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Chapter 6: Cognitive Development in Infancy
TOTAL ASSESSMENT GUIDE

Topic Factual Conceptual Applied
QUICK QUIZ 1 Multiple 1-3, 5 8, 10 4, 6-7, 9
Choice
LO1: How would Multiple 1, 3-4, 8 2 5-7, 9-10
you describe the Choice
fundamental True/False 86, 90 89, 91 87-88, 92
features of Short Answer 102 101
Piaget’s theory of Essay 111
cognitive
development?
LO2: What Multiple 11-13, 16, 14, 19, 21, 27, 29 15, 17, 20, 25,
advances in Choice 18, 22-24, 28, 32
cognitive 26, 30-31, 33
development True/False 94 93, 95
occur during the Short Answer 103-104 105
sensorimotor Essay 112-113
stage?
LO3: How would Multiple 34
you compare Choice
Piaget’s theory True/False 96
with later Short Answer
research? Essay 114
LO4: How do Multiple 35-36, 38-39, 37, 40
infant’s process Choice 59
information? True/False 97
Short Answer 106
Essay
LO5: How would Multiple 41-43, 45 46 44
you describe Choice
infants’ memory True/False
capabilities and Short Answer
the duration of Essay
memories?
LO6: How would Multiple 47-48, 51-52, 49-50, 53-54, 57-
you explain and Choice 55-56 58
measure True/False 98
intelligence Short Answer
among infants? Essay 115
LO7: What Multiple 60-66, 68, 67, 69, 76, 79 74, 78
processes Choice 70-73, 75,
underlie 77, 80
Copyright © 2016, 2012, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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children’s growth True/False 99 100
in language Short Answer 109
development? Essay 118 116-117
LO8: What Multiple 81-83
characterizes the Choice
different theories True/False
of language Short Answer 107-108
development? Essay
LO9: How do Multiple 84-85
children influence Choice
adults’ language? True/False
Short Answer 110
Essay
Quick Quiz
1. The first stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development begins with reflex action and ends
with mental representations. This first stage is known as the
a. sensorimotor stage. c. concrete operational stage.
b. preoperational stage. d. formal operations stage.
2. According to Piaget’s theory, children’s understanding grows through two main processes:
____________, in which the child places a new stimulus or experience within the context of
the way he or she currently thinks; and ____________, in which the child changes his or her
way of thinking to include the new stimulus or experience.
a. accommodation; assimilation c. assimilation; accommodation
b. adaptation; organization d. organization; adaptation
3. The information-processing approach to cognitive development examines three processes in
terms of children’s ability to process information. Those processes are _____________,
_____________, and _____________.
a. decay; interference; amnesia
b. semantic; episodic; procedural memory
c. sensory; short-term memory; long-term memory
d. encoding; storage; retrieval
4. For Ashley’s second birthday, her family went on a trip to Disney World, but now, just four
years later, Ashley has little or no memory of this family trip. Ashley’s inability to remember
this major family excursion is due to
a. memory interference. c. infantile amnesia.
b. retrograde amnesia. d. proactive amnesia.
5. Which of the following measures mental and motor abilities in infants?
a. visual-recognition memory measurement
b. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
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c. APGAR
d. Bayley Scales of Infant Development
6. Claude gets his mother’s attention by making a kind of grunting noise and then looks at the
ball just out of his reach. Claude’s attempt to communicate his desire for the ball is an
example of
a. semantics. c. language.
b. babbling. d. prelinguistic communication.
7. Alfie calls for the “book” when he wants the menu in the neighborhood diner. Alfie’s use of
the word “book” to include the menu best illustrates which characterization of early speech?
a. holophrases c. overextension
b. telegraphic d. underextension
8. In the nativist approach to language development, theorist Noam Chomsky suggests that an
innate mechanism directs language development. He refers to the neural system of the brain
hypothesized to permit understanding of language as a(n) ____________.
a. language acquisition device c. grammar checker
b. universal grammar d. communication device
9. Martha went from person to person asking if they wanted some birthday cake, but when she
asked the youngest children at the party her voice pitch rose and she spoke with a type of
singing quality. Martha was utilizing ____________ with the children present.
a. attention-getting speech c. holographic speech
b. infant-directed speech d. telegraphic speech
10. Research on deaf infants reveal which of the following comparisons in language
development when compared with non-deaf infants?
a. Deaf infants appear to not babble, as do non-deaf infants.
b. Mothers of deaf and non-deaf children both employ infant-directed speech.
c. Deaf infants do not seem to overextend when acquiring language.
d. Deaf infants are more likely to demonstrate underextensions when acquiring language.
Quick Quiz Answers

1. Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development
Answer: a Page(s): 146 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Piaget’s first stage is the sensorimotor stage, which consists of six substages.
This stage begins at birth with reflexive actions and continues through the achievement of
mental representations.
2. Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development
Answer: b Page(s): 146 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
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Rationale: In the Piagetian view, children’s understanding grows through assimilation of
their experiences into their current way of thinking, or through accommodation of their
current way of thinking to their experiences.
3. Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development
Answer: d Page(s): 152 Type: Factual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Information-processing approaches to the study of cognitive development seek
to learn how individual receive, organize, store, and retrieve information. These are
accomplished through encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.
Answer: c Page(s): 154 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Infantile amnesia refers to the lack of memory for experiences occurring prior to
3 years of age.
Answer: b Page(s): 155-156 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The developmental quotient, Bayley Scales of Infant Development, and the
visual-recognition memory measurement are all traditional measures used for infant
intelligence. The MMPI is not used with infants.
6. Chapter Section: The Roots of Language
Answer: d Page(s): 159 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: This is an example of prelinguistic communication, communication through
sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means.
Answer: c Page(s): 162 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: All of these answers represent characterizations of early speech; however, the
example best illustrates the use of overextension, or the broad application or
overgeneralization of a word. Alfie applies the word “book” broadly to include the diner’s
menu.
Answer: a Page(s): 163 Type: Conceptual Diff: Easy
Rationale: The nativist approach to language development is a theory that a genetically
determined, innate mechanism directs language development. Linguist Noam Chomsky
hypothesized that a language acquisition device or a neural system that permits the
understanding of language provides a child with the strategies and techniques for learning
the language to which the child is exposed.
Answer: b Page(s): 164 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
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Rationale: Martha was using infant-directed speech. Infant-directed speech is a shift in your
language to a style of speech that characterizes much of the verbal communication directed
toward infants. The term infant-directed speech is a gender-free term used in place of the
former motherese.
Answer: c Page(s): 159 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The process of language acquisition for deaf children through signing has some
striking similarities with the process of language acquisition for non-deaf children. Consider
the fact that deaf children babble, using signs much as non-deaf children babble. In addition,
mothers of deaf children also employ the use of infant-directed speech, in this case using a
slower tempo for signing and often repeating signs.
Chapter 6
Cognitive Development in Infancy
Multiple Choice Questions
6.1 Piaget’s stage theory is composed of a series of four universal stages that occur in a fixed
order from birth through adolescence and are, in chronological order,
a. formal operational; concrete operational; preoperational; and sensorimotor.
b. sensorimotor; preoperational; concrete operational; and formal operational.
c. sensorimotor; formal operational; preoperational; and concrete operational.
d. sensorimotor; formal operational; concrete operational; and preoperational.
Chapter Section: Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development
Rationale: Piaget’s theory is a stage-based theory that occurs in a fixed order from birth
through adolescence. The four universal stages are, in order, sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operational and formal operational.
LO1: How would you describe the fundamental features of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development?
6.2 Piaget’s views of the ways infants learn could be summed up in which of the following
equations?
a. action = knowledge c. perception = knowledge
b. facts = knowledge d. experience = perception
Answer: a Page(s): 145-146 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
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Rationale: Piaget’s theory argues against knowledge from facts communicated by others,
as well as through sensation or perception. Instead, Piaget espoused that action equals
knowledge.
development?
6.3 Piaget believed that the basic building blocks of the way we understand the world are
mental structures called _____________, organized patterns of functioning that adapt and
change with mental development.
a. schemes c. accommodation
b. assimilation d. concepts
Answer: a Page(s): 145 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Schemes are mental structures that are organized patterns of functioning; they
adapt and change with mental development.
development?
6.4 According to Piaget, ____________ is the process in which people understand an
experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking.
a. scheme c. accommodation
b. assimilation d. concept
Answer: b Page(s): 145-146 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms
of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking.
development?
6.5 The first time Aiesha saw a flying squirrel, she called it a bird. Aiesha is ____________
the squirrel to her existing scheme of bird.
a. accommodating c. comparing
b. assimilating d. categorizing
Answer: b Page(s): 145-146 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. In this example,
Aiesha is relating the flying squirrel to her current scheme that a flying animal is a bird.
development?
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6.6 Twelve-month-old Mitchell loves to play with his kickball. One day his father came home
with a new ball for him to enjoy. Mitchell jumped up and down and shouted gleefully,
“Kickball!” His father said, “No, Mitchell, this is a soccer ball.” Mitchell is
____________ the soccer ball to his existing scheme of kickball.
a. accommodating c. comparing
b. assimilating d. categorizing
Answer: b Page(s): 145-146 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Mitchell is relating the soccer ball to his current scheme of a ball of a certain size as a
kickball.
development?
6.7 The first time Charlie saw a full moon he called it a ball. Charlie is most likely
____________ the full moon into his ball scheme.
a. organizing c. accommodating
b. assimilating d. transferring
Charlie is relating the moon to his current scheme of a round object as a ball.
development?
6.8 According to Piaget, ____________ is the result of making changes in our existing ways
of thinking, and it occurs in response to encounters with new stimuli or events.
a. scheme c. accommodation
b. assimilation d. concept
Answer: c Page(s): 145-146 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Accommodation is changes in ways of thinking that occur in response to
encounters with new stimuli or events.
development?
