A CRITICAL STUDY ON INCULTURATION AND INDIGENIZATION IN INDIAN

CHURCHES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INCULTURATION IN

KANYAKUMARI CONTEXT AND CHALLENGES POSED BY CULTURAL AND
CONTEXTUAL ENCOUNTER IN INDIAN INDIGENOUS CHURCH SCENARIO

(yaphase.j@gmail.com)

1. Introduction

Culture may be described as the organic whole of ideas, beliefs, values and goals which
condition the thinking and acting of a community of people. Culture finds conceptual
expression in ethics, philosophy and law, symbolic expression art, literature, myth and cult. It
is also embodied in economic, social, political and cultural institutions and structures. The
beliefs and values of people can be read from the kind of houses built, dress worn, food eaten
and implements used. Culture is thus an all pervasive reality and goes to form an integral
element of any social system.1 Inculturation and indigenisation are closely related with the
cultural aspects that explained above. Christian message should be conveyed after knowing
the cultural aspects in the social system. Carelessness will leads to contradiction and mission
will end up in failure. In this essay, I would like to give a detailed study on inculturation and
indigenisation, methods used by modern missionary movements, need for indigenizing gospel
in present multi-cultural and religious pluralistic context, implications and challenges in
inculturation and indigenisation.

2. Inculturation

According to Pedro Arrupe, the former superior general of the Jesuits, “Inculturation is the
incarnation of Christian life and of the Christian message in a particular cultural context, in
such a way that this experience not only finds expressions through elements proper to the
culture in question, but becomes a principles that animates, directs and unifies the culture
transforming and remarking it so as to bring about a new creation”. 2 A research seminar in
Yogyakarta described inculturation as, “Inculturation is the process by which an ecclesial
community lives its Christian faith and experience with in a given cultural context in such a

1
S. Kappen, Jesus and Culture, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2002), pp. 3-4.
2
A. Scott Moreau, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, (Michigan: Baker Books, 2000), p.
475.
1
way that these not only find their expression in element of the local culture but also become a
force that animates reshapes and profoundly renews that culture so as to create new patterns
of communion and communication within that culture and beyond it. In short, inculturation is
the dynamic relation between the Christian message and diverse culture an insertion of the
Christian life in to a culture an ongoing process of reciprocal and critical interpretation and
assimilation between them.3

3. Indigenization

Indigenization means a process by which a faith coming from outside gradually becomes
local and indigenous.4 In other words, indigenization is the “translatability” of the universal
Christian faith into the forms and symbols of the particular cultures of the world. It is because
of indigenization, freedom provided for the Greek translators of the Hebrew Old Testament
(the Septuagint) to take a word like theos from the Greco-Roman world of polytheism an use
it to describe the only creator of heaven and earth, the God (theos) and father of our Lord
Jesus Christ. Through indigenization, the emerging churches of the world get the power and
freedom to wrestle with infusing traditional, cultural and social practices with new Christian
meaning.5

4. Need for Indigenizing the Gospel

Our transition of the gospel and the mission of the church must be adapted to the culture and
religious traditions of the community. Jesus himself expressed his message in the social
setting and religious realities of the Jewish people and he interpreted his message in a
particular cultural tradition. Following the master, the apostles and other missionaries did the
same. Evangelization losses its force and effectiveness if it does not take into consideration
the actual people to whom it is addressed, if it does not use their language, their signs and
symbols, if it does not answer the questions they ask, and if it does not have an impact on
their concrete life.6 The major role of indigenizing is rather than translating the concepts of
the gospel in a new cultural setting by outsiders, it refers to the insiders of the culture
3
Joseph Prasad Pinto, Inculturation through Basic Communities, (Bangalore: Asian Trading
Corporation, 1985), pp. 12-13.
4
Joseph Mattam and Sebastian Kim, eds. Dimensions of Mission in India. (Bombay: St. Pauls, 1995),
p. 157.
5
A. Scott Moreau, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, (Michigan: Baer Boos, 2000), p.
481.
6
Peter Fernando, Inculturation in Seminary Formation, (Indore: Ishvani Kendra, 1980), p. 16.
2
integrating at the root of their culture, the values, ideas, teachings and orientation of the
gospel and church tradition.7

