Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan) and Europe as a
preferred destination despite the distance
E. Shifting Demographic Patterns: high population growth remains critical issue in
region; currently exhibits varied regional patterns of growth rates; patterns
associated with urbanization and religion
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Signatures of Complexity: although defined as
Islamic and Arab “world”—religious and linguistic diversity characterize region
A. Patterns of Religion: very important part of lives of most people in region
a. Hearth of the Judeo-Christian Tradition: both Jews and Christians
trace religious roots to eastern Mediterranean hearth; monotheism—belief
in one God; Christianity as outgrowth of Judaism emerged in vicinity of
modern-day Israel
b. The Emergence of Islam: Islam originated in the same general region in
622 CE Islam diffused widely but remains centered in Southwest Asia;
Islam follows religious teachings of Muhammad, founder of Islam, who
was born in Mecca in 570 CE and taught in Medina; parallel Judeo-
Christian traditions but hold that Quran—book of teachings received by
Muhammad from Allah (God)—represents God’s highest religious and
moral revelations to humanity; Islam offers blueprint for leading ethical
and religious life; Islam means “submission to the will of God”; five
essential activities: repeating basic creed; praying facing Mecca five times
daily, giving alms or donations to charities, fasting during Ramadan, and
making at least one pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca; Islamic fundamentalists
argue for theocratic state—in which religious leaders (ayatollahs) shape
government policy; major religion division occurred in 632 CE after death
of Muhammad—Shiites favored passing on power within Muhammad’s
family, while most Muslims, later known as Sunnis, advocated power
passed through clergy; Sunni Islam remains mainstream branch; Islam
diffused along caravan routes and military campaigns; Ottoman Empire
was focus of Muslim political power between 16th and 20th centuries
c. Modern Religious Diversity: Muslims form majority of population in all
countries except Israel—where Judaism dominates; divisions within Islam
create regional cultural differences; most of region dominated by Sunni
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Muslims; but Shiites remain key in some locations, including Iraq, Iran,
and Bahrain—also substantial minorities in Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia,
Yemen, Egypt; other variations of Islam include Sufism, which is
prominent in Atlas Mountains, parts of Turkey; the Druze of Lebanon also
another variant; many non-Islamic communities in region, including
Christians in Lebanon; Jerusalem—Israel’s capital—holds special
significance for Muslims, Jews, and Christians
B. Geographies of Language: although referred to as “Arab World,” linguistic
complexity is present
a. Semites and Berbers: Afro-Asiatic languages dominate region; Arabic-
speaking Semitic peoples found throughout; Arabic language was sacred
language in which God delivered message to Muhammad; Hebrew is
Semitic language—originated in Levant and used by ancient Israelites;
older Afro-Asiatic languages survive in remote locations—collectively
known as Berber, these languages are related but not mutually intelligible
b. Persians and Kurds: much of Iranian Plateau and nearby mountains
dominated by older Indo-European languages; principal tongue is Persian
(standardized modern Persian is usually called Farsi); Kurdish dominates
in northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, northwestern Iran, and eastern
Turkey; Kurds have strong sense of shared cultural identity and are
attempting to gain more political autonomy
c. The Turkish Imprint: Turkish languages are part of larger Altaic language
family; Turkey is core for language, but also present in Central Asia
C. Regional Cultures in Global Context: Islam links region with global Muslim
population; religion’s tradition of pilgrimage is material connection; people
struggle to retain traditional culture values with benefits of global economic
growth; Islamic fundamentalism is reaction to threat posed by external cultural
influences; technology contributes to cultural and political change—Internet, cell
phones, television; hybrid forms of popular culture reflect globalization—e.g.,
Arab hip-hop music
a. Islamic Internationalism: fast growing religion and despite divisions,
there a strong sense of unity both in the region and beyond; the inherent
place-based center of Makkah (Mecca) provides another example of how
globalization has made the city and the Hajj easier to visit
b. Globalization and Technology: struggles with the introduction of
technology and communication innovations as they are often integrated
with western culture, the use of these same elements for recruiting and
propagandizing for terrorist networks highlights the contradictions
c. The Role of Sports: soccer is the dominate sports activity with national
teams participating in regional and world competitions
V. Geopolitical Framework: Never-Ending Tensions: tensions remain high; recent Arab
Spring rebellions led to downfall of governments in Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Yemen;
protests also in Bahrain; protracted civil war in Syria; uprisings focused on: charges of
widespread government corruption, limited opportunities for democracy and free
elections, rising food prices, and enduring poverty and high unemployment; other on-
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going issues include future of Israeli-Palestinian relations, Iran’s nuclear ambitions, and
Iraq; some tensions related to colonial past, religious diversity, poverty, and
environmental resources
A. The Colonial Legacy: between 1550 and 1850 region dominated by Ottoman
Empire; later European colonialism, especially France and Great Britain;
construction of Suez Canal linked Mediterranean and Red Seas in 1869—greater
incorporation to world economy; Persia and Turkey never directly occupied by
Europeans—most other places were; European withdrawal began prior to Second
World War, intensified in 1950s—many post-colonial tensions following
independence
B. Modern Geopolitical Issues: on-going geopolitical instability
a. Across North Africa: site of recent dramatic political changes; in Tunisia,
moderate Islamist government replaced deposed dictator; in Libya former
dictator replaced; in Egypt former president replaced; all regions exhibit
complex interplay of religion and politics; Islamist political movements
elsewhere in North Africa—especially Algeria and Morocco; Sudan facing
problems, including split between Sudan and South Sudan; Sudan’s
western Darfur region still site of conflict
b. The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Israel as state created in 1948; zone of
enduring political tensions; Arab Palestinians continue to demand
independent state; Israel’s relations with neighbors remain tense;
agreements for provisional Palestinian state governed by Palestinian
Authority have been proposed—but ongoing violence jeopardizes any
solution; heightened conflict surrounding expansion of Jewish settlements
into Palestinian territories, as erection of security barrier (wall); political
fragmentation of Palestinians compounds problems
c. Instability in Syria and Iraq: political instability (civil war) in Syria—
larger Arab community suspended Syria from Arab League—a regional
political and economic organization focused on Arab unity and
development; Iraq as multinational state and remains unstable following
invasion and occupation by U.S.-led coalition—on-going tensions
between Shiites and Sunnis, as well as Kurds; the emergence of the
Islamic State (ISIL/ISIS) which has semi-governed the adjacent Sunni
dominated areas in both Syria and Iraq
d. Politics in the Arabian Peninsula: Saudi royal family is in transition as a
younger generation of leaders assume control; protests elsewhere in
region, including Bahrain that have both Arab Spring and Saudi-Iran
tension; the emergence of all out warfare in Yemen has pulled the Saudis
and Gulf states into combat and tested the regional alliances (including
U.S. security arrangements as the Syrian War continues)
e. Iran Ascendant? Iran continues to pose problems with nuclear ambitions
and its support of Shiite Islamist elements elsewhere—viewed as threat by
moderate Arab states; the diplomatic agreement with the United Nations has
eased the isolation and economic embargo led by the United States, but as
reform inside the country is matched by an assertion of regional power status
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f. Tensions in Turkey: Turkey, with its connections to the west (NATO