6.9 The first time 10-month-old Daniel tried to use a cup and a straw, he tipped the whole cup
up like a bottle and got very wet. His mother quickly intervened and put the cup in an
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upright position. Soon, Daniel learned that you may tip up your bottle, but cups and straws
must remain in an upright position. Daniel’s modification to his drinking scheme is the
result of a(n)
a. scheme. c. accommodation.
b. assimilation. d. concept.
Answer: c Page(s): 145-146 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
encounters with new stimuli or events. In this example, the new encounter is a cup and
straw, as opposed to the familiar bottle. At first, Daniel treats the cup like a bottle, but he
changes his way of thinking and therefore uses the cup and straw differently than the
bottle.
development?
6.10 During a visit to the dentist, 2-year-old Arya saw a mural with a mermaid in it. Arya said,
“Hey, Mom, why is that fish woman swimming in the water?” Arya is most likely
beginning the process of
a. schemation. c. accommodation.
b. assimilation. d. concept.
encounters with new stimuli or events. In this example, Arya is beginning to question the
current way of her thinking and is beginning the process of changing her thinking to fit
this new information.
development?
6.11 The first substage of the sensorimotor period is _____________, which encompasses the
first month of life.
a. primary circular reactions c. secondary circular reactions
b. simple reflexes d. the sleep-wake cycle
Rationale: The earliest schemes are reflexes and these simple reflexes also represent the
first substage of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development.
LO2: What advances in cognitive development occur during the sensorimotor stage?
6.12 In Piaget’s theory, the ____________ stage is the initial major stage of cognitive
development, which can be broken down into six substages.
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a. preoperational c. formal operational
b. concrete operational d. sensorimotor
Answer: d Page(s): 146-147 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: The sensorimotor stage is the initial stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development.
6.13 According to Piaget, the earliest schemes are primarily limited to the ____________ with
which we are all born, such as sucking and rooting.
a. reflexes c. ideas
b. concepts d. notions
Answer: a Page(s): 146-147 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Schemes are, at first, related to sensorimotor activity, and the earliest schemes
are primarily limited to reflexes.
6.14 Three-week-old Alex will suck on anything that touches his lips whether it was his hand,
his father’s back, a cloth diaper, or a toy. This indiscriminate sucking is an example of a
a. simple reflex. c. primary circular reaction.
b. circular reaction. d. secondary circular reaction.
Answer: a Page(s): 146-147 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: The earliest schemes are reflexes, and these simple reflexes also represent the
first substage of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. In this example, Alex is
displaying the sucking reflex.
6.15 Nicholas was a breastfed baby. However, when he was 3 weeks old, his mother introduced
him to a bottle. Nicholas quickly learned to modify his ____________ scheme to the
different sucking patterns required by the bottle.
a. circular reaction c. secondary circular reaction
b. primary circular reaction d. reflex
Answer: d Page(s): 146-149 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The earliest schemes are reflexes, and these simple reflexes also represent the
first substage of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. In this example,
Nicholas is modifying his sucking reflex.
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6.16 According to Piaget, ____________ is an activity that permits the constructions of
cognitive schemes through the repetition of a changed motor event.
a. circular reaction c. secondary reaction
b. primary reaction d. tertiary reaction
Rationale: Circular reactions are repetition of chance motor events that help the baby start
building cognitive schemes.
6.17 Three-month-old Lionel loved to suck on his fingers. He was quite fond of putting his
fingers into his mouth and then pulling them out only to look them over for a minute or
two before putting them back into his mouth. He repeated this behavior over and over.
Lionel’s behavior with his fingers illustrates a
a. simple reflex. c. secondary circular reaction.
b. primary circular reaction. d. tertiary circular reaction.
Rationale: Circular reactions are repetition of chance motor events that help the baby start
building cognitive schemes. In this example, Lionel is repeating the event of putting his
fingers into his mouth and pulling them out again.
6.18 ____________ reactions are schemes regarding repeated actions that bring about a
desirable consequence.
a. Primary circular c. Tertiary circular
b. Secondary circular d. Fourth circular
Rationale: Secondary circular reactions are repeated actions that bring about a desirable
consequence.
6.19 Primary circular reactions are activities that focus on ____________ while secondary
circular reactions involve actions relating to ____________.
a. the infant’s own body; the world outside
b. any infant; the environment
c. the self; nature
d. the concrete; abstract thought
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Answer: a Page(s): 146-147 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Primary circular reactions focus on the infant’s own body, while the secondary
circular reactions relate to the world outside.
6.20 Five-month-old Stewart enjoyed repeatedly shaking his rattle in new and innovative ways
in order to hear the different sounds each new movement made. According to Piaget,
Stewart is demonstrating a
a. simple reflex. c. secondary circular reaction.
b. primary circular reaction. d. tertiary circular reaction.
Rationale: Secondary circular reactions are repetition of chance motor events in the
outside world that help the baby start building cognitive schemes. In this example, it is the
initial chance motor event of shaking the rattle that is repeated in new and innovative
ways.
6.21 When 10-month-old Mary Kate was placed on the floor with a pile of toys, she would
actively push toys out of her way in an effort to reach her partially covered favorite toy
telephone. According to Piaget, Mary Kate is demonstrating
a. target-directed behavior. c. center-directed behavior.
b. goal-directed behavior. d. focused behavior.
Answer: b Page(s): 148 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Goal-directed behavior is behavior in which several schemes are combined
and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem. Mary Kate’s pushing of toys
to reach a favorite toy is an example of goal-directed behavior.
6.22 Behavior in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act
to solve a problem is called
Answer: b Page(s): 148 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem.
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6.23 According to Piaget, ____________ is the realization that people and objects exist even
when they cannot be seen.
a. object stability c. object permanence
b. object mobility d. object constancy
Answer: c Page(s): 148 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: Object permanence is the realization that people and objects exist even when
they cannot be seen.
6.24 Before an infant has understood the idea of ____________, he will not search for an
object that has been hidden right before his eyes.
they cannot be seen. The absence of object permanence means that the infant is not aware
that the hidden object still exists.
6.25 James accidentally got his hands on a knife. When James’s mother took the knife and put
it where he could no long reach or see it, James howled and kept trying to reach for the
knife that had disappeared. According to Piaget, James’s behavior is an example of
a. object stability. c. object permanence.
b. object mobility. d. object constancy.
Answer: c Page(s): 148 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
they cannot be seen. In this example, James demonstrates object permanence by
continuing to cry and reach for the knife even though it is hidden.
to solve a problem is called
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and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem.
6.27 Tertiary circular reactions differ from secondary circular reactions by the fact that they
a. focus on the infant’s own body awareness.
b. only deal with the infant’s immediate environment.
c. lead only to chance results.
d. focus on experimentation.
Answer: d Page(s): 149 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Tertiary circular reactions are the deliberate variation of actions that bring
desirable consequences. As opposed to just repeating activities, in tertiary circular
reactions the baby appears to carry out mini-experiments.
6.28 Eighteen-month-old Joshua received a train set from his visiting grandmother. Joshua’s
grandmother set it up and demonstrated how to drive the train on the track while saying
“chugga, chugga, choo, choo.” Later that day, Joshua picked up a train piece and imitated
the “chugga, chugga, choo, choo” sounds. Joshua’s behavior places him in the
____________ substage of the sensorimotor stage.
a. primary circular reaction c. tertiary circular reaction
b. secondary circular reaction d. beginnings of thought
Answer: d Page(s): 149 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Joshua is demonstrating deferred imitation, which presents in the sixth
substage of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development, the beginnings of thought.
6.29 According to Piaget, in the ____________ substage, infants will push one toy out of the
way to reach a partially hidden toy underneath.
a. primary circular reaction c. coordination of secondary circular reaction
b. secondary circular reaction d. tertiary circular reaction
Answer: d Page(s): 149 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: It is in this, the fourth substage that goal-directed behavior begins. Pushing one
toy out of the way to reach a partially hidden toy underneath is an example of goal-
directed behavior.
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6.30 With the attainment of the cognitive skill of ____________, children are able to imitate
people and scenes they have witnessed in the past.
a. mental symbolics c. deferred imitation
b. mind representation d. mind symbolics
Rationale: Deferred imitation is the ability to present and repeat a scene or action that was
witnessed in the past.
6.31 A ____________ is an internal image of a past event or object.
a. mind representation c. mental symbol
b. mental image d. mental representation
Answer: d Page(s): 149 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
Rationale: A mental representation is an internal image of a past event or object.
6.32 Eighteen-month-old Lawrence’s favorite pastime is to roll balls around the house. He
particularly likes to roll balls under the furniture and run to where he thinks they might
emerge. This is an example of a
a. mind representation. c. mental symbol.
b. mental image. d. mental representation.
Answer: d Page(s): 149 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Rationale: A mental representation is an internal image of a past event or object. In this
example, Lawrence has an internal mental image of where the balls will roll and emerge.
6.33 According to Piaget, ____________ is an act in which children imitate a person who is no
longer present.
a. deferred imitation c. deferred modeling
b. delayed imitation d. delayed modeling
Rationale: Deferred imitation is the ability to present and repeat a scene or action that was
witnessed in the past.
6.34 Piaget’s critics cast doubt on Piaget’s view that infants are incapable of mastering the
concept of ____________ until they are close to a year old.
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Answer: c Page(s): 150 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: One criticism of Piaget’s theory deals with the concept of object permanence.
Critics have suggested that the reason Piaget’s research indicated that object permanence
was not achieved until the age of 1 had more to do with the way that he determined the
presence versus the cognitive functions of the infant.
LO3: How would you compare Piaget’s theory with later research?