Inculturation and indigenization today takes place through indigenous forms of liturgy,
hymns and worship, ways of life and witness and thought forms and theologies. In speaking
of Christologies, we can say that there is one Christ and many Christologies.8 The weakness
of the first Christian community is that the St. Thomas Christians observed caste structure
including Untouchability with no real missionary programme. Though the first Christian
community had adopted the Hindu social customs, they did not make an effort to establish
contact with philosophy of the Hindu Community.9 The problem in India is, when the gospel
is mediated through the missionary culture, we failed to inculcate it for ourselves. 10 The early
missionaries shared the contemporary view that one would not be eternally saved unless one
accepted Christ. All the early missionaries had a very negative picture of Hinduism they held
views such as: “Hindus know nothing of god”, “Hindus have no idea of seeking divine
assistance”, “India is the chief bulwark of the kingdom of darkness”, “Hinduism leaves
disciples without hope, and without God in this world”, “Hinduism is the grandest living
system of heathen error.”11 So, in order to overcome this barrier, we need to have a wider
vision of how our faith is experienced and expressed in other cultures. This could be done
only through indigenization of gospel in a particular context.

If today, culture has been in centre stage and indigenization of gospel is accepted as a mode
of evangelization, our approach in mission should undergo drastic change. Instead of
destroying the otherness of a people, we have to place in the gospel in it. It means, we should
deeply know it and sincerely appreciate it and be changed by it and became part of the people
whom we want to evangelize.12 According to Prasad Pinto, “authentic evangelization is

7
A. Scott Moreau, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, (Michigan: Baker Books, 2000), p.
476.
8
John Corrie, ed., Dictionary of Mission Theology: Evangelical Foundations, (Illinois: Inter Varsity
Press, 2002), p. 183.
9
Joseph Prasad Pinto, Inculturation through Basic Communities, (Bangalore: Asian Trading
Corporation, 1985), p. 77.
10
John Corrie, ed., Dictionary of Mission Theology: Evangelical Foundations, (Illinois: Inter Varsity
Press, 2002), p. 183.
11
Joseph Prasad Pinto, Inculturation through Basic Communities, (Bangalore: Asian Trading
Corporation, 1985), p. 83.
12
Anto Karokaran, “Inculturation: Implications for Mission and Community Building,” Mission Today,
Vol. IV (2002)4: 207-232.
3
possible only when the gospel encounters the total living reality of the people or the total
culture of the people- a process known as inculturation.”13

The news letter published by Heartland Team of Methodist Churches, Birmingham, (May-
June 2007) says that “Christianity started out in Palestine as a fellowship, it moved to Greece
and became a philosophy, it moved to Italy and became an institution, it moved across
Europe and became a culture and it moved to America and became as enterprise.” 14 This
statement gives a short and full history of Christianity and at the same time I saw there is a
hidden appeal to indigenize gospel according to the native culture. Otherwise, as mentioned
above Christian message and Church will be observed as an institution or enterprise. That is,
the interpretation of the gospel to bring out its implications in relation to the socio-economic
realities of Indian society. Indian soil was primarily understood as the ground of multi-
cultural and multi-religious one. Through indigenization, gospel should take root in the
Indian soil and it must out through its stuntedness as a pot plant in Western soil. The words of
Sadhu Sunder Singh, „the water of life in an Indian cup‟ is good to remembered here which
carries the need for indigenization. While, a missionary begins to convey the Christian
message in a new context, he/she has to begin with translation of Christian message into local
cultural form. Because, certain language, words, colours and animals have diametrically
opposite meanings indifferent cultures. For example, in China the colour of joy is black; in
the West it is white. The penitential colour for the devotees of Lord Ayyappa at Sabarimala in
Kerala is black, for the Europeans it is violet. The dragon for the Westerners is a symbol of
evil but in china it signifies heavenly protection.15 So, indigenization of gospel is very much
needed to present Christian message in most appropriate way.