member and EU applicant), has become more of a question mark as
internal politics and regional aspirations seem to contradict themselves;
the Kurds as a large minority is another dimension of the tension
VI. Economic and Social Development: Lands of Wealth and Poverty: extremes of
wealth and poverty; some states very rich because of oil, others are among least-
developed; political instability contributes to region’s overall struggling economy
A. The Geography of Fossil Fuels: global geographies of oil and natural gas reveal
region’s importance to global economy; also reflects uneven distribution of
resources within region; the Persian Gulf stands out with Saudi, Iran, and the Gulf
states playing a disproportionate role in energy
B. Global Economic Relationships: region shares close economic ties with rest of
world—especially but not limited to oil and gas; manufacturing and tourism also
important
a. OPEC’s Changing Fortunes: OPEC does not control oil and gas prices,
but influences cost and availability; many regions (especially Western
Europe, United States, Japan, China) depend on access to resources and
products; other global connections beyond OPEC, including Turkey’s
manufactures and Israeli’s exports
b. Other Global and Regional Linkages: future connections depend on
cooperative economic initiatives apart from OPEC; most Arab states,
though, wary of too much European influence; in 2005 Greater Arab Free
Trade Area (GAFTA) was formed—designed to eliminate intra-regional
trade barriers and to spur economic cooperation; tourism is key link to
global economy
C. Regional Economic Patterns: remarkable economic differences characterize
region
a. Higher-Income Oil Exporters: richest countries of region—Saudi
Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates—owe their wealth
to massive oil reserves; large investments in infrastructure; problems
remain—fluctuations in world oil markets, and also specter of depleting
reserves (especially Bahrain and Oman)
b. Lower-Income Oil Exporters: some countries with reserves of fossil
fuels—but political and economic variables hinder sustained growth—
Algeria for example; also Iraq and Iran
c. Prospering Without Oil: some states have prospered without fossil
fuels—Israel (productive agricultural and industrial base); Turkey
(diversified economy)
d. Regional Patterns of Poverty: Sudan, Syria, Egypt, and Yemen face
unique economic challenges—in part associated with political instability
and minimal resources; poor infrastructure; Egypt suffers from brain
drain; Yemen is poorest country—mostly rural, dominated by marginally
productive subsistence agriculture, high unemployment is widespread;
made worse by civil war
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D. Gender, Culture, and Politics: A Woman’s Changing World: role of women

remains major social issue in region; female labor participation rates among
lowest in world; in conservative parts, women’s access to education, other social
activities limited and actual legal restrictions on women as separate from cultural
restrictions; in some places, women’s roles are changing—some are playing
greater political role; on-going issue over the wearing of the niqab (face veil) or
chador (full-body veil); challenges to driving restrictions as well as participation
in public activities
Summary
• Region has played critical role in world history and process of globalization
• Historically, region was home to early examples of crop and livestock domestication; also
site of some of world’s earliest urban centers; three of world’s great religions—Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam—emerged in region
• Despite rich legacy of global influence and power, peoples of region are currently struggling
because of significant economic problems and political uncertainties. The region has
encountered difficulties and high costs in trying to expand limited supplies of agricultural
land and water resources amid fast-growing populations.
• Political conflicts have disrupted economic development across the region. Civil wars,
conflicts between states, and regional tensions have worked against plans for greater
cooperation and trade. Most importantly, the region must deal with basic inconsistencies
between Western civilization and more fundamentalist interpretations of Islam. The on-going
Israel-Palestinian issue requires a solution.
• As recent Arab Spring movements demonstrate, future cultural and political change is
difficult to anticipate. It will be guided by a complex response to Western influences, a mix
of fascination and suspicion that will produce its own unique regional geography. Southwest
Asia and North Africa will retain its distinctive regional identity, a character defined by its
environmental setting, the rich cultural legacy of its history, the selective abundance of its
natural resources, and its continuing political problems.
Key Terms
Arab League Fertile Crescent

Arab Spring fossil water
brain drain Greater Arab Free Trade Area
choke point Hajj
culture hearth Hydropolitics
domestication ISIL (also ISIS)
exotic river Islamic Fundamentalism
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Islamism physiological density

Levant Quran
Maghreb salinization
Medina sectarian violence
monotheism Shiite
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Suez Canal
Countries (OPEC) Sunni
Ottoman Empire theocratic state
Palestinian Authority transhumance
pastoral nomadism
Reading Review Questions
1. Describe the climatic changes you might experience as you travel on a line from the eastern
Mediterranean coast at Beirut to the highlands of Yemen. What are some of the key climatic
variables that explain these variations?
As you travel from the eastern Mediterranean to the highlands of Yemen you will pass through a
Mediterranean climate with warm, dry summers and cooler winters, through a tropical/sub-
tropical desert environment, and then a tropical and sub-tropical steppe environment. In the more
highland regions, temperatures will be notably cooler. The two most significant climate variables
are latitude and altitude. Also significant is the influence of the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian
Ocean.
2. Discuss five important human modifications of the Southwest Asian and North African
environment, and assess whether these changes have benefited the region.
Five key modifications include irrigation, deforestation, construction of dams, desalination

projects, and urbanization. Some of these include both positive and negative aspects. Irrigation,
for example, helps expand agriculture into more arid locations, but contributes to the salinization
of soils. The construction of dams provides hydroelectricity but has also contributed to the
increased siltation of reservoirs and rivers.
3. Discuss how pastoral nomadism, oasis agriculture, and dryland wheat farming represent
distinctive adaptations to the regional environments of Southwest Asia and North Africa.
How do these rural lifestyles create distinctive patterns of settlement?
Pastoral nomadism is a practice of subsistence agriculture predicated on the seasonal movement