6.35 An approach to cognitive development that seeks to identify the way that individuals take
in, use, and sort information is called the ____________ approach.
a. data-processing c. cognitive-processing
b. information-processing d. mental-processing
Chapter Section: Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development
Rationale: The information-processing approach is a model that seeks to identify the way
that individuals take in, use, and store information.
LO4: How do infants process information?
6.36 According to the information-processing approach, ____________ refers to the
maintenance of material saved in memory.
a. encoding c. retrieval
b. storage d. automatization
Rationale: Storage refers to the placement of material into memory.
6.37 Marcus has just moved to a new town and now must learn a new telephone number. He
finds that the first three digits are the ages of his sisters and the remaining four numbers
coincide with Columbus’s voyage to America. According to the information-processing
approach, Marcus is ____________ his telephone number in a form that can be later
remembered.
a. encoding c. retrieving
b. storing d. automatizing
Answer: a Page(s): 151-152 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Encoding is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form
usable in memory.
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6.38 According to the information-processing approach, ____________ is the process by which
material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness, and used.
Rationale: Retrieval is the process by which material in memory storage is located,
brought into awareness, and used.
6.39 According to the information-processing approach, ____________ is the degree to which
an activity requires attention.
Answer: d Page(s): 151-152 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Automatization is the degree to which an activity requires attention.
6.40 Sixteen-year-old Amber has just completed a drivers’ education course. She often
comments to friends that at first driving required her undivided attention, but with a little
practice she often finds that she has driven home without being aware of stopping for
traffic lights or stop signs. According to the information-processing approach, driving has
become ____________ for Amber.
a. automatic c. time consuming
b. boring d. trivial
Answer: a Page(s): 152 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Automatization is the degree to which an activity requires attention. In this
example, Amber requires less attention to the process of driving, causing the activity to
become automatic for Amber.
6.41 Memory experiments have shown that even after two training sessions infants remember
the association between ____________ for up to a week later.
a. kicking and crying c. crying and eating.
b. kicking and moving a mobile. d. crying and moving a mobile.
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Rationale: Infants who were later prompted to recall an association between kicking and
moving a mobile showed evidence that after just two 9-minute trainings, they were able to
recall the association, but not after two weeks.
LO5: How would you describe infants’ memory capabilities and the duration of
memories?
6.42 ____________ is memory that is conscious and that can be recalled intentionally. In
comparison, ____________ is memory that is recalled unconsciously.
a. Implicit memory; explicit memory c. Storage memory; retrieval memory
b. Explicit memory; implicit memory d. Retrieval memory; storage memory
Answer: b Page(s): 155 Type: Factual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Explicit memory is memory that is conscious and that can be recalled
intentionally. In comparison, implicit memory is memory that is recalled unconsciously,
including motor skills, habits, and activities that can be remembered without conscious
cognitive effort.
memories?
6.43 The lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age is known as
a. juvenile amnesia. c. immature amnesia.
b. child amnesia. d. infantile amnesia.
Rationale: Infantile amnesia is the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to
3 years of age.
memories?
6.44 Layla was 3 years old when her brother, Cameron, was born; however, she has no memory
of the birth of her brother. This illustrates
a. juvenile amnesia. c. immature amnesia.
b. child amnesia. d. infantile amnesia.
Answer: d Page(s): 154 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Infantile amnesia is the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to
3 years of age.
memories?
6.45 Memory that is recalled unconsciously is called ____________ memory.
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a. explicit c. exact
b. implicit d. approximate
Rationale: Implicit memory is memory that is recalled unconsciously, including motor
skills, habits, and activities that can be remembered without conscious cognitive effort.
memories?
6.46 Remembering how to ride a bike is an example of ____________ memory.
a. explicit c. exact
b. implicit d. approximate
Answer: b Page(s): 155 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Implicit memory is memory that is recalled unconsciously, including motor
skills such as riding a bicycle.
memories?
6.47 Gesell, a developmental psychologist, developed a ____________ that is an overall
developmental score that relates to performance in four domains: motor skills, language
use, adaptive behavior, and personal-social.
a. developmental quotient c. developmental measure
b. developmental proportion d. developmental number
Rationale: The developmental quotient, formulated by Arnold Gesell, is an overall
developmental score that relates to performance in four domains: motor skills (balance
and sitting), language use, adaptive behavior (alertness and exploration), and personal-
social (feeding and dressing).
LO6: How would you explain and measure intelligence among infants?
6.48 The ____________ is a measurement that evaluates an infant’s development from 2 to 42
months. It focuses on two areas: mental and motor abilities.
a. developmental quotient c. visual-recognition memory measure
b. Bayley Scales of Infant Development d. Gesell Scales of Child Development
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Rationale: The Bayley Scales of Infant Development, developed by Nancy Bayley,
focuses on two areas, mental and motor development, and evaluates an infant’s
development from 2 to 42 months.
6.49 The Bayley Scales of Infant Development is composed of two scales. The ____________
scale focuses on the senses, perception, memory, learning, problem solving, and language,
while the ____________ scale evaluates fine and gross motor skills.
a. sensation; perception c. mental; motor
b. thinking; movement d. intellectual; spatial
Answer: c Page(s): 155-156 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: The Bayley Scales of Infant Development, developed by Nancy Bayley,
focuses on two areas, mental and motor development, and evaluates an infant’s
development from 2 to 42 months.
6.50 Traditional measures of infant intelligence
a. do a good job of predicting intelligence scores in adulthood.
b. are an integral part of the assessment of newborns.
c. can help identify developmental delays or advances.
d. are roughly equivalent to adult intelligence tests.
Answer: c Page(s): 155-156 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: There is some correlation between efficiency of information processing and
later IQ scores, suggesting some consistency of cognitive development across the lifespan.
Currently, however, the traditional measures of infant intelligence focus on behavioral
attainments, which only help to identify developmental delays or advances, and not adult
intelligence.
6.51 An overall developmental score that relates to performance in four domains—motor skills,
language use, adaptive behavior, and personal-social—is called
a. a developmental quotient.
b. the Bayley Scales of Infant Development.
c. visual-recognition memory measurement.
d. IQ.
19
Rationale: The developmental quotient, formulated by Arnold Gesell, is an overall
developmental score that relates to performance in four domains: motor skills (balance
and sitting), language use, adaptive behavior (alertness and exploration), and personal-
social (feeding and dressing).
6.52 The memory and recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen, as well as the
speed with which an infant can retrieve a representation of a stimulus from memory, is the
approach to examine intelligence during infancy known as
a. a developmental quotient.
b. a visual-recognition memory measurement.
c. the Bayley Scales of Infant Development.
d. an intelligence quotient.
Rationale: Visual-recognition memory measurement measures the memory of and
recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen. The more quickly an infant can
retrieve a representation of a stimulus from memory, the more efficient the infant’s
information processing.
6.53 Habituation tests are good predictors of later intellectual performance because they seem
to measure
a. speed of learning. c. sensorimotor skills.
b. higher-order thinking skills. d. problem-solving skills.
Answer: a Page(s): 156-157 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The speed with which infants process information may correlate most strongly
with later intelligence, as measured by IQ tests administered during adulthood.
6.54 To date, in infancy, the best predictor of later intelligence is
a. the Bayley Scales of Infant Development.
b. the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment.
c. habituation tests.
d. the Apgar test.
Answer: c Page(s): 156-157 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The speed with which infants process information may correlate most strongly
with later intelligence, as measured by IQ tests administered during adulthood.
20
6.55 The memory and recognition of stimuli that has been previously seen is known as
a. sensory-recognition memory. c. visual-recognition memory.
b. visual-recall memory. d. sensory-recall memory.
Rationale: Visual-recognition memory measurement measures the memory and
recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen.
6.56 The ability to identify a stimulus that previously has been experienced only through one
sense by using another sense is referred to as
a. bi-modal transference. c. overextension.
b. underextension. d. cross-modal transference.
Answer: d Page(s): 157 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Cross-modal transference is the ability to identify a stimulus that previously
has been experienced through only one sense by using another sense.
6.57 As a baby, Simone was able to recognize by sight a screwdriver that she had previously
only touched but had not seen. This ability is referred to as
a. bi-modal transference. c. underextension.
b. underextension.. d. cross-modal transference.
Answer: d Page(s): 157 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Cross-modal transference is the ability to identify a stimulus that previously
has been experienced through only one sense by using another sense. In this example,
Simone had previously touched a screwdriver, but could now identify that screwdriver by
sight.
6.58 Research has found that the degree of cross-modal transference by an infant at age 1 is
____________ with intelligence scores several years later.
a. associated c. not linked
b. not associated d. erroneously connected
Answer: a Page(s): 157 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The degree of cross-modal transference displayed by an infant at age 1 is
associated with intelligence scores several years later.
21
6.59 Information processing looks at ____________ change.
a. qualitative c. erroneous
b. quantitative d. quality
Rationale: The information-processing model is very different from Piaget’s cognitive
development model in that the information-processing model focuses on the quantitative
changes that take place.
6.60 The basic sounds of language that are combined to produce words and sentences are
referred to as
a. phonemes. c. semantics.
b. morphemes. d. language.
Chapter Section: The Roots of Language
Rationale: Phonemes are the basic sounds of language that are combined to produce
sounds and sentences.
LO7: What processes underlie children’s growth in language development?
6.61 The systematic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, which provides the basis for
communication, is known as
a. language. c. speech.
b. symbolism. d. verbalization.
Rationale: Language is the systematic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, which
provides the basis for communication.
6.62 Characterized as the smallest language units that have meaning, some ____________
are complete words, whereas others add information necessary for interpreting a word,
such as the endings “-s” for plural and “-ed” for past tense.
a. phonemes c. semantics
b. morphemes d. phonology
Rationale: The morpheme is the smallest language unit that has meaning. Some are
complete words, whereas others add information necessary for interpreting a word, such
as the ending “-s” for plural and “-ed” for past tense.