5. Methods used by the Missionaries of the Modern Missionary Movements

Robert de Nobili was the pioneer of indigenization in India came to India in 1605. As a Jesuit
priest, he was influenced by the adaptation efforts of his confrere Matteo Ricci in China. He
learned Sanskrit, Tamil and Hindu scriptures, especially Vedas and Vedanta. He was also in
contact with the St. Thomas Christians‟ way of life. He opened a mission in Madurai; he

13
Joseph Mattam and Sebastian Kim, Eds. Dimensions of Mission in India. (Bombay: St. Pauls, 1995),
p. 149.
Israel Selvanayagam, Samuel Amirtham’s Living Theology, (Bangalore: SATHRI, 2007), p. 1.
14
15
Joseph Mattam and Sebastian Kim, Eds. Dimensions of Mission in India. (Bombay: St. Pauls, 1995),
p. 156-157.
4
adopted the life style of a Brahmin Sanyasi with appropriate Indian religious dress. De Nobili
was convinced of the idea of presenting Christ in Indian soil in Indian way. For this purpose
he made efforts to open a seminary adopting an Indian life style, using Sanskrit in the place
of Latin. He insisted on learning the local languages and acquiring a sufficient knowledge of
the Hindu religion. His great achievement was the adaptation of Hindu customs and
ceremonies in Christian living, the study of Sanskrit and Tamil and initiating the task of
evolving a Christian theological vocabulary in an Indian setting.16 Nobili initiated several
declarations to present gospel in Indian way. Among them are that he announced that he was
not one of the paranghis (people who converted to Christianity by the Portuguese), because
the caste Hindus would not lose their caste identity if they made contact with him. He
declared himself to be a member of the Rajah caste. Then he lead a life like a guru, discarded
his black cassock and the leather shoes and put on the saffron dress, wore the sacred thread of
the twice born across his shoulders, anointed his fore head with the sandal paste and put on
high wooden sandals on his feet.17 Also, he used Tamil terms of religion instead of Latin
ones. Above all Nobili greatly valued people‟s customs and values.18 These new approaches
by de Nobili gained him popularity and his methods and doctrines were appreciated by the
people. Unfortunately, the subsequent events, opposition and controversy shut down the door
for further development.19

Bartholomew Ziegenbalg was the first protestant missionary came to India. He was a German
pietist, who arrived in Danish colony of Tranquebar, India in 1706.20 At the very first of his
mission, he learned Tamil language because he realised that the people living here was
predominantly Hindus and also they are speaking Tamil. On September 1707, through this
mission work among Hindus, nine adult Tamils were baptized. Within two years, there were
102 believers in the Tamil church. Ziegenbalg started religious discussions with Hindus in
Tamil and began to preach them in Tamil. These conversations with non-Christians were very
fruitful which includes them into deeper consideration of both theology and philosophy.
Ziegenbalg maintained good contact with Hindus and he educated them to secure knowledge

16
Joseph Prasad Pinto, Inculturation through Basic Communities, (Bangalore: Asian Trading
Corporation, 1985), p. 89.
17
Thomas Anchukandam, Roberto de Noboli’s Responsio (1610): A Vindication of Inculturation and
Adaptation, (Bangalore: Kristu Jyoti Publications, 1996), pp. 24-28.
18
Jonathan Bonk, Encyclopedia of Mission and Missionaries, (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 187-188.
19
Thomas Anchukandam, Roberto de Noboli’s Responsio (1610): A Vindication of Inculturation and
Adaptation, (Bangalore: Kristu Jyoti Publications, 1996), pp. 24-28.
20
Jonathan Bonk, Encyclopedia of Mission and Missionaries, (London: Routledge, 2007), p, 118.
5
of Christian concepts and God‟s revelation in Christ. In Ziegenbalg‟s mission, education and
literature works had essential part. He equipped Christians to read the Word of God. For this
education, he started schools which include girls too. In 1715, a Tamil free charity school was
opened and also he “adopted” poor orphaned children.21 Ziegenbalg translated New
Testament in Tamil; the first in an Indian language was completed in 1711 and printed in
1714-1715 at Tranquebar. He also translated Luther‟s small catechism, hymns, devotional
boo and the Old testament up to Ruth. Besides, he wrote several scholarly boos. In 1716, he
opened a theological seminary in Tranquebar and built the New Tranquebar church.22