of livestock. Oasis agriculture exists when intensive agricultural practices are established in
places where high groundwater levels or modern deep-water wells provide reliable water.
Dryland agriculture depends on seasonal moisture to support farming and is located in better-
watered valleys of coast lowlands of the region. For the latter two practices, dense (though not
numerically high) population settlements may be found; for the former, nomadism is the
characteristic way of life.
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4. Describe the distinctive contributions of (a) Islam, (b) European colonialism, and (c) recent
globalization to the region’s urban landscape.
Many of the region’s urban centers are historically Muslim cities; these have a distinctive walled
core, or medina, that is surrounded by administrative, religious, and other educational buildings.
Nearby is the suq, or bazaar—an often cosmopolitan marketplace. Housing districts were, and
are, typified by narrow, winding streets affording both shade and privacy. European colonialism
transformed some architectural elements (e.g. Victorian building styles) and selectively altered
existing infrastructure. Recent processes of globalization have expanded infrastructure (e.g.,
airports, industrial parks, luxury tourist hotels) and have modified existing building styles.
5. Summarize the key patterns and drivers of migration into and out of the region.
Two basic elements have affected migration in the region. Economic growth associated with the
oil industry—as well as relative labor shortages—have resulted in widespread in-migration of
foreign workers into places such as Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and the United Arab
Emirates. Some countries, such as Egypt, are also experiencing brain drains, as the more
educated leave for both better economic opportunities and to move away from political
instability. Political instability has also generated substantial refugee flows, such as the
movement of people out of conflict-prone Sudan.
6. Describe the key characteristics of Islam and explain why distinctive Sunni and Shiite
branches exist today.
Islam originated in Southwest Asia in 622 CE. It is based on the teachings of the prophet
Muhammad, who received these from Allah (God); they are contained in the Quran. All
Muslims are expected to follow five essential activities: repeating the basic creed; praying facing
Mecca five times daily; giving charitable contributions; fasting during the month of Ramadan;
and making at least one pilgrimage (Hajj) to Muhammad’s birthplace of Mecca. The two main
divisions of Islam originated and followed the death of Muhammad; at issue was the question of
who would inherit his religious power. The Shiites favored passing power within Muhammad’s
family while a second branch, the Sunnis, believed that power should be passed down through
established clergy.
7. Compare the modern maps of religion and language for the region, and identify three major
non-Arabic speaking areas where Islam dominates. Explain why that is the case.
Islam is pervasive throughout the region; Judaism remains dominant in Israel and Christianity is
important in Lebanon. Most of the region is also dominated by Arabic, an Afro-Asiatic language.
However, in Turkey, Iran, and parts of northern Iraq (all places where Islam is prevalent), other
non-Arabic languages are dominant. This “mis-match” between Arabic and Islamic worlds is
related to the diffusion of Islam into non-Arabic regions and the influence of the former Ottoman
Empire.
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8. Describe the role played by the French and British in shaping the modern political map of
Southwest Asia and North Africa. Provide specific examples of their lasting legacy.
Both France and Great Britain influenced the region through the colonial occupation. Britain for
example incorporated regions such as Kuwait and Bahrain into their empire to control vital sea
routes; France developed much of North Africa to exploit natural resources. Most political
borders today are the result of European colonialism and conflicts and negotiations following
decolonization. The contributions of the British to the split between Israel and Palestine—dating
to decisions made in the early twentieth-century—is most notable.
9. Discuss how the Sunni-Shiite split has recently played out in sectarian violence across the
region.
The religious split has been a proxy for Iran—Saudi Arabian geopolitics. Tensions in Iraq, Syria,
and Yemen all have the religious divide as well as regional geopolitics. Iraq currently has a
political system dominated by Shiites who are the majority with ISIL in the minority Sunni
areas; Syrian rebels as well as ISIL are in the majority Sunni areas, meanwhile, the government
is led by the minority Alawites (Shiite); Yemen’s generally recognized government is primarily
Sunni, with Saudi support, and the Houthis that expanded and evicted the government are Shiite.
10. Explain how ethnic differences have shaped Iraq’s political conflicts in the past 50 years.
Iraq has historically been dominated by Sunni Arabs; yet, the Shiites Arabs were always present
and actually the majority, as well as a sizeable minority of Kurds (also Sunni) located in the
northern portion of the country. Following the recent war and overthrow of the former dictator,
Shiite Arabs have gained political power in the south (and the capital of Baghdad) while Sunni
Arabs remain politically dominant in central and western provinces. The Kurds remain dominant
in the north.
11. Describe the basic geography of oil reserves across the region, and compare the pattern with
the geography of natural gas reserves.
Within the region, the most extensive reserves of oil are concentrated in Saudi Arabia, followed
by Iran, Iraq, United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait. The most extensive reserves of natural gas are
located in Iran and Qatar, with much smaller reserves found in Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Emirates, and Algeria.
12. Identify different strategies for economic development recently employed by nations such as
Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Israel, and Egypt? How successful have they been, and how are they
related to globalization?
Throughout the twentieth-century, Saudi Arabia has relied heavily on its extensive deposits of oil
as an economic strategy. Both Turkey and Israel have developed diversified economies, with
both agricultural and industrial products developed for global consumption. Egypt has a
relatively mixed economy, although tourism is a very important component. The success of any
of these strategies is related to fluctuations in the global price of commodities and existent
political instabilities. Egypt, because of ongoing instability, has seen a downturn in tourism and
an increase in its brain drain.
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Working Toward Sustainability: Desalination in the Desert at Dubai’s Jebel Ali Plant (p.225)
1. While the desalination plant in Dubai may work well, what special challenges might there be
in constructing similar plants elsewhere in the region?
The most obvious challenge is cost. Gulf states are wealthy and can use that to compensate. The
other issue is that these plants are energy intensive, so they work against climate change policies.
2. Where does your daily drinking water come from?
Answers will vary. For example, my tap water comes from an aquifer, and as far as I know it is
relatively clean and the aquifer isn’t being overdrawn.
Exploring Global Connections: The Libyan Highway to Europe (p. 234)
1. From the diverse list of migrant source areas mentioned above, choose two countries and
write a paragraph on each that explains why residents of these areas are willing to make the
journey.
Various combinations are possible. One source of migrants is Syria with its ongoing civil war
that has become a regional crisis. Escaping war and economic and societal collapse is the push
factor. Somalia is a failed state, so trying to find another location to reestablish a sense of a
normal life.
2. Should Europe welcome or curtail these diverse migrants? Defend your answer.
Answers will vary by opinion and argument. Nuanced answer might argue for being allowed in a
legal sense but discouraged because of the risk of migration on the open seas.
Everyday Globalization: Popping Pills from Israel (p. 247)
1. For the American public, describe some of the benefits and drawbacks of depending on a
global geography of prescription drugs.
The benefits of a global drug regime is that generics and essentials produced for less wealthy
consumers are likely to change the cost for Americans downward. A possible side-effect is loss
of quality control and innovation of the drug industry that relies on drug profits to develop the
next generation of drugs.
2. Visit a local pharmacy and select two over-the-counter medications. Can you find out who
manufactured them and where they came from?
Answers will vary by choice of drugs and their origin stories; the Teva example might be
demonstrated but also Canada and Mexico could be possibilities.
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Geographers at Work: How Do We Define “Middle East”? (p. 244)
1. On a blank map of Southwest Asia and North Africa, draw a line around your definition of the
“Middle East” and then write a paragraph defending your answer. Compare your map with
those of classmates.
Answers and arguments will vary. U.S. State Department maps typically show Egypt, Israel,
Turkey, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the Levant excluding the Maghreb and Afghanistan.
2. Select a regional term used locally (“New England,” “Southern California,” “the
Panhandle,” etc.). Have five friends/classmates identify the area on a blank map of the
region and defend their answers. Then summarize and explain their responses.
Answers will vary and the technique/instructions might influence the overall result and
conclusions that are possible.
Other reading questions:
Figure 7.27 Population Pyramids: Egypt, Iran, and United Arab Emirates, 2015:
For each example, cite a related demographic or cultural issue that you might potentially find in
these countries.
Egypt still has a young population that experience population growth despite lowering of birth
rates and fertility rates; Iran has stabilized its growth but has a prominent bulge that will age and
create specific issues; UAE is unique because of the guest worker program that makes a gender
and age distortion.
Figure 7.32 Language Map of Southwest Asia and North Africa:

Cite examples where Islam (see Figure 7.30) dominates in non-Arabic-speaking regions.
The diffusion of Islam into non-Arabic speaking areas is most prominent in Southwest Asia:
modern day Turkey and Iran.
Figure 7.39 West Bank:

Look carefully at the scale of the map. Measure the approximate distance between Jerusalem
and Hebron, and find two local towns in your area that are a similar distance apart.
Approximately 20 miles; answers will vary.
Figure 7.44 Childhood Mortality:

Why might it be argued that childhood mortality is a reliable measure of development?
As an indicator of wealth and health care, childhood mortality is one of many. Underlying the
health care is the socioeconomic conditions that perpetuate high birth rates; three of the four in
the highest category are in a state of conflict.
117
Instructor Engagement Ideas
This part of the Instructor Resource Manual contains ideas and suggestions for active learning,
deeper engagement, and expansion of textbook concepts; some are legacies of past editions of
the textbook.
For Thought and Discussion
This section provides questions and topics that can be used to initiate classroom discussion.
1. The allocation of water resources is a problem around the world. The Nile River flows
through many countries. How can the Nile be shared by these different countries? What
agreements exist to regulate the river?
2. Jews, Christians, and Muslims all believe in the same God (Abrahamic religions). In what
other ways are these religions similar? How are they different? What could be some possible
courses of conflict?
3. In some ways, the Arab Spring greatly altered the political landscape of Southwest Asia and
North Africa. However, in other respects, “the more things change, the more they stay the
same.” Think about both the continuities and discontinuities of the Arab Spring. Who has
benefited from these changes? Who has not? Did the civil wars emerge from the Arab Spring?
Exercise/Activity
This section provides exercises and activities that the instructor can integrate into their
classroom lectures.
1. Undertake library and Internet research to learn more about the Kurds. What are their cultural
characteristics? What are their concerns? How are they treated in the countries where they
live? What strategies are they using to achieve greater political autonomy?
2. Conduct research to learn more about OPEC. Discuss how the organization contributed to the
oil embargo of 1973. How important is OPEC for the functioning of the global economy
today?
3. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets
for Southwest Asia and North Africa, activate the generalized tectonics layer under the
physical environment theme. What areas are most seismically active? How might the
physical geography of the region be different in the distant future?
4. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets
for Southwest Asia and North Africa, activate the women’s mobility layer under the cultural
theme. In what areas are women most vulnerable to violence? Conduct library research to
learn more about the condition of women in these countries. What strategies have been used
to improve the condition of women’s lives in these places?
118
Thinking Geographically
This section provides ideas about chapter topics and concepts.
1. How might a major project for transferring water from Turkey to the Arabian Peninsula
affect the development of Saudi Arabia? What would be some of the potential political and
ecological ramifications of such a project?
Such a project might provide needed water to an arid region, thereby increasing its agricultural
potential. However, such a project would pass through some politically unstable locations, such
as Syria or Iraq. Given that these locations are largely arid, they would demand access to water
as well. Ecologically such a project might increase the salinization of agricultural areas.
2. Why are birthrates declining in some countries in Southwest Asia and North Africa? Despite
the cultural differences with North America, what common processes seem to be at work in
both regions that have contributed to this demographic transition?
Birthrates have declined most in Tunisia, Iran, and Turkey. Many factors explain this trend,
including an increased urbanization of the population—and hence a desire for smaller families;
women likewise have increased both their education and have delayed marriage. Family
planning initiatives are expanding, providing greater access to birth control. These trends have
been in evidence in North American for decades.
3. Imagine being the ruler of a conservative Islamist Arab state. What might be the advantages
and disadvantages of opening up your country to the Internet? Divide into opposing groups
and debate both sides of the argument.
Answers will vary. The advantages include access to knowledge and information from other
parts of the world. Also, these technologies might be used to spread one’s message to the masses.
These advantages, however, are potentially disadvantages, in that such exposure to especially
Western ideals is anathema to many conservative Islamist rulers.
4. Form groups of several students and investigate the different local causes and consequences
of the Arab Spring rebellions within different countries of the region.
Answers will vary, but in general the causes include political corruption, poverty,
unemployment, rising food prices, and a lack of democratic freedoms. The consequences have
been varied; in some locations, free political elections have taken place, although in others there
has been a return to more authoritarian control. Poverty and high unemployment remain
pervasive.
5. What economic changes could occur if Israel and the Palestinians were to reach a lasting
peace? What kinds of general connections might be found between political conflict and
economic conditions throughout the region?
119
For the Palestinians, a peace with justice would assure that they would once again have access to
jobs, schools, and other opportunities that create economic improvements. For the Israelis, a
smaller portion of their government expenditures would need to go to security (e.g., weapons,
walled barriers). In general, in this region and elsewhere, political conflict usually has a negative
influence on economic conditions. Political conflict discourses investment and hinders tourism.
It creates military expenditures that divert monies from productive activities such as education,
health care, and infrastructure. Political conflict, but especially armed conflict, causes injury and
death and damages infrastructure, which is yet an additional non-monetized economic cost.
Chapter 7 Review
Physical Geography and Environmental Issues

7.1 Explain how latitude and topography produce the region’s distinctive patterns of climate.
7.2 Describe how the region’s fragile, often arid setting shapes contemporary environmental
challenges.
7.3 Describe four distinctive ways in which people have learned to adapt their agricultural
practices to the region’s arid environment.
(A) Photo of oasis settlement in Morocco.
Students should be able to discuss the subtropical high that produces the Sahara and Arabian
dry areas, and the pattern of water, especially exotic rivers as well as oasis sites that permit
agriculture in all its regional forms.
Population and Settlement

7.4 Summarize the major forces shaping recent migration patterns within the region.
(B) Map of population density in Arabian Peninsula.
Students should be able to describe the movement of people away from conflict, e.g.,
Palestinians and Syrians but also the skilled workers from Egypt and elsewhere coming into
other countries, and unskilled laborers into the wealthy oil states.
Cultural Coherence and Diversity

7.5 List the major characteristics and patterns of diffusion of Islam.
7.6 Identify the key modern religions and language families that dominate the region.
7.7 Identify the role of cultural variables in understanding key regional conflicts in North Africa,
Israel, Syria, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula
(C) Photo of Mosque in Kuwait.
Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the origins and relatedness of the
western religions, but how their divisions are often an important dimension to the conflicts:
for example, Arab—Israeli, Sunni—Shiite, etc.
120
Geopolitical Framework
7.8 Summarize the geography of oil and gas reserves in the region.
(D) Photo of security checkpoint in Iraq.
Students should be able to describe the pattern of oil and gas around the region but especially
the Persian Gulf and the significance of OPEC and the concentration of proven reserves in
the region.
Economic and Social Development

7.9. Describe traditional roles for Islamic women and provide examples of recent changes.
(E) Air photo of Istanbul, Turkey.
Students should be able to depict some of the images as well as distinguish between
stereotypes of women; prominent examples include the driving bans in Saudi, male-female
interactions, and voting and serving in parliament.
Data Analysis
Health care is often considered a basic human right in more developed portions of the world, but
large parts of Southwest Asia and North Africa are poorly served by health-care providers. The
World Health Organization (WHO) gathers data on the number of physicians per 1000
population, which can be used as a measure of access to health care as well as social
development. According to recent data, the United States had about 2.5 physicians per 1000 and
Germany about 3.9. Go to the WHO website (www.who.int) and access the data/interactive atlas
page on physicians per 1000 population.
1. Make your own data table and map showing the regional pattern of health-care access
across Southwest Asia and North Africa.
State Physician ratio (1000)

Egypt 2.83
Iran 0.89
Turkey 1.711
Saudi 2.491
Israel 3.344
Sample Table
2. In a few sentences, summarize the general patterns and trends you see. How would you
explain some of the major variations you observe across the region?
Wealth as in oil exporting and economic development in general corresponds with higher
rankings. Israel has the highest in region. However, Egypt’s relative high is more likely linked to
121
educational attainment (medical schools); meanwhile, Iran’s relative low ranking is probably
related to the sanctions.
3. Compare the pattern you see for physicians with the map in the text on childhood mortality
(Figure 7.44). What similarities and differences do you see? How might these two indicators
be a good measure of future social development? How might they predict political stability?
The patterns are mostly similar. Places associated with conflict, Iraq, Yemen, and Sudan are all
high as well as Morocco. Saudi, Israel, Lebanon are all in the lowest rates. Iran is not as bad as
its ranking would suggest, and Egypt is slightly worse than its ranking would suggest. In tandem,
these two are good measures of future development. War and political instability are related but
not sure about predictability.
122
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to make an entire change in the scheme of sugar duties, which
would give the Trust a fifth of a cent per pound of protective
differential, instead of an eighth; but the House resisted,
with more success than in 1894, and the senatorial friends of
the Sugar Trust had to give way.
See, also (in this volume),

TRUSTS: UNITED STATES;
and SUGAR BOUNTIES.
"The tariff act of 1894 had repealed the provisions as to

reciprocity in the act of 1890, and had rendered nugatory such
parts of the treaties made under the earlier act as were
inconsistent with the provisions of its successor. The act of
1897 now revived the policy of reciprocity, and in some ways
even endeavored to enlarge the scope of the reciprocity
provisions"
See below: A. D. 1899-1901.
F. W. Taussig,
Tariff History of the United States,
4th edition, chapter 7 (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons).
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (April-October).

Negotiations for an international bi-metallic agreement.
See (in this volume)

MONETARY QUESTIONS: A. D 1897 (APRIL-OCTOBER).
{583}
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (June).

Appointment of the Nicaragua Canal Commission.