22
6.63 The smallest language unit that has meaning is a
a. phoneme. c. semantic.
b. morpheme. d. phonology.
Rationale: The morpheme is the smallest language unit that has meaning.
6.64 _____________ are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.
a. Phonemes c. Semantics
b. Morphemes d. Phonology
Rationale: Semantics are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.
6.65 The understanding of speech is called linguistic ____________, whereas the use of
language to communicate is referred to as linguistic ____________.
a. comprehension; production c. fabrication; comprehension
b. production; comprehension d. comprehension; fabrication
Rationale: Linguistic comprehension is the understanding of speech, while linguistic
production is the use of language to communicate.
6.66 Communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitation, and other
nonlinguistic means is known as ____________ communication.
a. prelanguage c. baby talk
b. prelinguistic d. motherese
Rationale: Prelinguistic communication is communication through sounds, facial
expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means.
6.67 Prelinguistic communication teaches infants
a. the give and take of conversation.
b. to hear the sounds of their native language.
23
c. to listen to the noises in their environment.
d. to talk to themselves.
Answer: a Page(s): 159 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Prelinguistic communication is communication through sounds, facial
expressions, gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means. This prelinguistic
communication teaches infants the give and take of social interactions.
6.68 Making speech-like but meaningless sounds is called
a. bubbling. c. babbling.
b. gibber. d. prattle.
Rationale: Babbling, making speech-like but meaningless sounds, begins at about the age
of 2 or 3 months and continues to about the age of 1.
6.69 Which of the following statements about babbling is true?
a. Babbling sounds are typically only consonant and not vowel sounds.
b. Babbling produces the sounds of the languages infants hear.
c. Deaf children do not babble.
d. Deaf children exposed to sign language only demonstrate vocal babbling.
Answer: b Page(s): 159 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Deaf babies exposed to sign language exhibit babbling through hand motions.
Babbling often begins with vowel sounds and then consonant sounds are added later.
Infants produce sounds during babbling for many languages, even those they do not hear.
6.70 Deaf infants that are taught sign language babble with their
a. voices. c. facial expressions.
b. hands. d. feet.
Rationale: Deaf babies exposed to sign language exhibit babbling through hand motions.
6.71 One-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, and whose meanings depend on the
particular context in which they are used, are called
a. semantics. c. telegraphic speech.
24
b. holophrases. d. animates.
Rationale: Holophrases are one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, and whose
meaning depends on the particular context in which they are used.
6.72 The overly restrictive use of words, common among children just mastering spoken
language, is called
a. telegraphic speech. c. overextension.
b. underextension. d. holophrases.
Rationale: Underextension is the use of words too restrictively, which is common among
children just mastering spoken language.
6.73 Speech that leaves out words that are not critical to the message is known as
a. telegraphic speech. c. telephone speech.
b. telegram speech. d. telepicture speech.
Rationale: Telegraphic speech is when words that aren’t critical to the message are left
out.
6.74 Nineteen-month-old Evan enjoys books, and he often says, “Read book.” This is Evan’s
shorthand version of “I would like you to read a book to me.” This is an example of
a. telegraphic speech. c. telephone speech.
b. telegram speech. d. telepicture speech.
Answer: a Page(s): 162 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Rationale: Telegraphic speech is when words that aren’t critical to the message are left
out.
6.75 The overly broad use of words, where children overgeneralize their meaning, is known as
a. overextension. c. referential style.
b. underextension. d. expressive style.
25
Rationale: Overextension is the use of words too broadly, where children overgeneralize
their meaning.
6.76 Much to the consternation of 15-month-old Sara’s mom, Sara constantly calls out
“Daddy” to any man she sees. Sara is making a(n) ____________ error.
a. overextension c. referential style
b. underextension d. expressive style
Answer: a Page(s): 162 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Overextension is the use of words too broadly, where children overgeneralize
their meaning. In this example, Sara uses the term “Daddy” too broadly, using it to refer to
all men.
6.77 A style of language use in which language is used primarily to label objects is called
a. expressive style. c. learning style.
b. referential style. d. reinforcement style.
Rationale: A referential style is one in which language is primarily used to label objects.
6.78 Thirteen-month-old Clara uses the word “babydoll” to refer to only her doll, and not to
other dolls. Clara is making a(n) ____________ error.
a. overextension c. referential style
b. underextension d. expressive style
Answer: b Page(s): 162 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Rationale: Underextension is the use of words too restrictively, which is common among
children just mastering spoken language. In this example, Clara is using the word
“babydoll” only to refer to her doll and not other dolls.
6.79 As a toddler, Michael had an impressive vocabulary consisting of words like mom, dad,
dog, car, bike, chair, table, and so on. Michael’s style of language use is called the
____________ style.
a. overextension c. referential
b. underextension d. expressive
Answer: c Page(s): 162 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
26
Rationale: A referential style is one in which language is primarily used to label objects.
6.80 A style of language use in which language is used primarily to express feelings and needs
about oneself and others is known as
a. overextension. c. referential style.
b. underextension. d. expressive style.
Rationale: An expressive style is one in which language is used primarily to express
feelings and needs about oneself and others.
6.81 The theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and
conditioning is known as
a. learning theory. c. nativist approach.
b. interactionist approach. d. humanistic approach.
Rationale: The learning theory approach is a theory that language acquisition follows the
basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning.
LO8: What characterizes the different theories of language development?
6.82 The theory that a genetically determined innate mechanism directs language development
is known as
a. learning theory. c. nativist approach.
b. interactionist approach. d. humanistic approach.
Answer: c Page(s): 163 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
Rationale: The nativist approach is a theory that a genetically determined innate
mechanism directs language development.
6.83 The idea that language is a consequence of both environmental and innate factors is
known as the ____________ of language development
a. learning theory c. nativist approach
b. interactionist approach d. humanistic approach
Rationale: The interactionist approach combines aspects of the nativist and learning
theories to language development. This perspective suggests that language is produced
27
through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental
circumstances.
6.84 A type of speech directed toward infants, characterized by short, simple sentences, is
called
a. infant-directed speech. c. motherese.
b. baby-directed speech. d. child-directed speech.
Rationale: Infant-directed speech is a style of speech that characterizes much of the
verbal communication directed toward infants.
LO9: How do children influence adults’ language?
6.85 Compared to boys, girls hear twice as many ____________ by the time they are 32
months old.
a. diminuitives c. motherese.
b. direct “ no” responses. d. child-directed speech.
Rationale: Gleason found that, by the age of 32 months, girls hear twice as many
diminutives as boys hear.
True/False Questions
6.86 According to Piaget, schemes are organized patterns of mental functioning that adapt and
change with mental activity.
Answer: True Page(s): 145 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
development?
6.87 An infant picks up a rattle and shakes it. This is an example of a physical scheme.
Answer: True Page(s): 145 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
development?
6.88 According to Piaget, as children develop, their schemes become less complex.
28
Answer: False Page(s): 145 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
development?
6.89 Piaget believed that infants acquire knowledge through direct motor behavior.
Answer: True Page(s): 145 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
development?
6.90 Changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new
stimuli is called assimilation.
Answer: False Page(s): 146 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
development?
6.91 According to Piaget, infants do not begin to modify their schemes until after one year of
age.
Answer: False Page(s): 146 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
development?
6.92 When a child sees a flying squirrel and calls it a “bird with a tail,” the child has begun to
accommodate new knowledge.
Answer: True Page(s): 146 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
development?
6.93 The sucking reflex that causes an infant to suck at anything placed at its lips is an example
of a simple reflex.
Answer: True Page(s): 146-147 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
to solve a problem is called object permanence.
Answer: False Page(s): 146-148 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
29
6.95 Jack is playing with his favorite car, when his father takes the car and hides it under a
blanket. Jack protests and begins to look for the car. Jack has displayed the concept of
object permanence.
Answer: True Page(s): 146-148 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
6.96 One of the major criticisms of Piaget’s theory is that he overestimated the cognitive
capabilities of infants.
Answer: False Page(s): 150 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
6.97 The information-processing approach to cognitive development, seeks to identify the way
individuals take in, use, and store information.
6.98 The information-processing approach focuses on cognitive changes from a qualitative
perspective.
Answer: False Page(s): 157 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
LO6: How would you explain and measure intelligence in infants?
6.99 Throughout infancy comprehension precedes production.
6.100 A two-month-old infant is babbling and cooing as her mother responds by repeating the
same sounds. This parent and child are engaged in prelinguistic communication.
Answer: True Page(s): 159 Type: Applied Diff: Moderate
Short Answer
6.101 Provide an overview of the progression of schemes according to Piaget.
30
Page(s): 145 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
Answer: A good answer would include the following key points:
• Piaget believed that the basic building blocks of the way we understand the world are
mental structures called schemes, these adapt and change with mental activity.
• At first schemes are related to physical or sensorimotor activity, such as picking up or
reaching for toys.
• As children develop, their schemes move to a mental level, reflecting thought.
development?
6.102 What are the two principles that underlie all cognitive growth according to Piaget?
Page(s): 146 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
• Piaget suggested that two principles underlie growth in children’s schemes,
assimilation, and accommodation.
• Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their
current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking.
• Accommodation refers to changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response
to encounters with new stimuli.
development?
6.103 Describe the highlights of Substage 4 of the sensorimotor period.
Page(s): 146-148 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
• Substage 4 lasts from 8 months to 12 months. Infants begin to employ goal-directed
behavior, in which several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single
act to solve a problem.
• Object permanence emerges in this stage as well. This is the realization that people
and objects exist even when they can’t be seen.
• The recognition of object permanence fosters the infant’s growing assertiveness.