Wilhelm (William) Tobias Ringeltaube came as missionary to India in 1796 through SPCK
(Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge) in Calcutta and returned to Europe within a
few months. In 1804, he came to India for second time as a LMS (London Missionary
Society) missionary. 23 He stayed at Tranquebar and sternly waiting the divine call on which
place to serve. In February 1805, Vedamanickam from Mylaudy, the first convert and native
priest of the protestant church in South Travancore went to Rev. Kohlhoff, who is the head of
the LMS missions in Tanjore seeking possibility of getting a missionary for the work in
Travancore. So, Ringeltaube started his journey to Southern most corner of then Travancore
State, now Kanyakumari district of Tamilnadu State. He entered Travancore on 25th of April
and stayed in Mylaudy with Vedamanickam.24 Ringeltaube requested the LMS to provide
money to build a church and a small seminary in Travancore. He started a singing school for
children and taught them English tunes. The Tamil bibles were sent to Ringeltaube by the
Bible Society in January 1810 which was very helpful for the native Christians. He gives
equal respect to the poor and the rich and also the low and the high caste people. Because of
this approach the so-called high caste Sudras and Vellalas had great affection and love
towards Ringeltaube. He was successful in converting the Hindus and in the year 1811, he
baptised about 400 persons including children. He employed catechists and appointed
schoolmasters to instruct the youth.25 He used to conduct love feast once in a year bringing
all the baptized Christians in the Mylaudy church followed by prayer, thanksgiving,

21
Scott W. Sunquist, ed., A Dictionary of Asian Christianity, (Michigan: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 2001), pp. 935-936.
22
Roger E. Hedlund, The Oxford Encyclopaedia of South Asian Christianity, Vol. II, (New Delhi:
Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 760.
23
Roger E. Hedlund, The Oxford Encyclopaedia of South Asian Christianity, Vol. II, (New Delhi:
Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 595.
24
W. Robinson, ed,. Ringeltaube the Rishi. Sheffield, 1902), p. 79.
25
C. M. Agur, Church History of Travancore. Madras: S. P. S. Press, 1903), pp. 553-581.
6
preaching and exhortation. The main object of doing this was to do away with the caste
distinctions they had to cherish a community love and union among the Christians.26 During
the time of famine in 1813, he travelled to Quilon and Palayamkottai and collected funds
from his generous friends and dispersed among Christians who are in need. Then he
purchased grains and distributed among poor people. Ringeltaube lived in a small hut like a
pure and poor native of the country in the simplest and inexpensive which impressed many
native people. In 1814, due to his ill health, he ordained and handed over the charge to his
faithful assistant Vedamanickam.27

6. Inculturation in Kanyakumari Context

One can identify several Indian cultural ideas used in individual believer‟s life from the
native culture to the Christian living in Tamilnadu. During the time of marriage, “aarathi”
(decorative lamp) was taken when the couples are entering the house which symbolises the
bright future. Plantain tree and leaves are used in the function which resembles the fertility of
the land and the future prosperity. After two days, the couple‟s are sent to relative‟s house for
“virunthu” (special feast) to know more about the family members. Sandalwood paste is used
in special occasions. During the time of pregnancy, in the 7th month, a function called
“seemantham” which celebrates the pregnant woman and the relatives will put glass bangles
in the hand of the woman to indicate the sound of the bangles to be heard by the baby in the
womb. During the time of death, feast will be followed after burial and that will be provided
by the relatives for all to reduce the sorrowful state of the bereaved family.