CANAL, INTEROCEANIC: A. D. 1889-1899.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (November).
Refusal to negotiate with the insurgent republic of the
Philippine Islands.
On the 3d of November, 1897, Mr. Rounseville Wildman, the U.

S. Consul at Hongkong, addressed the following to the State
Department: "Since my arrival in Hongkong I have been called
upon several times by Mr. F. Agoncilla, foreign agent and high
commissioner, etc., of the new republic of the Philippines.
Mr. Agoncilla holds a commission, signed by the president,
members of cabinet, and general in chief of the republic of
Philippines, empowering him absolutely with power to conclude
treaties with foreign governments. Mr. Agoncilla offers on
behalf of his government alliance offensive and defensive with
the United States when the United States declares war on
Spain, which, in Mr. Agoncilla's judgment, will be very soon.
In the meantime he wishes the United States to send to some
port in the Philippines 20,000 stand of arms and 200,000
rounds of ammunition for the use of his government, to be paid
for on the recognition of his government by the United States.
He pledges as security two provinces and the custom-house at
Manila. He is not particular about the price—is willing the
United States should make 25 per cent or 30 per cent profit.
He is a very earnest and attentive diplomat and a great
admirer of the United States. On his last visit he surprised
me with the information that he had written his government
that he had hopes of inducing the United States to supply the
much-needed guns, etc. In case Señor Agoncilla's dispatch
should fall into the hands of an unfriendly power and find its
way into the newspapers, I have thought it wise to apprise the
State Department of the nature of the high commissioner's
proposals. Señor Agoncilla informs me by late mail that he
will proceed at once to Washington to conclude the proposed
treaty, if I advise. I shall not advise said step until so
instructed by the State Department."
To this communication, the Third Assistant Secretary of State,
Mr. Cridler, returned the following reply, December 15, 1897:
"I have to acknowledge the receipt of your dispatch Number 19

of November 3, 1897, in which you announce the arrival at your
post of Mr. F. Agoncilla, whom you describe as foreign agent
and high commissioner of the new republic of the Philippines,
and who holds full power to negotiate and conclude treaties
with foreign powers. Mr. Agoncilla offers an alliance
'offensive and defensive with the United States when the
United States declares war on Spain, which, in Mr. Agoncilla's
judgment, will be very soon,' and suggests that 20,000 stand
of arms and 200,000 rounds of ammunition be supplied to his
government by that of the United States. You may briefly
advise Mr. Agoncilla, in case he should call upon you, that
the Government of the United States does not negotiate such
treaties and that it is not possible to forward the desired
arms and ammunition. You should not encourage any advances on
the part of Mr. Agoncilla, and should courteously decline to
communicate with the Department further regarding his alleged
mission."
Treaty of Peace and Accompanying Papers

(55th Congress, 3d Session, Senate Document
Number 62, part 1, pages 333,334).
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (November).

Treaty with Russia and Japan to suspend pelagic sealing.

BERING SEA QUESTIONS.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (December).

President McKinley on Cuban affairs.

CUBA: A. D. 1896-1897.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (December).
Stringent measures against pelagic sealing.

BERING SEA QUESTIONS.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897-1898 (December-March).

Reports from Cuba of the suffering condition of
the "reconcentrados."

CUBA: A. D. 1897-1898 (DECEMBER-MARCH).
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897-1899.

Agreements with the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Cherokee,
and Seminole tribes of Indians.
Work of the Dawes Commission.

INDIANS, AMERICAN: A. D. 1893-1899.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897-1900.

Treaty for the annexation of Hawaii.
Its failure of ratification.
Passage of joint resolution to annex, and of an Act
for the government of the islands.

HAWAII.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (February-March).

American sympathy with the Cubans and indignation
against Spain.
Destruction of the United States battle-ship "Maine"
in Havana harbor.
Investigation and findings of the American and
Spanish courts of inquiry.
Public feeling in the United States, excited by a terrible

state of suffering in Cuba, resulting from Spanish methods of
dealing with insurrection in that island, had been gathering
intensity for months past, and threatening a rupture of
peaceful relations between the United States and Spain.
See (in this volume),

CUBA: A. D. 1896-1897 and 1897-1898)
A sudden crisis in the situation was produced, on the morning

of the 15th of February, 1898, by news that the United States
battle-ship "Maine," while paying a visit of courtesy to the
harbor of Havana, had been totally destroyed, on the previous
evening, by an explosion which killed most of her crew. In a
subsequent message on the subject to Congress, President
McKinley recited the circumstances of the catastrophe, and the
proceedings adopted to ascertain its cause, with the
conclusions reached, in the following words: "For some time
prior to the visit of the 'Maine' to Havana Harbor our
consular representatives pointed out the advantages to flow
from the visit of national ships to the Cuban waters, in
accustoming the people to the presence of our flag as the
symbol of good will and of our ships in the fulfillment of the
mission of protection to American interests, even though no
immediate need therefor might exist. Accordingly on the 24th
of January last, after conference with the Spanish minister;
in which the renewal of visits of our war vessels to Spanish
waters was discussed and accepted, the peninsular authorities
at Madrid and Havana were advised of the purpose of this
Government to resume friendly naval visits at Cuban ports, and
that in that view the 'Maine' would forthwith call at the port
of Havana. This announcement was received by the Spanish
Government with appreciation of the friendly character of the
visit of the 'Maine,' and with notification of intention to
return the courtesy by sending Spanish ships to the principal
ports of the United States. Meanwhile the 'Maine' entered the
port of Havana on the 25th of January, her arrival being
marked with no special incident besides the exchange of
customary salutes and ceremonial visits.
{584}
"The 'Maine' continued in the harbor of Havana during the

three weeks following her arrival. No appreciable excitement
attended her stay; on the contrary, a feeling of relief and
confidence followed the resumption of the long-interrupted
friendly intercourse. So noticeable was this immediate effect
of her visit that the consul-general strongly urged that the
presence of our ships in Cuban waters should be kept up by
retaining the 'Maine' at Havana, or, in the event of her
recall, by sending another vessel there to take her place. At
forty minutes past 9 in the evening of the 15th of February
the 'Maine' was destroyed by an explosion, by which the entire
forward part of the ship was utterly wrecked. In this
catastrophe 2 officers and 264 of her crew perished, those who
were not killed outright by her explosion being penned between
decks by the tangle of wreckage and drowned by the immediate
sinking of the hull. Prompt assistance was rendered by the
neighboring vessels anchored in the harbor, aid being
especially given by the boats of the Spanish cruiser 'Alfonso
XII' and the Ward Line steamer 'City of Washington,' which lay
not far distant. The wounded were generously cared for by the
authorities of Havana, the hospitals being freely opened to
them, while the earliest recovered bodies of the dead were
interred by the municipality in a public cemetery in the city.
Tributes of grief and sympathy were offered from all official
quarters of the island.
"The appalling calamity fell upon the people of our country

with crushing force, and for a brief time an intense
excitement prevailed, which in a community less just and
self-controlled than ours might have led to hasty acts of
blind resentment. This spirit, however, soon gave way to the
calmer processes of reason and to the resolve to investigate
the facts and await material proof before forming a judgment
as to the cause, the responsibility, and, if the facts
warranted, the remedy due. This course necessarily recommended
itself from the outset to the Executive, for only in the light
of a dispassionately ascertained certainty could it determine
the nature and measure of its full duty in the matter. The
usual procedure was followed, as in all cases of casualty or
disaster to national vessels of any maritime State. A naval
court of inquiry was at once organized, composed of officers
well qualified by rank and practical experience to discharge
the onerous duty imposed upon them. Aided by a strong force of
wreckers and divers, the court proceeded to make a thorough
investigation on the spot, employing every available means for
the impartial and exact determination of the causes of the
explosion. Its operations have been conducted with the utmost
deliberation and judgment, and while independently pursued no
attainable source of information was neglected, and the
fullest opportunity was allowed for a simultaneous
investigation by the Spanish authorities. The finding of the
court of inquiry was reached, after twenty-three days of
continuous labor, on the 21st of March, instant, and, having
been approved on the 22d by the commander in chief of the
United States naval force on the North Atlantic Station, was
transmitted to the Executive. It is herewith laid before the
Congress, together with the voluminous testimony taken before
the court. Its purport is, in brief, as follows:
"When the 'Maine' arrived at Havana she was conducted by the