6.104 What is the major difference between Substage 2 (first habits and primary circular
reactions) and Substage 3 (secondary circular reactions) of Piaget’s sensorimotor period?
Page(s): 146-148 Type: Conceptual Diff: Difficult
31
• During Substage 2, the infant begins to coordinate separate actions into a single,
integrated action.
• During Substage 3, infants take major strides in shifting their cognitive horizons
beyond themselves.
• The major difference between the two stages is whether the infant’s activity is focused
on the infant and involves his/her body, or involves actions related to the outside
world.
6.105 What is the relationship between the development of object permanence and social
attachments?
• Object permanence extends not only to inanimate objects, but to the people in the
child’s life too.
• An infant understands that parents exist, even if they are out of sight. This awareness
is a key element of social attachments and a feeling of security.
6.106 How do infants process information according to the information-processing approach to
cognitive development?
Page(s): 151-152 Type: Applied Diff: Difficult
• Information-processing approaches seek to identify the way the individuals take in,
use, and store information.
• According to this approach, the quantitative changes in infants’ abilities to organize
and manipulate information represent the hallmarks of cognitive growth.
• An infant’s cognitive growth is characterized by increasing sophistication and speed in
information processing.
• Infants are believed to have memory capabilities from their earliest days, although the
accuracy is debated.
6.107 What theories explain the origins of language development?
Page(s): 162-163 Type: Conceptual Diff: Moderate
• The learning theory approach: the theory that language acquisition follows the basic
laws of reinforcement and conditioning.
32
• The nativist approach: the theory that a genetically determined mechanism directs
language development.
• The interactionist approach: the theory that suggests that language is produced through
a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental
circumstances.
6.108 Describe the interactionist perspective of language development.
• The interactionist approach to language development suggests that language
development is produced through a combination of genetically determined
predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language.
• The interactionist perspective accepts that innate factors shape the broad outlines of
language development. However, social factors also play a role in development.
6.109 Describe prelinguistic communication.
Page(s): 159 Type: Factual Diff: Easy
• Prelinguistic communication is communication through sounds, facial expressions,
gestures, imitation, and other nonlinguistic means.
• It is an early form of communication, where parents may respond to infants’ cooing
and babbling with a repetition of these sounds. The repetition sets the stage for the
give-and-take of conversation.
• The most common manifestation of prelinguistic communication is babbling, the
speechlike but meaningless sounds, that start at the age of 2 or 3 months.
6.110 What role does infant-directed speech play in language acquisition?
• Infant-directed speech is a type of speech characterized by short, simple sentences.
• Newborns appear to prefer infant-directed speech over regular speech.
• Some research suggests that babies who are exposed to a great deal of infant-directed
speech early in life seem to begin to use words and show other forms of linguistic
competence earlier.
33
Essay Questions
6.111 Define and provide examples of assimilation and accommodation.

• Assimilation is the process in which people understand new stimuli in terms of their
current thinking.
• Examples are numerous, but they should include the current scheme that is used
and the similarity to the new stimuli.
• Accommodation is the process in which people change their thinking to include the
new information gained from the new experience or stimulus.
• Again, examples are numerous, but they should include how the new
stimulus/experience does not fit the current scheme and how that scheme has now
been changed.
LO1: How would describe the fundamental features of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development?
6.112 According to Piaget, the sensorimotor period is composed of six substages. Define and
provide an example of each substage.
Answer: A good answer would include the following substages:
• One—Simple reflexes—Various reflexes determine the infant’s interactions
• Two—Primary circular reaction—Coordination of separate actions into single,
integrated activities
• Three—Secondary circular reactions—Shift occurs from focus on oneself to the
outside world
• Four—Coordination of secondary circular reactions—Use more calculated approaches
to produce events and coordinate several schemes to generate a single act; goal-
directed behaviors; object permanence is achieved
• Five—Tertiary circular reactions—Use of deliberate variation of actions that bring
desirable consequences
• Six—Beginnings of thought—Develops capacity for mental representations
6.113 Why would the concept of object permanence be important to a caregiver?
34
• Object permanence allows the infant to live in more than the “here and now” as they
recognize absent objects as hidden.
• The awareness of people who exist when out of sight assists in the formation of social
attachment security.
6.114 What are some of the major strengths and criticisms of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development?
• Much research has been conducted to demonstrate the basic foundation that children
learn much about the world by acting on objects in their environment.
• The broad outlines established by Piaget of the cognitive accomplishments that occur
during infancy are generally accurate.
• There are questions about the stage conception, including the suggestion that cognitive
development occurs in waves versus stages.
• Some researchers suggest that sensation and perception should be considered to play a
role in cognitive development, not just motor activities.
• There is considerable questioning about Piaget’s assertion that object permanence is
achieved at about the age of 1. Other age ranges have been proposed.
• Piaget’s work describes children of Western countries better than those of non-
Western countries.
6.115 Why is it so difficult to assess infant intelligence as a predictor of later intelligence?
Page(s): 155 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
• Although there is a correlation between early information-processing capabilities and
later measures of IQ, the correlation is only moderate, and it does not imply causation.
• Intelligence as measured by traditional IQ tests measure only one kind of intelligence.
6.116 Why might linguistic comprehension precede linguistic production?
35
• Linguistic comprehension is the understanding of speech.
• Linguistic production is the use of language to communicate.
• An infant understands complex communication prior to being able to communicate at
the same level.
• Comprehension outpaces production throughout infancy.
6.117 Define and provide examples of referential style language learners and expressive style
language learners.
• In the referential style, language is used primarily to label objects.
• In the expressive style, language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about
oneself and others.
6.118 Describe and contrast the major theories of language development.
Page(s): 158-162 Type: Factual Diff: Moderate
• Social learning theory indicates language acquisition follows the basic laws of
reinforcement and conditioning.
• The nativist approach is a theory that a genetically determined innate mechanism
directs language development.
• The interactionist approach is a combination of the social learning and nativist theories
in that language development is produced through a combination of genetically
determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language.
Virtual Child Questions

6.121 Think about the progression of cognitive development thus far of your virtual child. Piaget
noted that in order for cognitive growth to occur, both assimilation and accommodation
must take place. Have you observed these processes with your child? Give one example of
each related to your child’s cognitive growth.
6.122 When considering the progression of language development, we note that linguistic
comprehension precedes production. What does this mean in relationship to how much
your child can articulate, versus the level of understanding? Perhaps you’ve noted you can
give a detailed direction, and it is understood by your child, but can’t be articulated. Give
36
one example where you have observed this principle of comprehension preceding
production.
6.123 First words are generally spoken around the age of 10-14 months. What have you
observed with your own child in regard to language development? Has your child spoken
his/her first words yet, and has that development coincided with your text’s description of
typical first words spoken? Explain. When do you think your child will speak first
sentences in relation to when first words were spoken?
6.124 Infant-directed speech is a type of speech directed toward infants, characterized by short,
simple sentences. Have you spoken to your child using this type of speech? What did you
notice about your infant’s response to this type of speech? Is there a difference in the level
of interest that your infant displays depending on the type of speech you use? Explain.
How do you think the use of infant-directed speech facilitates language development?
What role has it played in your relationship with your infant?
37
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latter comprise business capacity of the very highest order, essential
to the care of his troops; keen perceptions, which even in
extraordinary circumstances or sudden emergencies are not to be
led astray; the ability to think as quickly and accurately in the turmoil
of battle as in the quiet of the bureau; the power to foresee to its
ultimate conclusion the result of a strategic or tactical manœuvre; the
capacity to gauge the efforts of men and of masses of men; the
many-sidedness which can respond to the demands of every detail
of the battle-field, while never losing sight of the one object aimed at;
the mental strength which weakens not under the tax of hours and
days of unequalled strain. For, in truth, there is no position in which
man can be placed which asks so much of his intellect in so short a
space as that of the general, the failure or success, the decimation
or security of whose army hangs on his instant thought and
unequivocal instruction under the furious and kaleidoscopic ordeal of
the field. To these qualities of heart and head add one factor more—
opportunity—and you have the great soldier.
Now, Alexander was the first man, the details of whose history
have been handed down to us, who possessed these qualities in the
very highest measure; whose opportunities were coextensive with
his powers; and who out of all these wrought a methodical system of
warfare from which we may learn lessons to-day. Look at what he
accomplished with such meagre means! He alone has the record of
uniform success with no failure. And this, not because he had weak
opponents, for while the Persians were far from redoubtable, except
in numbers, the Tyrians, the tribes beyond the Caucasus, and the
Indians, made a bold front and good fight.
Alexander’s movements were always made on a well-conceived,
maturely-digested plan; and this he kept in view to the end, putting
aside all minor considerations for the main object, but never losing
sight of these. His grasp was as large as his problem. His base for
his advance into the heart of the then known world was the entire
coast-line of the then known sea. He never advanced, despite his
speed, without securing flanks and rear, and properly garrisoning the
country on which he based. Having done this he marched on his
objective,—which was wont to be the enemy’s army,—with a
directness which was unerring. His fertility in ruse and stratagem
was unbounded. He kept well concentrated; his division of forces
was always warranted by the conditions, and always with a view of
again concentrating. His rapidity was unparalleled. It was this which
gave him such an ascendant over all his enemies. Neither winter
cold nor summer heat, mountain nor desert, the widest rivers nor the
most elaborate defences, ever arrested his course; and yet his
troops were always well fed. He was a master of logistics. He lived
on the country he campaigned in as entirely as Napoleon, but was
careful to accumulate granaries in the most available places. He was
remarkable in being able to keep the gaps in his army filled by
recruits from home or enlistments of natives, and in transforming the
latter into excellent soldiers. Starting from home with thirty-five
thousand men, he had in the Indian campaigns no less than one
hundred and thirty-five thousand, and their deeds proved the stuff
that was in them.