I appreciate the Catholics in Kanyakumari region who wear bindi in their forehead that is also
an Indian culture. In worships also some churches introduced Indian cultural elements like
“kuthuvilaku” (lighting the lamp) at the beginning of worship, offering grains from the field,
and clapping hands during singing etc. I found some inculturation aspects in Kanyakumari.
There is a chapel in C. S. I. Hospital in Neyyoor, which was erected like a Hindu worship
place with full of huge stones. I also witnessed the same Indian way of worship place in
Kanyakumari at St. Thomas church. Traditionally, St. Thomas Christians claims that this
church was built by St. Thomas himself in the first century and it was called as “araipalli”.
When I visited the place, I was surprised to see that was looks like a typical Hindu temple in

26
W. Robinson, ed,. Ringeltaube the Rishi. Sheffield, 1902), p. 123.
27
C. M. Agur, Church History of Travancore. Madras: S. P. S. Press, 1903), p. 605.
7
art and architecture. The United Theological College at Bangalore chapel also has Indian
cultural appearance in outside. The chapel in the theological seminary in Madurai (TTS)
build as like as the Madurai Meenashi Amman temple.

In my context I can identify many things still prevails as the western style in the churches.
Names for the new born babies in the Christian families are mostly in English which was
unable to pronounce by the baby or the person itself and they not even know the meaning of
the name. The dress code of our culture for men is dhoti and shirt, and for women is saari.
But many a times we ignore that and wear modern dresses. Particularly, church worships
witness that many people used to wear their new dresses while they come to church. During
the time of baptism and confirmation, many Indian churches are urging the persons to wear
white dresses. During the time of marriage, men in our culture have to wear Dhoti and
women have to wear Sari. But in many church traditions in India we find men wearing Pants,
Safari sets, Blazer, etc and women especially forced to wear gowns. This was adopted from
western culture. I think, this must be changed and church has to educate the congregation to
use the local cultural dress code. At the time of marriage normally in Indian culture thread
was tied around the bride‟s neck. But now a day that was replaced by chains and rings.
Concerning liturgy, during the time of worship in Indian tradition people usually sit in the
floor. But in many Indian churches people never remove sandals; and prefer comfortable
seats like chairs benches, etc.

Here I would like to appreciate the Roman Catholics that they have accepted worship as a
sacrament and following the Indian way of worshipping that is sitting in the floor, using
incenses, flowers, etc. We are celebrating Christian festivals in a grand manner in western
approach and left out Indian festivals. Most of the Indian churches are not giving attention to
celebrate Indian Independence Day and republic day. Indian festivals like Deepavali, Pongal,
Onam, Holi, etc were not celebrated by Christians. Almost Christianity looks like a foreign
religion and the followers are viewed as foreigners and against nationalism. The church
buildings also resemble the western art and architecture. According to Indian tradition, we
don‟t have huge and very height worship places but like mandapas, with open space for
discussion, chanting and so on. Indian churches left out Indian heritage in architecture and
followed and followed western style. Some churches are exception in buildings, because they
followed Indian way of art and architecture in buildings.

8
I have respect for the hymns which are written by westerners. Many times in our main line
churches in India, these hymns dominate the singing sessions. In my context we have lyrics;
we call it as “Keerthanaigal” which carries theological depth and reflex native culture. Now-
a-days in our churches we are using both hymns and lyrics with equal reverence.

7. Implications and Challenges for Inculturation and Indigenisation

The rigidity, inability to face self-criticism, structural injustice, ethnocentricism etc are some
of the problems and obstacles when genuine inculturation and indigenization takes place. The
historical embodiment in particular cultures serves as a terrifying hindrance for further
inculturation. For example, for sixteen centuries, from late Rome times until our own, a
mono-cultural view of the world held influence among bishops, thinkers and officials of the
Catholic Church. From Constantine‟s time, Church adopted the roman view of culture. The
church assumed that it had acquired the best culture and the gospel must be proclaimed in
every nation in this single perfect cultural form. This attitude distorted the very self-
understanding of the church and its mission, and even today we are struggling with that.
During the colonial times, Indian religions and cultures were ignored by the Christian West.
The result of this attitude is reflecting in our churches as the Western model and this produces
a cloud of ambiguity and suspicion among Indians, who otherwise are deeply attracted to
Christ and his message.28 The living realities of the people and the world are the existence
and context for Christian evangelization and inculturation. Any message of gospel that goes
against the ground reality of the people will be in vain. Today‟s world of unjust poverty,
religious pluralism and cultural alienation must set the agenda for the church‟s mission, its
involvement, indigenization and inculturation.29