regular Government pilot to buoy Number 4, to which she was
moored in from 5½ to 6 fathoms of water. The state of
discipline on board and the condition of her magazines,
boilers, coal bunkers, and storage compartments are passed in
review, with the conclusion that excellent order prevailed and
that no indication of any cause for an internal explosion
existed in any quarter. At 8 o'clock in the evening of
February 15 everything had been reported secure, and all was
quiet. At forty minutes past 9 o'clock the vessel was suddenly
destroyed. There were two distinct explosions, with a brief
interval between them. The first lifted the forward part of
the ship very perceptibly. The second, which was more open,
prolonged, and of greater volume, is attributed by the court
to the partial explosion of two or more of the forward
magazines. The evidence of the divers establishes that the
after part of the ship was practically intact and sank in that
condition a very few moments after the explosion. The forward
part was completely demolished. Upon the evidence of a
concurrent external cause the finding of the court is as
follows:
"'At frame 17 the outer shell of the ship, from a point of 11½
feet from the middle line of the ship and 6 feet above the
keel when in its normal position, has been forced up so as to
be now about 4 feet above the surface of the water, therefore
about 34 feet above where it would be had the ship sunk
uninjured. The outside bottom plating is bent into a reversed
V shape (˄), the after wing of which, about 15 feet broad and
32 feet in length (from frame 17 to frame 25), is doubled back
upon itself against the continuation of the same plating,
extending forward. At frame 18 the vertical keel is broken
in two and the flat keel bent into an angle similar to the
angle formed by the outside bottom plates. This break is now
about 6 feet below the surface of the water and about 30 feet
above its normal position. In the opinion of the court this
effect could have been produced only by the explosion of a
mine situated under the bottom of the ship at about frame 18
and somewhat on the port side of the ship.'
"The conclusions of the court are: That the loss of the

'Maine' was not in any respect due to fault or negligence on
the part of any of the officers or members of her crew; That
the ship was destroyed by the explosion of a submarine mine,
which caused the partial explosion of two or more of her
forward magazines; and That no evidence has been obtainable
fixing the responsibility for the destruction of the 'Maine'
upon any person or persons.
"I have directed that the finding of the court of inquiry and
the views of this Government thereon be communicated to the
Government of Her Majesty the Queen Regent, and I do not
permit myself to doubt that the sense of justice of the
Spanish nation will dictate a course of action suggested by
honor and the friendly relations of the two Governments. It
will be the duty of the Executive to advise the Congress of
the result, and in the meantime deliberate consideration is
invoked."
Congressional Record, March 28, 1898.
{585}
A Spanish naval board of inquiry, convened by the maritime

authority at Havana, and investigating the matter with haste,
arrived at a conclusion quite opposite to that stated above,
reporting on the 22d of March that "an explosion of the first
order, in the forward magazine of the American ironclad
'Maine,' caused the destruction of that part of the ship and
its total submersion in the same place in this bay at which it
was anchored. … That the important facts connected with the
explosion in its external appearances at every moment of its
duration having been described by witnesses, and the absence
of all circumstances which necessarily accompany the explosion
of a torpedo having been proved by these witnesses and
experts, it can only be honestly asserted that the catastrophe
was due to internal causes. … That the character of the
proceedings undertaken and respect for the law which
establishes the absolute extra-territoriality of a foreign war
vessel have prevented the determination, even by conjecture,
of the said internal origin of the disaster, to which also the
impossibility of establishing the necessary communication
either with the crew of the wrecked vessel or the officials of
their Government commissioned to investigate the causes of the
said event, or with those subsequently intrusted with the
issue, has contributed. … That the interior and exterior
examination of the bottom of the 'Maine,' whenever it is
possible, unless the bottom of the ship and that of the place
in the bay where it is sunk are altered by the work which is
being carried on for the total or partial recovery of the
vessel, will prove the correctness of all that is said in this
report; but this must not be understood to mean that the
accuracy of these present conclusions requires such proof."
U. S. Senate Report Number 885,

55th Congress, 2d Session, page 635.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (February-December).

In the Chinese "battle of concessions."

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (March).

Account by Senator Proctor of the condition of
the "reconcentrados" in Cuba.

CUBA: A. D. 1897-1898 (DECEMBER-MARCH).
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (March-April).

Continued discussion of Cuban affairs with Spain.
Unsatisfactory results.
Message of the President asking Congress for authority
to terminate hostilities in Cuba.
On the 11th of April, President McKinley addressed another

special message to Congress, setting forth the unsatisfactory
results with which Cuban affairs had been further discussed
with the government of Spain, and formally asking to be
authorized and empowered to take measures for securing a "full
and final termination of hostilities" in the oppressed island.
He said:
"Obedient to that precept of the Constitution which commands

the President to give from time to time to the Congress
information of the state of the Union and to recommend to
their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary
and expedient, it becomes my duty now to address your body
with regard to the grave crisis that has arisen in the
relations of the United States to Spain by reason of the
warfare that for more than three years has raged in the
neighboring island of Cuba. I do so because of the intimate
connection of the Cuban question with the state of our own
Union, and the grave relation the course which it is now
incumbent upon the nation to adopt must needs bear to the
traditional policy of our Government, if it is to accord with
the precepts laid down by the founders of the Republic and
religiously observed by succeeding Administrations to the
present day.
"The present revolution is but the successor of other similar

insurrections which have occurred in Cuba against the dominion
of Spain, extending over a period of nearly half a century,
each of which, during its progress, has subjected the United
States to great effort and expense in enforcing its neutrality
laws, caused enormous losses to American trade and commerce,
caused irritation, annoyance, and disturbance among our
citizens, and, by the exercise of cruel, barbarous, and
uncivilized practices of warfare, shocked the sensibilities
and offended the humane sympathies of our people. Since the
present revolution began, in February, 1895, this country has
seen the fertile domain at our threshold ravaged by fire and
sword in the course of a struggle unequaled in the history of
the island and rarely paralleled as to the numbers of the
combatants and the bitterness of the contest by any revolution
of modern times where a dependent people striving to be free
have been opposed by the power of the sovereign state. Our
people have beheld a once prosperous community reduced to
comparative want, its lucrative commerce virtually paralyzed,
its exceptional productiveness diminished, its fields laid
waste, its mills in ruins, and its people perishing by tens of
thousands from hunger and destitution. We have found ourselves
constrained, in the observance of that strict neutrality which
our laws enjoin and which the law of nations commands, to
police our own waters and to watch our own seaports in
prevention of any unlawful act in aid of the Cubans. Our trade
has suffered; the capital invested by our citizens in Cuba has
been largely lost, and the temper and forbearance of our
people have been so sorely tried as to beget a perilous unrest
among our own citizens which has inevitably found its
expression from time to time in the National Legislature, so
that issues wholly external to our own body politic engross
attention and stand in the way of that close devotion to
domestic advancement that becomes a self-contained
commonwealth whose primal maxim has been the avoidance of all
foreign entanglements. All this must needs awaken, and has,
indeed, aroused the utmost concern on the part of this
Government, as well during my predecessor's term as in my own.
"In April, 1896, the evils from which our country suffered
through the Cuban war became so onerous that my predecessor
made an effort to bring about a peace through the mediation of
this Government in any way that might tend to an honorable
adjustment of the contest between Spain and her revolted
colony, on the basis of some effective scheme of
self-government for Cuba under the flag and sovereignty of
Spain. It failed through the refusal of the Spanish Government
then in power to consider any form of mediation or, indeed, any
plan of settlement which did not begin with the actual
submission of the insurgents to the mother country, and then
only on such terms as Spain herself might see fit to grant.
The war continued unabated. The resistance of the insurgents
was in no wise diminished. The efforts of Spain were
increased, both by the dispatch of fresh levies to Cuba and by
the addition to the horrors of the strife of a new and inhuman
phase happily unprecedented in the modern history of civilized
Christian peoples.
{586}
The policy of devastation and concentration, inaugurated by
the captain-general's bando of October 21, 1896, in the
province of Pinar del Rio, was thence extended to embrace all
of the island to which the power of the Spanish arms was able
to reach by occupation or by military operations. The
peasantry, including all dwelling in the open agricultural
interior, were driven into the garrison towns or isolated
places held by the troops. The raising and movement of
provisions of all kinds were interdicted. The fields were laid
waste, dwellings unroofed and fired, mills destroyed, and, in
short, everything that could desolate the land and render it
unfit for human habitation or support was commanded by one or
the other of the contending parties and executed by all the
powers at their disposal.
"By the time the present Administration took office, a year