Alexander’s battles are tactically splendid examples of
conception and execution. The wedge at Arbela was more splendid
than Macdonald’s column at Wagram. It was a scintillation of genius.
Alexander saw where his enemy’s strength and weakness lay, and
took prompt advantage of them. He utilized his victories to the full
extent, and pursued with a vigor which no other has ever reached.
He was equally great in sieges as in battles. The only thing he was
never called on to show was the capacity to face disaster. He
possessed every remarkable military attribute; we can discover in
him no military weakness.
As a captain, he accomplished more than any man ever did. He
showed the world, first of all men, and best, how to make war. He
formulated the first principles of the art, to be elaborated by
Hannibal, Cæsar, Gustavus Adolphus, Frederick, and Napoleon. His
conditions did not demand that he should approach to the
requirements of modern war. But he was easily master of his trade,
as, perhaps, no one else ever was. For, as Napoleon says, “to guess
at the intentions of the enemy; to divine his opinion of yourself; to
hide from him both your own intentions and opinion; to mislead him
by feigned manœuvres; to invoke ruse, as well as digested
schemes, so as to fight under the best conditions,—this is, and
always was, the art of war.”
LECTURE II.
HANNIBAL.
TWO generations after the death of Alexander, the power of the

Mediterranean world was divided between Aryan Rome and
Carthage, the vigorous daughter of Semitic Tyre. Carthage was first
on the sea; Rome, on land. But Rome, always intolerant of powerful
neighbors, fell to quarrelling with her great rival, and at the end of a
twenty-three years’ struggle,—the first Punic War,—imposed her own
terms on defeated Carthage (241 B.C.). There were two parties bred
of these hostilities in Carthage,—the war party, headed by Hamilcar
Barca; the peace party, headed by Hanno. Hamilcar knew that peace
with Rome meant oppression by Rome, and final extinction, and was
ready to stake all on renewing the struggle. But he saw that present
war was impossible; that opposition could only be in the future, and
that it must be quietly prepared for. With a view of doing this,
Hamilcar got the consent of the Carthaginian Senate to attempt the
subjugation of Spain, a land of great natural resources, in
conquering and holding which an army could be created which by
and by might again cope with the Italian tyrant.
The Carthaginian fleet had been destroyed. Rome would not
permit the building of a new one. Hamilcar’s army was obliged to
march overland from Carthage along the north coast of Africa and
ship across the strait,—now Gibraltar. This was a bold thing to do,
but it succeeded, and, in a series of campaigns, Hamilcar reduced
the southern half of Spain, and (B.C. 236–227) firmly planted the
Carthaginian power there. So conciliatory as well as vigorous had
been his policy, that, on his death, the native tribes elected
Hasdrubal, his son-in-law, general-in-chief of the allied Carthaginian
and Spanish forces, which then amounted to nearly seventy
thousand men and two hundred elephants.
Hasdrubal continued the policy of Hamilcar, and largely
increased the Spanish influence and territory. But as Rome had
colonies in northern Spain, the two powers were sure soon again to
clash. In fact, Rome, after awhile, woke up to this new danger, and
notified Carthage that she would extend her colonies north of the
Ebro at her peril.
Hannibal was the son of Hamilcar. His father gave him the best
Greek education, and this the lad’s remarkable intellect readily
assimilated. He trained him to arms under his own eye. Hannibal
received his first schooling as a soldier at the age of nine, in his
father’s camps in Spain, and later his brother, Hasdrubal, made him
his chief of cavalry at the age of twenty-one. A pen-picture by
Hannibal’s arch enemy, Livy, tells us what he then was: “No sooner
had he arrived than Hannibal drew the whole army towards him. The
old soldiers fancied they saw Hamilcar in his youth given back to
them; the same bright look, the same fire in his eye, the same trick of
countenance and features. But soon he proved that to be his father’s
son was not his highest recommendation. Never was one and the
same spirit more skilful to meet opposition, to obey or to command. It
was hard to decide whether he was more dear to the chief or the
army. Neither did Hasdrubal more readily place any one at the head
when courage or activity was required, nor were the soldiers under
any other leader so full of confidence and daring. He entered danger
with the greatest mettle, he comported himself in danger with the
greatest unconcern. By no difficulties could his body be tired, his
ardor damped. Heat and cold he suffered with equal endurance; the
amount of his food and drink was gauged by natural needs, and not
by desire. The time of waking and sleeping depended not on the
distinction of day and night. What time was left from business he
devoted to rest, and this was not brought on by either a soft couch or
by quiet. Many have often seen him covered by a short field-cloak
lying on the ground betwixt the outposts and sentinels of the
soldiers. His clothing in no wise distinguished him from his fellows;
his weapons and horses attracted every one’s eye. He was by long
odds the best rider, the best marcher. He went into battle the first, he
came out of it the last.... Hannibal served three years under
Hasdrubal’s supreme command, and left nothing unobserved which
he who desires to become a great leader ought to see and to do.”
Hannibal and his brothers had been brought up with an intensity
of hatred of Rome which it is hard to describe. Every schoolboy
knows the anecdote of the lad’s swearing never to make peace with
Rome. The feeling grew with his years. When Hannibal was twenty-
four, Hasdrubal died, and he himself was unanimously elected his
successor.
Hamilcar had planned an invasion of Italy by way of the Alps; but
the scheme was left inchoate at his death. Hannibal at once began
definitely to pave the way for such an enterprise by completing the
conquest of Spain. The original conception of crossing the Alps was
Hamilcar’s, just as Philip originally planned the invasion of Asia. But
it was the fertile brain of Hannibal which gave the undertaking birth.
The colossal nature of the plan, its magnificent daring, the boundless
self-confidence and contempt of difficulty and danger which it
implies, no less than the extraordinary manner of its execution, are
equalled only by Alexander’s setting forth—also but a lad—to
conquer the illimitable possessions of the Great King.
In three years (B.C. 221–218) Hannibal had subjugated all
Spain, and after a long siege captured Saguntum. He finally set out,
with fifty thousand foot, nine thousand horse, and thirty-seven
elephants, across the Pyrenees, whence his route was almost as
unknown to him as the Atlantic to Columbus. It is impossible to follow
him in this wonderful march,—the first crossing of the Alps by any
but isolated merchants,—and probably the most daring enterprise
ever set on foot. After toils and dangers impossible to gauge, even
by the losses, Hannibal reached the Po in October, B.C. 218, with
but twenty-six thousand men and a few elephants, less than half the
force with which he had left Spain. With this handful he was to face a
nation capable with its allies of raising seven hundred thousand men;
and yet the event—as well as our knowledge of Hannibal—shows
that he had contemplated even this vast odds.
But Rome was not ready. Hannibal gained numberless
confederates among the Gauls in northern Italy, and that same fall
and winter won two victories over the Romans at the Ticinus and
Trebia. Next year (B.C. 217) he again defeated the Romans, by an
ambuscade at Lake Trasymene, killing or capturing their entire army
of thirty thousand men. These three victories were due to the over-
eagerness of the Roman generals to fight, their careless methods,
and Hannibal’s skill in handling his troops and his aptness at
stratagem.
The campaign preceding, and the battle of Lake Trasymene,
taught the Romans two valuable lessons. The instruction given the
world by Alexander had not reached self-important, republican
Rome, though Hannibal was familiar enough with the deeds of the
great Macedonian. The Romans knew nothing of war except crude,
hard knocks. The first lesson showed them that there is something in
the art of war beyond merely marching out to meet your enemy and
beating him by numbers, better weapons, or greater discipline.
Hannibal’s Flank March. B.C. 217
It was thus: The Romans had retired into Etruria. In March, B.C.
217, Hannibal, who was in Liguria, desired to cross the Appenines
and move upon them. There were but two roads he could pursue.
The highway would take him across the mountains, but by a long
circuit. This was the route by which the Consul Flaminius, at Aretium,
with his forty thousand men, was expecting him, and, therefore, the
way Hannibal did not choose to march, for Flaminius could easily
block the mountain roads. The other route was so difficult that
Flaminius never dreamed that Hannibal knew of, or could by any
possibility pursue it. Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps had taught
Flaminius nothing of his daring or his skill. This route lay along the
coast to near the mouth of the Arnus, and thence up the right bank. It
ran through an immense marsh, which, for an army, was all but as
difficult an obstacle as the Alps. But it was the lesser evil, and
promised the greater results; and Hannibal chose it, as Napoleon did
the Great St. Bernard in 1800. No better description of the task can
be given than to say that for four days and three nights the army
marched through water where only the wagons, dead animals, or
abandoned packs afforded the men any chance for rest. But the
Carthaginian general reached his goal, turned Flaminius’ left flank,
and cut him off from Rome. Here was the conception of turning the
enemy’s strategic flank as clearly carried out as ever Napoleon did it.
Such was lesson one.
The result of this turning manœuvre was the battle of Lake
Trasymene,—where Hannibal taught the Romans, and us through
them, the second lesson. The Romans had always marched in
careless open order, without any idea of van or rear guard, or of
flankers. This Hannibal knew. He placed his whole army in hiding at
both ends of a defile at Lake Trasymene, through which the Romans
must march, in such a manner that, when he made his attack, it was
on an unsuspecting column,—in front, rear, and one flank; and the
lake being on the other flank, the result was utter annihilation. After
this the Romans marched with proper precautions. Hannibal had
inflicted three staggering blows on his enemy.
But Rome now appointed a Dictator,—Quintus Fabius,—truly
surnamed Maximus, and nicknamed Cunctator, because,
recognizing that he was not able to cope with Hannibal on the battle-
field, he wisely chose to conduct a campaign of delays and small
war, the one thing Hannibal could not afford, but also the one thing
the Romans could not tolerate or understand; for the Romans had
always won by crisp fighting. Still, it was the policy shaped by Fabius
which eventually defeated Hannibal, and next to Hannibal himself,
he was the best master the Romans then had.