The important challenge for inculturation and indigenization facing today in India is the
forces of Hindutva are gaining strength. For instance, „The Hindu‟ daily news paper on July
6th of 2014 carries a shocking news that in Bastar region of Chhattisgarh, the district
president of Vishwa Hindu Parishad ordered under Chhattisgarh Panchayat Raj Act banning
all “non-Hindu religious propaganda, prayers and speeches in the villages.” This may happen
to any part of Indian in near future. So, it is important that the Christians insist that Indian

28
Joseph Mattam and Sebastian Kim, eds. Dimensions of Mission in India. (Bombay: St. Pauls, 1995)
p. 160.
29
Joseph Mattam and Sebastian Kim, eds. Dimensions of Mission in India. (Bombay: St. Pauls, 1995),
p. 161.
9
culture is not merely Hindu, but Indian. To do this we must become truly and fully Indian.
Due to globalisation in Indian society, consumeristic culture emerged and the cultural
globalisation has created an identity crisis and marginalised the Tribals, Dalits and poor and
becomes a great challenge for the propagation of gospel.

The benevolent point of view of Christian mission is merging with the local cultures. Every
human being is constructed with his/her own world view. The world view encompasses the
persona and completely controls the person. When a Hindu receives the Christian gospel, the
process of assimilation starts in that person‟s mind. The gospel‟ thrust has been undergoing
excessive mutation according to one‟s own world view. The level of faith and love towards
faith will be determined only through the world view. Evangelization is a mutual
transformation where it transforms the soul and accepts change from the local culture. Both
must happen together in order to reach out the cognizance of the people. The classical Indian
saying goes like this, “change is the only thing which is never changed”. Even Christian
gospel also subjected to this. We must make change and at the same time ready to be
changed.

In India, Europeanism also pushed along with Christianity. The western life portrayed as the
Christian life. The churches has been constructed on Gnostic architecture and people started
to live western life style. New believers justified their position that they stated “western life
style is a counter to the oppressive Indian social system.” At one point of view, one may
accept this because it contains some amount of truth in it. Over all we must reconsider it
because western life style has been alienated Christianity from the main stream of the Indian
society. At the end of the modern era, western could caught up by the ideologies like
secularism (which is entirely from Indian understanding) where one becomes non-religious
human being. This has been challenged Indian Christian when they are forced to prove their
identity. Post colonial church in India strongly emphasizing on indianization or localization
of Indian church. Localization is not an awkward process, but it is already tested in Indian
soil by some pioneer missionaries. The time has arrived for the Indian church to seriously
reconsider the mission agenda. We must draw out a new pathway which is more local in
nature.

10
8. Conclusion

Inculturation and indigenization are never- ending processes. Every culture is dynamic and
changes as new situations arise, hence the encounter between the gospel and local cultures
has to be continuous. Pope John Paul rightly said, “A faith that does not become culture is a
faith which has not been fully received ... not fully lived out.”30 For Indian churches,
inculturation and indigenization is not an easy issue to handle. Tension between the old and
the new, the native and the foreign thoughts will clash each other and the congregation will
be in trouble if new things are introduced without proper education. So, first and foremost,
Christian communities have to develop its roots only through the native culture and inculcate
Gospel relevant to their culture. Because, as Christians we cannot afford to ignore the
customs and practices of the particular context which we are live in. Travelling in two boats
simultaneously is always dangerous. So, our Christian faith will be meaningful if it was
firmly grounded in native culture and customs.

30
Joseph Mattam and Sebastian Kim, eds. Dimensions of Mission in India. (Bombay: St. Pauls, 1995),
pp. 157-158.
11
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Articles

Karokaran, Anto. “Inculturation: Implications for Mission and Community Building,”

Mission Today, Vol. IV (2002)4: 207-232.

Poruthur, Anto. “Some Thorny Issues in Inculturation” Mission Today, vol. XII (2010):343-
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