ago, reconcentration—so called—had been made effective over
the better part of the four central and western
provinces—Santa Clara, Matanzas, Habana, and Pinar del Rio.
The agricultural population to the estimated number of 300,000
or more was herded within the towns and their immediate
vicinage, deprived of the means of support, rendered destitute
of shelter, left poorly clad, and exposed to the most
unsanitary conditions. As the scarcity of food increased with
the devastation of the depopulated areas of production,
destitution and want became misery and starvation. Month by
month the death rate increased in an alarming ratio. By March,
1897, according to conservative estimates from official
Spanish sources, the mortality among the reconcentrados, from
starvation and the diseases thereto incident, exceeded 50 per
centum of their total number. No practical relief was accorded
to the destitute. The overburdened towns, already suffering
from the general dearth, could give no aid. So-called 'zones
of cultivation' established within the immediate areas of
effective military control about the cities and fortified
camps proved illusory as a remedy for the suffering. The
unfortunates, being for the most part women and children, with
aged and helpless men, enfeebled by disease and hunger, could
not have tilled the soil without tools, seed, or shelter for
their own support or for the supply of the cities.
Reconcentration, adopted avowedly as a war measure in order to
cut off the resources of the insurgents, worked its
predestined result. As I said in my message of last December,
it was not civilized warfare; it was extermination. The only
peace it could beget was that of the wilderness and the grave.
"Meanwhile the military situation in the island had undergone

a noticeable change. The extraordinary activity that
characterized the second year of the war, when the insurgents
invaded even the thitherto unharmed fields of Pinar del Rio
and carried havoc and destruction up to the walls of the city
of Habana itself, had relapsed into a dogged struggle in the
central and eastern provinces. The Spanish arms regained a
measure of control in Pinar del Rio and parts of Habana, but,
under the existing conditions of the rural country, without
immediate improvement of their productive situation. Even thus
partially restricted, the revolutionists held their own, and
their conquest and submission, put forward by Spain as the
essential and sole basis of peace, seemed as far distant as at
the outset. In this state of affairs my Administration found
itself confronted with the grave problem of its duty. My
message of last December reviewed the situation, and narrated
the steps taken with a view to relieving its acuteness and
opening the way to some form of honorable settlement. The
assassination of the prime minister, Canovas, led to a change
of government in Spain. The former administration, pledged to
subjugation without concession, gave place to that of a more
liberal party, committed long in advance to a policy of reform
involving the wider principle of home rule for Cuba and Porto
Rico.
"The overtures of this Government, made through its new envoy,

General Woodford, and looking to an immediate and effective
amelioration of the condition of the island, although not
accepted to the extent of admitted mediation in any shape,
were met by assurances that home rule, in an advanced phase,
would be forthwith offered to Cuba, without waiting for the
war to end, and that more humane methods should thenceforth
prevail in the conduct of hostilities. Coincidentally with
these declarations, the new Government of Spain continued and
completed the policy already begun by its predecessor, of
testifying friendly regard for this nation by releasing
American citizens held under one charge or another connected
with the insurrection, so that by the end of November not a
single person entitled in any way to our national protection
remained in a Spanish prison.
"While these negotiations were in progress the increasing

destitution of the unfortunate reconcentrados and the alarming
mortality among them claimed earnest attention. The success
which had attended the limited measure of relief extended to
the suffering American citizens among them by the judicious
expenditure through the consular agencies of the money
appropriated expressly for their succor by the joint
resolution approved May 24, 1897, prompted the humane
extension of a similar scheme of aid to the great body of
sufferers. A suggestion to this end was acquiesced in by the
Spanish authorities. On the 24th of December last I caused to
be issued an appeal to the American people, inviting
contributions in money or in kind for the succor of the
starving sufferers in Cuba, following this on the 8th of
January by a similar public announcement of the formation of a
central Cuban relief committee, with headquarters in New York
City, composed of three members, representing the American
National Red Cross and the religious and business elements of
the community. The efforts of that committee have been
untiring and have accomplished much. Arrangements for free
transportation to Cuba have greatly aided the charitable work.
The president of the American Red Cross and representatives of
other contributory organizations have generously visited Cuba
and cooperated with the consul-general and the local
authorities to make effective distribution of the relief
collected through the efforts of the central committee. Nearly
$200,000 in money and supplies has already reached the
sufferers, and more is forthcoming. The supplies are admitted
duty free, and transportation to the interior has been
arranged, so that the relief, at first necessarily confined to
Habana and the larger cities, is now extended through most, if
not all, of the towns where suffering exists.
{587}
Thousands of lives have already been saved. The necessity for
a change in the condition of the reconcentrados is recognized
by the Spanish Government. Within a few days past the orders
of General Weyler have been revoked; the reconcentrados, it is
said, are to be permitted to return to their homes, and aided
to resume the self-supporting pursuits of peace. Public works
have been ordered to give them employment, and a sum of
$600,000 has been appropriated for their relief.
"The war in Cuba is of such a nature that short of subjugation

or extermination a final military victory for either side
seems impracticable. The alternative lies in the physical
exhaustion of the one or the other party, or perhaps of both—a
condition which in effect ended the ten years' war by the truce
of Zanjon. The prospect of such a protraction and conclusion
of the present strife is a contingency hardly to be
contemplated with equanimity by the civilized world, and least
of all by the United States, affected and injured as we are,
deeply and intimately, by its very existence. Realizing this,
it appeared to be my duty, in a spirit of true friendliness,
no less to Spain than to the Cubans who have so much to lose
by the prolongation of the struggle, to seek to bring about an
immediate termination of the war. To this end I submitted on
the 27th ultimo, as a result of much representation and
correspondence, through the United States minister at Madrid,
propositions to the Spanish Government looking to an armistice
until October 1 for the negotiation of peace with the good
offices of the President. In addition, I asked the immediate
revocation of the order of reconcentration, so as to permit
the people to return to their farms and the needy to be
relieved with provisions and supplies from the United States,
cooperating with the Spanish authorities, so as to afford full
relief.
"The reply of the Spanish cabinet was received on the night of