It is impossible, even slightly, to touch on many of Hannibal’s
campaigns and battles. I prefer to give a short description of the
battle of Cannæ, which, in its conduct and results, is typical of
Hannibal’s methods. And first, a few words about the organization of
either army.
The Carthaginian discipline was based on the Macedonian idea,
and the formation of the troops was phalangial, that is, in close
masses. But Hannibal’s army contained troops of all kinds, from the
Numidian horseman, whose only clothing was a tiger-skin, on his
tough little runt of a pony, or the all but naked Gaul with his long,
curved sword, to the Carthaginian heavy-armed hypaspist. All these
diverse tribes had each its own manner of fighting, and it required a
Hannibal to keep up discipline or tactical efficiency in such a motley
force. The Roman army, on the contrary, was wonderfully
homogeneous, carefully disciplined, in all parts organized and drilled
in the same manner, and the legion was a body which was the very
opposite of the phalanx. It had much more mobility, the individual
soldiers were more independent in action, and instead of relying on
one shock or on defence, the several lines could relieve each other,
and renew a failing battle three or even four times with fresh troops.
After Trasymene, Hannibal not only armed his men with captured
Roman weapons, but modified his organization somewhat to the
legion pattern.
The legion was at this time formed in three lines of maniples (or
companies) placed checkerwise. In front were the hastati, the least
efficient; behind this the principes; and in the rear the triarii, or
veterans. Each maniple was an excellent tactical unit. Each of these
lines could relieve the other, and thus give a succession of hammer-
like blows.
The phalanx we already know, and while it was wonderful for
one shock, it had no reserve, and if demoralization set in, it was
gone. The tendency of formation in ancient days, as now, was
towards greater mobility, and later on the Roman legion in Greece,
particularly at Pydna (168 B.C.), proved that it was superior, if
properly handled, to the phalanx.
In B.C. 216, Æmilius Paulus and Varro were consuls. The former
was a man of high character and attainments; Varro came of
plebeian stock, was overbearing and self-sufficient. The Roman and
Carthaginian armies lay facing each other near the Aufidus, Hannibal
backing on Cannæ. His position here had been the result of an
admirable manœuvre. The consuls commanded on alternate days.
There had been a serious combat on the last day of Varro’s
command, in which the Carthaginians had been outnumbered two to
one, and been defeated. This had greatly elated Varro, and whetted
his appetite for battle. He left the troops at evening in such a manner
that next day his associate was badly placed. Æmilius scarcely
wished to withdraw, lest his men should be disheartened; he could
not remain where he was, as he was exposed to Hannibal’s better
cavalry. He took a middle course, on the whole unwise. He sent a
third of his force to the north of the Aufidus, a trifle up-stream, to
sustain some foragers he had there, and make a secondary camp,
from which to annoy Hannibal’s parties in search of corn. This
division of forces was very risky. Hannibal had long been trying to
bring the consuls to battle, and now saw that the moment had come,
for Varro was precipitate, and would probably draw Æmilius into
active measures.
Battle of Cannæ B.C. 216, I

Each general made a stirring address to his army. Polybius gives
both. Hannibal’s has the true ring of the great captain. “Let us hasten
into action. I promise you victory, and, the gods willing, I will make
my promise good.” Two days later Hannibal offered Æmilius battle.
But Æmilius declined it, and Hannibal sent his Numidians to the
other side to annoy the Roman foragers. The succeeding day,
knowing Varro to be in command, Hannibal again offered battle,
aware that the hot-tempered Roman would be burning to avenge the
yesterday’s taunt. He left eight thousand men to guard his camp.
There has been much discussion as to which bank of the Aufidus
was the scene of the battle. It seems to me that the plan in the
diagram comes nearest to fitting all the statements, however
conflicting, of the several authorities. Near Hannibal’s camp the
Aufidus makes a bold, southerly sweep. Here Hannibal forded the
stream in two columns, drew up his army, and leaned his flanks on
the river-banks so as to prevent the Romans, with their numerical
superiority, from overlapping them. His front he covered with archers
and slingers, so as to hide his formation from the Roman generals.
Varro, as Hannibal anticipated, thought the Carthaginians were
crossing to attack the lesser camp, and leaving eleven thousand
men to guard the larger one, with orders to attack Hannibal’s camp
during the battle, he also crossed and drew up in the plain opposite
the Carthaginians, he and every Roman in the ranks craving to come
to blows with the hated invaders.
Varro also threw out his light troops in advance. He had sixty-five
thousand foot and seven thousand horse, to Hannibal’s thirty-two
thousand foot and ten thousand horse. He could not overlap
Hannibal’s flanks, so he determined to make his line heavier, and
seek to crush him at the first impact. He changed the formation of
the maniples so as to make them sixteen men deep and ten men
front, instead of sixteen men front by ten deep, as usual. This was a
grievous error. His men were unapt to manœuvre or fight well in this
unwonted form. He should have employed his surplus, say twenty-
five thousand men, as a reserve for emergencies. His army was in
the usual three lines, fifteen legions in all, the Roman on the right,
the allied on the left. The intervals between the maniples always
equalled their front, and the distance between the lines the depth of
the maniples. The Roman cavalry, twenty-four hundred strong, was
on the right. The allied, forty-eight hundred strong, on the left. It
would have been better massed in one body. But such was the only
formation then known. Æmilius commanded the right, Varro the left
wing.
Hannibal placed on his left, opposite the Roman cavalry, his
heavy Spanish and Gallic horse, eight thousand strong, two-thirds in
a first, and one-third in a second line. This body was strong enough
to crush the Roman horse, and thus cut off the retreat of the legions
to their camps and towards Rome. In other words, Hannibal’s
fighting was to be forced on the Romans’ strategic flank. He had a
perfectly lucid idea of the value of a blow from this direction. On his
right, facing the allied cavalry, were his Numidians, two thousand
strong. Of the infantry, the Spaniards and Gauls were in the centre in
alternate bodies. His best troops, the African foot, he placed on their
either flank. He expected these veterans to leaven the whole lump.
The foot was all in phalanxes of one thousand and twenty-four men
each, the African foot in sixteen ranks, as usual, the Spaniards and
Gauls in ten. Hannibal had been obliged thus to make his centre
thin, from lack of men, but he had seething in his brain a manœuvre
by which he proposed to make this very weakness a factor of
success. He had been on the ground and had seen Varro strengthen
the Roman centre. This confirmed him in his plan.
Hannibal commanded the centre in person, Hanno the right,
Hasdrubal the left, Maharbal the cavalry of the left. Hannibal relied
on Maharbal to beat the Roman cavalry, and then, riding by the rear
of the Roman army, to join the Numidians on the Carthaginian right,
like Coenus at the Hydaspes. His cavalry was superior in numbers,
and vastly outranked in effectiveness the Roman horse.
Hannibal was, no doubt, familiar with Marathon. He proposed to
better the tactics of that day. Remember that Miltiades had opposed
to him Orientals; Hannibal faced Roman legions. His general plan
was to withdraw his centre before the heavy Roman line,—to allow
them to push it in,—and then to enclose them in his wings and fall on
their flanks. This was a highly dangerous manœuvre, unless the
withdrawal of the centre could be checked at the proper time; but his
men had the greatest confidence in him; the river in his rear would
be an aid, if he could but keep his men steady; and in war no
decisive result can be compassed without corresponding risk.
Hannibal had fully prepared his army for this tactical evolution, and
rehearsed its details with all his subordinates. He not only had the
knack of making his lieutenants comprehend him, but proposed to
see to the execution of the work himself.
The Carthaginians faced north, the Romans south. The rising
sun was on the flank of either. The wind was southerly, and blew the
dust into the faces of the Romans. The light troops on either side
opened the action, and fiercely contested the ground for some time.
During the preliminary fighting, Hannibal advanced his centre, the
Spanish and Gallic foot, in a salient or convex order from the main
line, the phalanxes on the right and left of the central one being, it is
presumed, in echelon to it. The wings, of African foot, kept their
place.
While this was being done, Hannibal ordered the heavy horse on
his left to charge down on the Roman horse in their front. This they
did with their accustomed spirit, but met a gallant resistance. The
Roman knights fought for every inch with the greatest obstinacy,
when dismounted, continuing the contest on foot. The fighting was
not by shocks, it was rather hand to hand. But the weight and
superior training of the Carthaginian horse soon told. They rode
down the Romans and crushed them out of existence. Æmilius was
badly wounded, but escaped the ensuing massacre and made his
way to the help of the Roman centre, hoping there to retrieve the
day. On the Carthaginian right the Numidians had received orders to
skirmish with the allied horse and not come to a decisive combat till
they should be joined by the heavy horse from the Carthaginian left.
This they did in their own peculiar style, by riding around their
opponents, squadron by squadron, and by making numberless
feigned attacks. The battle in the centre had not yet developed
results, when Maharbal, having destroyed the Roman cavalry, and
ridden around the Roman army, appeared in the rear of the allied
horse. The Numidians now attacked seriously, and between them, in
a few minutes, there was not a Roman horseman left upon the field
alive. The Numidians were then sent in pursuit, Maharbal remaining
upon the field.
While this was going on, the light troops of both sides had been
withdrawn through the intervals, and had formed in the rear and on
the flanks of legion and phalanx, ready to fill gaps and supply the
heavy foot with weapons. This had uncovered Hannibal’s salient.