the 31st ultimo. It offered, as the means to bring about peace
in Cuba, to confide the preparation thereof to the insular
parliament, inasmuch as the concurrence of that body would be
necessary to reach a final result, it being, however,
understood that the powers reserved by the constitution to the
Central Government are not lessened or diminished. As the
Cuban parliament does not meet until the 4th of May next, the
Spanish Government would not object, for its part, to accept
at once a suspension of hostilities if asked for by the
insurgents from the general in chief, to whom it would
pertain, in such case, to determine the duration and
conditions of the armistice. The propositions submitted by
General Woodford and the reply of the Spanish Government were
both in the form of brief memoranda, the texts of which are
before me, and are substantially in the language above given.
The function of the Cuban parliament in the matter of
'preparing' peace and the manner of its doing so are not
expressed in the Spanish memorandum; but from General
Woodford's explanatory reports of preliminary discussions
preceding the final conference it is understood that the
Spanish Government stands ready to give the insular congress
full powers to settle the terms of peace with the
insurgents—whether by direct negotiation or indirectly by
means of legislation does not appear.
"With this last overture in the direction of immediate peace,
and its disappointing reception by Spain, the Executive is
brought to the end of his effort. In my annual message of
December last I said: 'Of the untried measures there remain
only: Recognition of the insurgents as belligerents;
recognition of the independence of Cuba; neutral intervention
to end the war by imposing a rational compromise between the
contestants, and intervention in favor of one or the other
party. I speak not of forcible annexation, for that can not be
thought of. That, by our code of morality, would be criminal
aggression.' Thereupon I review these alternatives, in the
light of President Grant's measured words, uttered in 1875,
when after seven years of sanguinary, destructive, and cruel
hostilities in Cuba he reached the conclusion that the
recognition of the independence of Cuba was impracticable and
indefensible; and that the recognition of belligerence was not
warranted by the facts according to the tests of public law. I
commented especially upon the latter aspect of the question,
pointing out the inconveniences and positive dangers of a
recognition of belligerence which, while adding to the already
onerous burdens of neutrality within our own jurisdiction,
could not in any way extend our influence or effective offices
in the territory of hostilities. Nothing has since occurred to
change my view in this regard; and I recognize as fully now as
then that the issuance of a proclamation of neutrality, by which
process the so-called recognition of belligerents is
published, could, of itself and unattended by other action,
accomplish nothing toward the one end for which we labor—the
instant pacification of Cuba and the cessation of the misery
that afflicts the island.
"Turning to the question of recognizing at this time the

independence of the present insurgent government in Cuba, we
find safe precedents in our history from an early day. They
are well summed up in President Jackson's message to Congress,
December 21, 1836, on the subject of the recognition of the
independence of Texas. He said: 'In all the contests that have
arisen out of the revolutions of France, out of the disputes
relating to the Crowns of Portugal and Spain, out of the
separation of the American possessions of both from the
European Governments, and out of the numerous and constantly
occurring struggles for dominion in Spanish America, so wisely
consistent with our just principles has been the action of our
Government that we have, under the most critical
circumstances, avoided all censure, and encountered no other
evil than that produced by a transient estrangement of good
will in those against whom we have been by force of evidence
compelled to decide. It has thus made known to the world that
the uniform policy and practice of the United States is to
avoid all interference in disputes which merely relate to the
internal government of other nations, and eventually to
recognize the authority of the prevailing party without
reference to our particular interests and views or to the
merits of the original controversy. … But on this, as on every
other trying occasion, safety is to be found in a rigid
adherence to principle. In the contest between Spain and the
revolted colonies we stood aloof, and waited not only until
the ability of the new States to protect themselves was fully
established, but until the danger of their being again
subjugated had entirely passed away.
{588}
Then, and not until then, were they recognized. Such was our
course in regard to Mexico herself. … It is true that with
regard to Texas the civil authority of Mexico has been
expelled, its invading army defeated, the chief of the
Republic himself captured, and all present power to control
the newly-organized government of Texas annihilated within its
confines; but, on the other hand, there is, in appearance at
least, an immense disparity of physical force on the side of
Texas. The Mexican Republic, under another Executive, is
rallying its forces under a new leader and menacing a fresh
invasion to recover its lost dominion. Upon the issue of this
threatened invasion the independence of Texas may be
considered as suspended; and were there nothing peculiar in
the relative situation of the United States and Texas, our
acknowledgment of its independence at such a crisis could
scarcely be regarded as consistent with that prudent reserve
with which we have hitherto held ourselves bound to treat all
similar questions.'
"Thereupon Andrew Jackson proceeded to consider the risk that

there might be imputed to the United States motives of selfish
interest in view of the former claim on our part to the
territory of Texas, and of the avowed purpose of the Texans in
seeking recognition of independence as an incident to the
incorporation of Texas in the Union, concluding thus:
'Prudence, therefore, seems to dictate that we should still
stand aloof and maintain our present attitude, if not until
Mexico itself or one of the great foreign powers shall
recognize the independence of the new government, at least
until the lapse of time or the course of events shall have
proved beyond cavil or dispute the ability of the people of
that country to maintain their separate sovereignty and to
uphold the government constituted by them. Neither of the
contending parties can justly complain of this course. By
pursuing it we are but carrying out the long-established
policy of our Government, a policy which has secured to us
respect and influence abroad and inspired confidence at home.'
"These are the words of the resolute and patriotic Jackson.

They are evidence that the United States, in addition to the
test imposed by public law as the condition of the recognition
of independence by a neutral state (to wit, that the revolted
state shall 'constitute in fact a body politic, having a
government in substance as well as in name, possessed of the
elements of stability,' and forming de facto, 'if left to
itself, a state among the nations, reasonably capable of
discharging the duties of a state'), has imposed for its own
governance in dealing with cases like these the further
condition that recognition of independent statehood is not due

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Globalization Diversity Geography of a

Changing World 5th Edition Rowntree

dominated by central mosque, nearby bazaar (suq) which serves as market,

f. Tensions in Turkey: Turkey, with its connections to the west (NATO

D. Gender, Culture, and Politics: A Woman’s Changing World: role of women

Arab League Fertile Crescent

Islamism physiological density

Reading Review Questions

Five key modifications include irrigation, deforestation, construction of dams, desalination

Pastoral nomadism is a practice of subsistence agriculture predicated on the seasonal movement

2. Where does your daily drinking water come from?

Exploring Global Connections: The Libyan Highway to Europe (p. 234)

Everyday Globalization: Popping Pills from Israel (p. 247)

Geographers at Work: How Do We Define “Middle East”? (p. 244)

Other reading questions:

Figure 7.32 Language Map of Southwest Asia and North Africa:

Figure 7.39 West Bank:

Approximately 20 miles; answers will vary.

Figure 7.44 Childhood Mortality:

Instructor Engagement Ideas

For Thought and Discussion

This section provides ideas about chapter topics and concepts.

Physical Geography and Environmental Issues

Population and Settlement

Cultural Coherence and Diversity

Economic and Social Development

State Physician ratio (1000)

See, also (in this volume),

"The tariff act of 1894 had repealed the provisions as to

See below: A. D. 1899-1901.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (April-October).

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (June).

See (in this volume)

On the 3d of November, 1897, Mr. Rounseville Wildman, the U.

"I have to acknowledge the receipt of your dispatch Number 19

Treaty of Peace and Accompanying Papers

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (November).

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (December).

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897-1898 (December-March).

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897-1899.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897-1900.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (February-March).

Public feeling in the United States, excited by a terrible

See (in this volume),

A sudden crisis in the situation was produced, on the morning

"The 'Maine' continued in the harbor of Havana during the

"The appalling calamity fell upon the people of our country

"When the 'Maine' arrived at Havana she was conducted by the

"The conclusions of the court are: That the loss of the

Congressional Record, March 28, 1898.

A Spanish naval board of inquiry, convened by the maritime

U. S. Senate Report Number 885,

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (February-December).

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (March).