Varro had committed still another blunder. In the effort to make his
line so strong as to be irresistible, he had ordered his maniples of
principes from the second line forward into the intervals of the
maniples of hastati in first line, thus making one solid wall and
robbing the legionaries of their accustomed mobility, as well as
lending them a feeling of uncertainty in their novel formation. Still,
with its wonted spirit, the heavy Roman line advanced on Hannibal’s
salient. The Carthaginian wings could not yet be reached, being so
much refused. Striking the apex, the fighting became furious.
Hannibal’s salient, as proposed, began to withdraw, holding its own
in good style. Varro, far too eager, and seeing, as he thought,
speedy victory before him, was again guilty of the folly of ordering
the third line, the triarii, and even the light troops, up to the support of
the already overcrowded first and second lines. The Carthaginian
centre, supported by its skirmishers, held the ground with just
enough tenacity to whet the determination of the Romans to crush it.
Varro now insanely ordered still more forces in from his wings to
reënforce his centre, already a mass so crowded as to be unable to
retain its organization, but pressing back the Carthaginians by mere
weight of mass. He could not better have played into Hannibal’s
hands. The Romans—three men in the place of one—struggled
onward, but became every moment a more and more jumbled body.
Its maniple formation, and consequent ease of movement, was quite
lost. Still, it pushed forward, as if to certain victory, and still the
Carthaginian salient fell back, till from a salient it became a line, from
a line a reëntering angle or crescent. Hannibal, by great personal
exertions, had in an extraordinary manner preserved the steadiness
and formation of his centre, though outnumbered four to one. The
Carthaginian wings he now ordered slowly to advance, which all the
more edged the Roman centre into the cul-de-sac Hannibal had
prepared. The Roman legionaries were already shouting their eager
cry of victory; but so herded together had they got that there was no
room to use their weapons. Hannibal had kept the Carthaginian
centre free from any feeling of demoralization, and ready at his
command to turn and face the enemy. The wings, by their advance,
had hustled the Roman legions into the form of a wedge without a
vestige of maniple formation left. The decisive moment had come.
Hannibal seized it with the eye of the born soldier. Arresting the
backward movement of the centre, which still had elbow-room to
fight, as the Romans had not, he gave the orders to the wings which
they were impatiently awaiting. These veteran troops, in perfect
order, wheeled inward to right and left, on the flanks of the struggling
mass of legionaries. The Roman army was lost beyond a ray of
hope, for, at the same instant, Maharbal, having finished the
destruction of the cavalry, rode down upon its rear. The cry of victory
changed to a cry of terror. Defeat degenerated into mere slaughter.
The Carthaginian cavalry divided into small troops and rode into the
midst of the Roman soldiers, sabring right and left. Some squadrons
galloped around to the flanks and lent a hand to the African phalanx
in its butchery. No quarter was given, or indeed asked. The Romans
died with their faces to the foe. The bloody work continued till but a
handful was left. Livy and Polybius place the killed at from forty to
seventy thousand men. Varro had already escaped with a mere
squad of horse. Æmilius Paullus died, sword in hand, seeking to
stem the tide of disaster. Three proconsuls, two quæstors, twenty-
one military tribunes, a number of ex-consuls, prætors, and ædiles,
and eighty senators, perished with the army.
Battle of Cannæ B.C. 216, II
Hannibal’s loss had been barely six thousand men, but he had
annihilated the splendid army of eighty-seven thousand men—the
flower of Rome. It had vanished as if swallowed up in an earthquake.
The battle had been won by crisp tactical skill and the most effective
use of cavalry,—as fine as that at the Hydaspes. It was, indeed, the
gorgeous handling of the cavalry which made the infantry manœuvre
possible.
Few battles in history are more marked by ability on the one side
and crass blundering on the other than the battle of Cannæ. The
handling of the cavalry was quite beyond praise. The manner in
which the far from reliable Spanish and Gallic foot was advanced in
a wedge in echelon, and, under the mettlesome attack of the Roman
legions, was first held there, and then withdrawn step by step, until it
had reached the converse position of a reëntering angle and was
then steadied in place by ordering up the light troops into its
intervals,—all this being done under the exultant Roman shouts of
victory—is a simple chef d’œuvre of battle-tactics, due solely to
Hannibal’s magnificent personality; and the advance at the decisive
instant of the African infantry, and its wheel right and left upon the
flanks of the disordered and overcrowded legionaries, caps the
master-stroke. The whole battle, from the Carthaginian standpoint, is
a consummate piece of art, having no superior, few equals in the
history of war.
It is usual for historians to blame Hannibal for not at once
marching on Rome after this victory. Let us see what his chances
were. We have no hint of what he himself thought, of what his
reasons were for not so doing. We must content ourselves with
collecting a few guesswork items, and endeavoring to argue as he
did.
Two facts are peculiarly prominent in Hannibal’s campaign in
Italy. First, he had opposed to him the troops of the strongest and
most intelligent military power of the world, some of which were, to
be sure, comparatively raw in active duty, but yet trained to war from
their youth, mixed with legionaries of many campaigns, and instinct
with the ardor of fighting for their household gods. It is often
assumed that Hannibal’s troops were veterans, the Romans levies of
a day. During the first three years this was in part true, and defeat
had somewhat drawn the temper of the Roman blade; but
throughout the rest of Hannibal’s campaigns the Roman army was
much superior to his own in all but one quality,—that strange
influence which a great man exercises over men. It will be noticed
that whenever the fighting was on equal terms, from the beginning
the Roman soldier gave a good account of himself. But Hannibal’s
victories were won by stratagem, or by tactical genius and skilful use
of his cavalry arm, not by brute fighting. In the latter act the legionary
was fully the equal of the phalangite. One cannot compare the task
of any other great captain with that of Hannibal. No one ever faced
such odds. Secondly, Hannibal had calculated absolutely upon being
able to detach the allies—the socii—from their fealty. We cannot
imagine him to have set out on his marvellous expedition without
having made this the prime factor in his calculations. Hannibal was
no madman. He was a keen, close calculator. But he would have
been insane, indeed, if he had undertaken his hazardous campaign
without such expectation. He was well justified in reckoning on such
defection. There had always been a good deal of opposition to high-
handed Rome among all her allies, municipal cities, and colonies,
and it was a fair assumption that many, if not most, of them would be
glad to free themselves and humble their proud conqueror and
mistress. In this expectation Hannibal had been entirely
disappointed. None of the socii, who were the brawn of the Roman
body, had shown any disposition to meet him otherwise than with the
sword; none of the colonies, except in distant Gaul, had met him
even half way. He had captured towns and territory and had
garrisoned citadels. But the aid he received was not that which
enables a conqueror to hold what he takes except with the strong
hand. And without just such aid, Hannibal could not only not win, but
could not be otherwise than defeated, in his contest with the mighty
republic. To assume that Hannibal did not see all this, and that he
was not fighting against hope almost from the second year, is to
underrate this man’s intellectual ability. No one ever fathomed
Hannibal’s purpose. He was so singularly reticent that Roman
historians called him perfidious, because no one could, from his face
or conduct, gauge either his thought or intention, or calculate upon
his acts. He had no Hephæstion as had Alexander. But no doubt he
was keenly alive to the failure, so far, of his calculation on the
disaffection of the allies.
And now, after the overwhelming victory of Cannæ, he had to
weigh not only the strategic and tactical difficulties, but the still more
serious political ones. If the allies, or a good part of them, could be
induced to join his cause, Rome would fall sooner or later. If not, he
could never take Rome, nor permanently injure the Roman cause.
The chances were, in a military sense, all against his capturing
Rome by a coup de main. Rome was over two hundred miles distant,
well walled, and with a large force which could be quietly gathered to
protect it. If he failed, the game was lost. It was far wiser for him to
still try to influence the allies, which he could now do with a record of
wonderful victories such as the world had not yet seen. Hannibal
was not a military gambler. He never risked his all on a bare chance,
as some other soldiers have done. He always reckoned his chances
closely. And every reason prompted him not to risk the loss of his all
on the chances of a brilliant march on the enemy’s capital, which had
only its boldness to commend it, and every military reason as well as
the stanch Roman heart to promise failure as its result; for there was
no obsequious satrap to open its gates and welcome the conquering
hero, as it had been Alexander’s fortune to meet. If Hannibal
marched on Rome, he must be prepared to besiege the city; and he
had neither siege equipment, nor were sieges consonant with his
peculiar ability. If the story be true that Maharbal asked of Hannibal,
after Cannæ, that he might march on Rome with five thousand
horse, promising that he should sup in the Capitol in four days, and
that on Hannibal’s declining, Maharbal exclaimed, “Truly, Hannibal,
thou knowest how to win a victory, but knowest not how to use one!”
it may tend to show that Maharbal possessed indeed the daring
recklessness of a true general of cavalry, but it also proves that
Hannibal had the discretion, as he had shown in abundant measure
the enterprise, of the great captain.
Hannibal probably at this time harbored the hope that, after this
fourth and overwhelming defeat of the Romans, the allies would
finally see that their interests lay with him. In fact, Capua, the
Samnites, Lucanians, and many cities of Lower Italy did join his
cause, and the unexplained time which he spent in the vicinity of his
late battle-field was no doubt devoted to political questions, the
favorable solution of which could be better brought about by not for
the moment risking his now unquestioned military supremacy.
The institutions and laws which gave Rome strength never
demonstrated her greatness so well as now. The people which had
created these institutions, which had made these laws, never rose
superior to disaster, never exhibited the strength of character of
which the whole world bears the impress, so well as now. The
horrible disaster to both state and society—for there was not a house
in which there was not one dead—by no means changed the
determination of the Roman people, however horrified the cool-
headed, however frightened the many. Not that among the ignorant
there was not fear and trembling; but it was not the ignorant who had
made or ruled Rome. The more intelligent and courageous element
spoke with a single voice. The prætors at once called the Senate
together to devise means of defence, and it remained in constant

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6.111 Define and provide examples of assimilation and accommodation.

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